Artificial Lift Systems

The purpose of any artificial lift system, including gas lift, is to reduce the bottomhole pressure in order to
allow the well to flow under the existing formation pressure. With gas lift, this can be accomplished by
forcing gas through a choke or control valve, located at the surface, down the annulus and then through
valves into the tubing. The injected gas aerates the liquid column in the tubing. The aeration reduces the
bottomhole pressure caused by the weight of the column of fluid in the tubing. With sufficient aeration, the
bottomhole pressure may be reduced to a point where the well once again begins to flow.

The continuous aeration of the fluid column in the tubing will cause more oil to flow from the formation
into the wellbore and then to the surface. Over time, though, as more fluids are produced, the average
reservoir pressure decreases, requiring increasing amounts of aeration to maintain a constant production
level.

The lifting of fluids can be accomplished by either continuous or intermittent gas injection.

In continuous flow gas lift, a continuous volume of high pressure gas is introduced into the annulus and
tubing at a controlled rate, causing a continuous flow of fluids from the well ( Figure 1 ). This artificial lift
method is usually applied to high productivity index wells which have high bottomhole pressures relative to
their depths. For normal tubing strings, it is possible to lift from 200 to 20,000 barrels per day per well. If,
alternatively, we choose to inject gas down the tubing and produce fluid up the annulus, it is possible to lift
up to 80,000 barrels per day using continuous gas lift. When small macaroni tubing strings are used, it is
possible to obtain production rates as low as 25 barrels per day using continuous lift. The range of
continuous gas lift, then, is from 25 to 80,000 barrels per day.

The other gas lift method involves intermittent rather than continuous injection of lift gas. It is generally
applied only when a limited amount of fluid is flowing from the reservoir into the well-bore. Under these
conditions it becomes necessary to wait until the fluid volume in the wellbore builds up to a level worth
lifting ( Figure 2 ). Once the fluid builds to this level, a slug of gas is injected down the annulus, through a
gas lift valve and into the tubing, where it pushes the column of fluid to the surface as a slug. Gas injection
is then interrupted until the fluid level builds up again to the appropriate level.

Cycling is regulated to coincide with the buildup of the fluid level in the wellbore. Intermittent injection
and, therefore, intermittent production, are accomplished by the use of a time cycle controller or an
adjustable choke located at the surface on the gas injection line.

Intermittent flow gas lift is ideally suited for a well which has a high productivity index but a low average
reservoir pressure or, alternatively, a well with a low productivity index but high reservoir pressure.

The major advantage of gas lift as an artificial lift mechanism is the fact that the specific gravity of gas is so
much less than that of oil or salt water. The following example illustrates this statement.

Assume that we have three 6,000-foot wells each completed with tubing on a packer and each having a
surface pressure of 100 psi ( Figure 3 ). The first well is filled with salt water, the second with oil, and the
third with gas. Our objective is to calculate the bottomhole pressure of each.

We begin with the well filled with salt water. The specific gravity of salt water is 1.07 which is equivalent
to a hydrostatic gradient of 0.465 psi per foot. The static bottomhole pressure for this well, then, will be:

100 + 0.465 (6000) = 2890 psi.

Now we perform the same calculations for the oil well. If the column is filled with 0.8 specific gravity oil,
with a pressure gradient of 0.346 psi per foot, then the static bottomhole pressure will be 2176 psi. This is
more than 700 pounds less than that for the well filled with salt water.

1
Now we turn to the gas-filled well. We are told that it has an equivalent pressure gradient of 0.069 psi per
foot. This gives a static bottomhole pressure of 514 psi, a value which is much lower than the bottom-hole
pressures of the oil- and salt water-filled wells.

The pressure profiles for the conditions obtained in each well are shown graphically in Figure 4 . We see
the very low bottomhole pressure that exists when a well is filled with gas. We conclude that, if we have a
well filled with oil or water and can mix the liquid column with gas, the bottom-hole pressure will be
reduced significantly. With a reduced bottomhole pressure, fluid inflow from the formation will be
increased and, perhaps, become continuous. It is the petroleum engineers job, then, to select the tubing
size, the gas pressure and volumes, points of injection, and frequency of injection so as to optimize the
production from the well.

GasLiftvs.PumpAssistedLift

The choice between gas lift and pump-assisted lift is clearly one of the most important decisions that a
production engineer must undertake with regards to wells in need of artificial lift. Productivity, production-
induced problems and economics must be considered together.

The total pressure gradient in the well is a combination of the hydrostatic and the friction pressure drops.
As the working GLR increases, the hydrostatic pressure drop decreases but the friction pressure drop
increases. As the GLR increases further, the rate with which the total pressure drop decreases is reduced.
Eventually, at the "optimum" GLR (as it was called when the costs of gas reinjection were insignificant
compared to the benefits of incremental oil rate) the decrease in the hydrostatic pressure drop is offset by
the increase in the friction pressure drop.

Today, with production costs escalating, this GLR can no longer be considered as the "optimum" but rather
as the "limit" GLR. This physical limit may not be even near the optimum, which, instead, must relate the
incremental production rate to the additional costs of gas lift. Economic calculations are indicated.

The physical limit GLR also limits the minimum flowing bottom hole pressure which is often several
hundred psi. Pump-assisted lift with downhole pumps can reduce the flowing bottomhole pressure to a
much lower value.

Of course the latter is likely to be affected by other important production engineering considerations such
as sand production, water and/or gas coning.

2
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PressureOperatedValves

A schematic of a typical gas lift valve installed in a tubing string is shown in Figure 1 . Nitrogen is
normally injected into the dome and charged to a specified pressure. The bellows serve as a flexible or
responsive element. The movement of the bellows causes the stem to rise and fall and the ball to open and
close over the port. When the port is open, the annulus and tubing are in communication. Because the area
of the bellows (Ab) is much larger than the area of the port (Ap), it is the casing pressure which controls the
operation of this valve. This type of valve, then, is referred to as a casing pressure-operated valve or, more
simply, a "pressure-operated valve." It requires a buildup in casing pressure to open and a reduction in
casing pressure to close. A cross section of a typical pressure-operated valve is shown in Figure 2 . The
pressure-operated valve often has a spring which is located above the bellows.

5
6
FluidOperatedValves

Figure 1 is a schematic of a different type of gas lift valve, one referred to as a fluid-operated valve. Note
that the port is exposed to the casing pressure and the bellows is exposed to the tubing pressure. Rather than
a single flexible element, we now have both a spring and an optional dome charge supplying the closing
force. Most manufacturers of this type of valve charge the dome only when high valve setting pressures
require a supplement to the spring force. In this case, because of the large bellows area, it is the tubing
pressure rather than the casing pressure which controls the operation of the valve. For this reason, it is
called a fluid-operated valve. It requires a decrease in tubing pressure to close. A cross section of a typical
fluid-operated valve is shown in Figure 2 .

7
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ThrottlingValves

For the pressure-operated valve, the casing pressure must fall below the dome pressure for the valve to
close. It is possible to modify this behavior, that is, to make the closing of the valve somewhat sensitive to
tubing pressure if, for example, we use a tapered seat as shown in Figure 1 . The tapered seat allows the
port area to "sense" the tubing pressure when the valve is open. This means that this type of valve, referred
to as a throttling valve, responds to both the tubing and casing pressure even when it is open. If the tubing
pressure is less than the casing pressure, it is possible for the throttling valve to close even before the casing
pressure has dropped to the dome pressure. In fact, a throttling valve will close with a reduction in tubing
pressure even though the casing pressure is held constant.

This type of valve, then, requires a buildup in tubing or casing pressure to open and a reduction in tubing or
casing pressure to close. During continuous gas lift operations, the gas is choked or controlled by a
regulator at the surface so there should be no drop in casing pressure to close the valve. Because the casing
pressure is held constant, the valve will open and close. only in response to changes in tubing pressure. A
cross section of a throttling valve is shown in Figure 2 .

There are other valves, referred to as combination valves, which are also available for gas lift operations.
Information on these and other special purpose valves are available from manufacturers.

9
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ValveSelection

The type of valve to be used for a given installation will depend on whether the well is to be placed on
intermittent or continuous gas lift. If it is not certain which type of gas lift operation will take place, as in
cases where a wells performance is borderline, then valves may be selected which are suitable for both
continuous and intermittent lift.

Valves used for continuous flow must be sensitive to tubing pressure when in the open position. As the
tubing pressure decreases, the valve should begin to throttle closed so as to decrease gas throughput. As the
tubing pressure increases, the valve should open so as to increase gas throughput. This proportional
response to the increase and decrease in tubing pressure maintains the established flowing tubing pressure
and tends to keep a constant pressure inside the tubing. The ideal valve for continuous flow gas lift, then, is
the throttling valve.

The types of valves to be used for intermittent lift depend upon whether we are going to install a single
point or multipoint injection system. In single point intermittent gas lift operation, all of the gas necessary
to move the liquid slug to the surface is injected through the operating valve, generally the bottom valve in
the string.

For this type of installation, it is important that a large volume of gas passes quickly through the valve. For
this reason the valve should be designed to expand to a large port size as soon as it is opened and remain in
the fully open position until closing. Depending upon the completion configuration, the port size will
normally range in diameter from 3/8 to 3/4-inch.

For multipoint intermittent gas lift operation, each valve in turn should allow sufficient gas to pass so as to
move the slug to the next higher valve. The pressure under the slug opens the valve it has just passed, and
supplements the gas being injected through the lower valves. As the slug moves to the surface, the valves
normally remain open until the slug is produced at the surface.

11
ValveMechanics

Because the opening and closing characteristics of the various valves in our gas lift system are so important
to their operation, we should take a few minutes to understand how and when a valve will open, when it
will close, and what the difference in these two pressures, referred to as spread, really means.

In Figure 1 we see a schematic of a casing pressure-operated valve in the closed position. It is a single
element valve for which we would like to calculate the opening and closing pressures. To do this, we must
write a force-balance equation for the valve.

The force tending to close the valve is equal to:

pb Ab
where pb is the bellows pressure and Ab is the bellows area.

The force tending to open the valve is equal to:

pc (Ab - Ap) + pt Ap
where pc is the casing pressure; Ap is the area of the stem or port; and pt is the tubing pressure.

If we equate these two terms, we obtain an expression for the casing pressure, pc, that will just open the
valve.

where

R=Ap/Ab.
We may apply this relationship to a specific example.

Sample Exercise:

We are told that the bellows pressure area, Ab, is 0.77 square inches and the area of the port, Ap, is 0.129
square inches. The bellows pressure, pb, is set at 500 psi and the tubing pressure, pt, is 425 psi. We are
asked to calculate the casing pressure required to open the valve. We first calculate R:

R = Ap/Ab = 0.129/0.77 = 0.167

and then pc

The casing pressure required to open the valve is 15 psi above the bellows pressure. A higher casing
pressure is required because of the effect of the lower tubing pressure on the port area.

We may also calculate the closing pressure of the valve once it is opened. Once again we equate the forces
tending to keep the valve opened with those tending to close it. The force tending to close the valve is equal
to:

pb Ab.
The force tending to hold the valve opened is equal to:
pc(Ab - Ap) + pc Ap
Note that when the valve is open, the casing pressure in the last term has replaced the tubing pressure.

Equating these two terms we find the casing pressure required to close the valve:

12
 pc = pb
In our example, the bellows pressure is 500 psi and so the valve will close at this pressure.

ValveSpread

The difference between the opening pressure and the closing pressure is 15 psi. We refer to this as the
spread.

Spread = opening pressure - closing pressure

= 515 - 500

= 15 psi.

By analyzing our equations, we can show that the spread is a function of the ratio R, the bellows pressure,
and the tubing pressure. The relationship is:

We see that for given bellows and tubing pressures we may reduce the spread by reducing the area of the
port opening. The spread is particularly important in intermittent gas lift installations, because it controls
the volume of gas used in each cycle. As the pressure reduction, or spread, required to close the operating
valve increases, the amount of gas injected during the cycle also increases. A small port size, though,
increases horsepower requirements and, therefore, a balance must be struck between gas conservation and
horsepower requirements.

PilotValves

The pilot valve was developed in response to the need for a larger port size while maintaining close control
over spread characteristics. It has a small

port which is used for spread control and a larger port which is used for more efficient gas passage. The
pilot valve, then, answers this two-fold need and is often used for intermittent gas lift operations. A
schematic representation and photograph of a pilot valve are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3 respectively.

FlowCharacteristicsofaGasLiftValve

The flow characteristics of a gas lift valve are provided in a plot of a flow rate versus tubing pressure. This
type of plot will help us to understand the performance characteristics of throttling valves. A typical plot is
shown in Figure 4 . The vertical axis is flow rate and the horizontal axis is tubing pressure. At very low
tubing pressure, to left of point 1, the valve is closed. As the tubing pressure reaches point 1, the valve
begins to open and gas flows from the casing to the tubing. The flow rate increases as the port continues to
open. Throttling occurs from point 2 to point 3, at which point the port is. fully opened and throttling ends.
The maximum flow rate occurs at point 4. As the tubing pressure increases from point 4 to point 5, the
tubing and casing pressures become balanced and the flow rate drops to zero.

During the .reverse cycle, as the tubing pressure decreases, the valve opens at point 5, throttling takes place
between points 3 and 2, and the valve throttle closes between points 2 and 1.

13
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GasLiftInstallations

In this unit, we shall discuss the various types of gas lift installations and the conditions under which one
type is to be preferred over another. The type of installation to be used depends upon whether the well is to
be placed on continuous or intermittent lift which in turn, depends on well conditions.

Important considerations in selecting an installation include: type of completion, the possibility of sand
production, whether there will be water and/or gas coning, future well inflow performance, and whether the
wells are vertical or directionally-drilled.

We shall discuss briefly below some of the more common gas lift installations, including the open,
semiclosed, closed, chamber, macaroni, and annular installations. This list by no means includes all of the
installations possible.

OpenInstallations

In the open installation, the tubing string is suspended in the well without a packer. As shown in Figure 1 ,
the casing and tubing are in communication and only a fluid seal in the annulus prevents gas from blowing
around the bottom of the tubing. When this occurs, gas is wasted, the casing pressure causes an additional
backpressure on the formation, and production is interrupted. There are a number of other disadvantages to
the open installation. For example, the valves that are submerged in well fluids may corrode and, because
the fluid rises in the annulus every time the well is shut-in, the fluid must flow through the valves each time
production resumes, causing the valves to wear out faster. The open installation, then, is not normally
recommended. It is used when there is a very strong reason not to install a packer.

SemiclosedInstallations

In the semiclosed installation, a packer is installed in the tubing to pack off the annular space between the
tubing and the casing ( Figure 2 ). This type of installation may be used for both continuous and
intermittent flow. With the semiclosed installation, produced fluids cannot enter the annular space and the
casing pressure is not in direct communication with the formation. There is the possibility, however, that
the injected gas, once it enters the tubing string, may act upon the formation.

ClosedInstallations

In order to prevent such communication, we may elect to install a closed system. In the closed system, a
standing valve is placed in the tubing string below the bottom gas lift valve ( Figure 3 ). The standing valve
prevents fluids from moving downward from a point above to a point below it. Thus, high pressure-injected
gas entering the tubing from the annulus is unable to communicate with the formation, and any produced
fluids standing in the tubing will be prevented from backflowing toward the formation. The standing valve
should be included in all intermittent gas lift installations.

ChamberInstallations

Another type of gas lift installation, called a chamber installation, can greatly increase oil production,
especially if we have a low bottomhole pressure but high productivity index well. It is used in intermittent
lift operations and its purpose is to increase the volume of fluids in the wellbore prior to lifting without
significantly increasing the backpressure on the formation.

17
A schematic of a two-packer chamber installation appears in Figure 4 . It has both a lower packer and an
upper packer, called a bypass packer. As the chamber is filling, gas in the chamber is bled off through a
bleed valve into the tubing.

When the chamber is filled, a slug of gas is injected down the annulus, opening the operating valve. The
gas in the chamber forces the liquid to enter the tubing through a perforated nipple above the bottom packer
( Figure 5 ). When all the liquid in the chamber above the nipple is forced into the tubing, gas follows
behind the slug and forces it to the surface ( Figure 6 ). The operating valve should close when the slug
reaches the surface, at which time the filling cycle begins once again. The two-packer chamber installation
is just one of a number of different chamber installations which may be installed.

SlimHoleInstallations

Many ultra-slim hole completions have been made, especially in lower productivity wells. A slim hole
completion normally means setting a string of 2 3/8 to 3 1/2-inch OD pipes as the casing. A smaller size
tubing, say, 1 to 1 1/2-inches in diameter, is then run inside this casing for artificial lift purposes. This
smaller tubing is commonly referred to as a macaroni string. In the sample installation shown in Figure 7 ,
the production casing is 2 7/8-inch OD. Inside, it is a 1 1/2-inch ID tubing on a packer. The gas lift valves
are sliding side-door valves and have an ID of 1 1/25-inch.

Slim hole completions are especially useful in wells where we wish to produce from more than one zone
without commingling. Production rates possible from a slim hole completion for continuous gas lift
installations depend on the ID of the tubing. The rates can range from 150 barrels per day for 3/4-inch
tubing to as high as 900 barrels per day for 1 1/2-inch ID tubing. Considerably smaller production rates will
be realized if intermittent gas lift is applied.

AnnularFlow

In most gas lift operations, it is best to confine production to the tubing. In offshore installations, wells are
restricted to tubing flow because of safety and operating regulations. There are many instances, particularly
in the Middle East, where wells produce at rates anywhere from 5,000 to 80,000 barrels per day. To
produce these volumes, we often turn to annular flow.

In annular flow, gas is injected down the tubing and production takes place up the annulus. As shown in
Figure 8 , a bull plug has been placed on the bottom of the tubing to contain the injected gas.

Alternatively, we may install a small-bore orifice or check valve at this location. The primary reason for
using annular flow, then, is to allow a higher level of production.

18
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PressureTraverseCurveswithandwithoutGasLift

In continuous gas lift systems, high pressure gas is injected into the produced fluid stream to reduce the
density and flow resistance of the ascending fluid column. The design objective is to control the vertical
fluid gradient so as to give the desired production rate. The design is constrained by the limitations of gas
injection pressure, available gas volumes, the nature of the produced fluids, the well's inflow performance
and the tubing size.

We begin with the familiar plot of depth versus pressure ( Figure 1 ). In this case, the surface is located at
the top and the midpoint of the perforations is shown at the bottom of the vertical scale. Pressure is shown
on the horizontal scale. For the conditions of our reservoir at this point in time, we plot the average
reservoir pressure, PR, at the depth of the perforations. For a desired inflow performance rate, say 500
BOPD, and a known productivity index, we can calculate the bottomhole flowing pressure, pwf. This is
also plotted at the depth of the perforations. We now find the appropriate pressure traverse curve, for this
flow rate, gas-liquid ratio, and tubing size. We draw it in beginning at pwf. In this case we have assumed a
GLR of zero (0) for illustration purposes only. We note that the pressure goes to zero at a point below the
surface ( Figure 2 ). This means that the well will not flow naturally at this rate and is thus a suitable
candidate for gas lift.

In designing a gas lift system, we must first know or calculate the flowing tubing pressure required at the
surface in order for the produced fluids to flow through the surface equivalent at the desired flow rate. In
most cases, it will be in the range of 50 to 100 psi. We shall assume it to be 100 psi.

The second variable that must be specified is the rate at which gas is to be injected into a well, in this case,
one which we expect to produce at the rate of 500 B0PD. For a given production rate, the rate of injection
of gas lift gas will determine the GLR.

If we inject a low volume of gas, giving us, for example, a GLR of 100 above the point of injection, then,
from our published curves, we obtain the pressure traverse curve shown in Figure 3 . This gives a higher
production rate at the same tubing pressure of 100 psi., without changing the rate. if, however, we inject gas
at a higher rate giving us, say, a GLR of 500 above the point of injection, then we will obtain the pressure
traverse curve shown in Figure 4 for a GLR of 500. if even more gas is available for injection, say, a
quantity that will give a GLR above the point of injection of 1,000, then we will have the third pressure
traverse curve shown in Figure 5. The point at which gas must be injected to ensure that effective gas lift
will occur is determined by the intersection of the produced fluid gradient and each of the gas lift gradients
( Figure 6 ). The point of injection then, for a given production rate, will be different for each GLR value.
The GLR is calculated by considering both the gas in the produced fluids plus the gas lift gas. We have
assumed the GLR of the produced fluids to be zero; however, in most cases, this will not be the case and
the calculations must be modified accordingly.

There are several conclusions that we may draw from Figures 1-6. First, if we join the pressure traverse
curve for the wellbore fluids with any of the pressure traverse curves above the points of gas injection, we
will maintain both the flowing bottomhole pressure needed for a production rate of 500 B0PD and the
surface pressure of 100 psi required to move fluids through the surface operating equipment.

The second conclusion to be made is that, for a continuous gas lift system, operating at a low GLR will
require that gas be injected at a high pressure and considerable depth. Alternatively, a continuous gas lift
design allowing for a high GLR will require that gas be injected at a lower pressure and at a shallower
depth. Which of these do you think is preferred? We shall discuss the answer shortly.

From these observations we conclude that, in continuous gas lift operations, it is important that the
operating valve be properly located and receive sufficient gas volume at the appropriate pressure so that it
will operate under design conditions.

24
PressureGradientinAnnulus

We turn now to the pressure gradient in our annulus during gas injection. Let us assume that we selected a
GLR of 500 for our gas lift operation. We see in Figure 7 the depth and pressure at which gas must be
injected in order to maintain the production rate of 500 BOPD. We usually allow for a 100 psi pressure
drop across the valve because of flow losses. The casing pressure at the point of injection into the valve,
then, is equal to the tubing pressure required at the point of injection, plus an additional 100 psi. This
defines the pressure in the annulus at the operating valve. The pressure gradient in the annulus from this
point upward, assuming static conditions, is obtained by using the correlations shown in the following
equation:

(1.1)
where:

pws = static bottomhole pressure, psia

pts = static wellhead pressure, psia

G = gas gravity (air = 1)

H = well depth, ft

= arithmetic average temperature R

= compressibility factor at average temperature and pressure.

Note that pws is obtained in a trial and error calculation. A value of pws is first assumed and, with it, a
value of z at an arithmetic average pressure is found. With this value of z, a new value of pws is calculated.
A new value of z with this value of pws is then found and the calculation is repeated until a consistent
answer is obtained.

Assuming G=0.7, z=0.9 and T=600R, Eq. 1.1 has a simple approzimation, first introduced by Gilbert in

1954. This is the result of a Taylor Series expansion and it is

With this information for our system we may draw the gas gradient curve in the annulus from this point to
the surface ( Figure 8 ). This determines the minimum operating surface casing pressure needed to operate
our continuous gas lift system under design conditions.

GasVolumeRequiredforGasLift

The volume of gas needed for gas lift operations must satisfy the required GLR at our target production
rate. With a GLR of 500 required for our production rate of 500 B0PD we must inject gas at the rate of:

Rate of Gas Injection = (BOPD)

25
 =

= 250 MCFD (1.2)

Note that this calculation assumes a negligible GLR for the reservoir fluids. If this is not true the
calculations should be modified to include the producing GLR.

The gas lift valve, located at the point of injection, must have an orifice size sufficient to pass the required
gas volume at a casing-tubing pressure difference of 100 psi. But what happens if the flow rate, instead of
being 500 B0PD, drops to 250 BOPD? A fixed size orifice valve, assuming critical flow conditions, will
allow the same amount of gas to pass for both flow rates and, therefore, our GLR will be too high. We
would be producing the fluid inefficiently. Alternatively, the production rate may increase from 500 to, say,
750 BOPD. In this case, a fixed size orifice valve will not deliver enough gas to the fluids. Where variable
production rates are possible, we need a valve which will respond to the changing production rates and will
deliver sufficient gas to give a constant GLR. We should define the desired operating characteristics for a
valve which will satisfy the above conditions.

We see in Figure 9 the pressure profile for the 500 B0PD case. If the production rate drops to 250 B0PD,
then the pressure required at the point of injection to maintain this flow rate will be lower; and at 750
B0PD, the pressure required at this point will be higher than that for 500 B0PD. With this data, we may
prepare a parallel plot of required gas injection rate versus tubing pressures ( Figure 10 ). Using Eq. 1.2, we
calculate the required injection rate for 500 B0PD to be 250 MCFD; for 250 BOPD, the volume is 125
MCFD, and for 750 B0PD, the required volume is 375 MCFD. By joining these three points, we specify
the desired performance characteristics of our valve. it looks very much like the throttling valve
performance characteristics which we mentioned in Unit 2. In fact, that would be an ideal valve to use. If
we draw in the total performance curve ( Figure 11 ), we see that the maximum point on this curve defines
the casing pressure required to operate the valve. This pressure is about 100 psi greater than the pressure in
the tubing at the maximum gas injection rate. Note also that the flow rate is at a maximum where the
pressure difference between the casing and tubing is small.

We see, then, that a throttling valve is one which will allow for a proportional response to flow rate. This is
especially important because we know that the inflow performance of our well will change with time. If we
use this type of valve, it should be performance-tested dynamically before installation, so that we are sure
that actual flow rates that you wish to have at the various casing and tubing pressures will actually occur.
The flow testing of valves is often done in the manufacturer's shop under simulated operating conditions.
The throttling valve, of course, has certain disadvantages:

Sometimes a design with throttling valves requires an additional valve to reach the
desired lift depth

Pressure adjustments are more difficult than with some other types of gas lift valves

Since more information must be considered, throttling valve designs are more
technically detailed and thus require more accuracy

We need to consider several additional variables which control the design of a continuous gas lift
installation including:
the well's inflow performance, now and in the future

the flowing tubing pressure at the surface

26
 the pressure and available volume of injected gas

the location and design of the operating valve, and

the wellbore hardware

CalculatingInflowPerformance

We know how to calculate the IPR. Once we select a production rate, we then use the well's IPR curve to
find the bottomhole flowing pressure, pwf. If the IPR is not available, but the productivity index is known,
then it is used to calculate pwf for a known value of and the desired production rate, q. We remember that
as the average reservoir pressure decreases so will the bottomhole pressure required for a given flow rate.
This effect must be included in our design. Likewise, we must be able to adjust to changes in produced
fluids, that is, changes in GLR or watercut. If the extent of these changes can be determined, we must
include them in our design. If not, then we may adjust for possible changes in the valve design or rely on
subsequent wireline operations to modify valve setting and placement.

FlowingTubingPressureattheSurface

The flowing tubing pressure at the surface may be calculated by starting from the known separator pressure
and calculating the pressure losses that occur in the gathering lines at the surface. Brown (1980) and others
have published a series of horizontal flowing pressure gradient correlations similar to the vertical pressure
profile curves which may be used for this purpose.

In general we may state that higher producing GLR's will require higher wellhead pressures in order to
support a fixed production rate and separator pressure. A gas lift design with a lower GLR, then, will allow
for a lower flowing wellhead pressure.

SatisfyingRequiredVolumeandPressureofInjectedGas

The next control variables on our list are the required volume and pressure of the injected gas. The gas for
injection will probably come from field production operations, usually from the high pressure separator.
Additional volumes may be available from local gathering systems or pipelines. The engineer will make an
inventory of volumes available for gas lift operations now and in the future before beginning the design.

The required gas pressure will be provided by the pressure of the high pressure separator, other gas sources
and supplemented, as needed, by compression.

The fundamental questions, then, are how much gas is needed for an efficient design, and, at what
pressure? The answers depend on the gas lift design, including the expected production rate, gas lift GLR,
and the depth of the operating valve.

LocationandDesignoftheOperatingValve

We should now follow up on a point we made earlier: lower compression horsepower will be required if we
inject gas lift gas at a high pressure and low rate. Conversely, greater compression horsepower will be
required if we inject gas at a low pressure and high rate. This leads us directly to the selection of the
location of the operating valve.

27
The operating valve can be located at any of three locations, depending on the gas lift GLR. A gas lift
design operating at the lowest GLR, in this case, 100, requires a higher operating pressure. We now know
that this condition will require the lowest compression horsepower. We conclude, then, that by selecting the
lowest operating GLR curve, our design will require the lowest horsepower and the lowest gas volumes for
a given production rate.

If the available gas volumes or injection pressure are constrained, then that limitation should be included in
the design. If we have unlimited gas volume and compressor horsepower, then, except for economics, the
above design recommendations should be followed.

The design of the operating valve will depend on the type of operation and any anticipated fluctuation in
flow rate, producing GLR and water cut. A throttling valve may be selected to provide a constant GLR
where there are varying production rates. The fact that the valve may be adjusted using wireline operations
allows us to modify our design for changing conditions.

SelectionofTubularGoods

The last variable to be considered in our design is the selection of tubular goods. We now know that we
should select the tubular goods which give the lowest operating GLR for our target production rate. This
will minimize the horsepower requirements, the volume of injected gas, and the surface operating pressure.

When considering tubular goods, we must remember that we may produce fluid through either the tubing or
the annulus. The difference in performance is shown in Figure 12 . It is a pressure-rate curve for a specific
well. The gas lift GLR is fixed at 400, the flowing tubing pressure is fixed at 250 psi, and the well's IPR has
been calculated. The performance of four different tubular goods installations are considered: tubular flow
through 2-inch and 2 1/2-inch tubing, and annular flow through 2 x 4 1/2-inch and 2 1/2 x 5 1/2-inch
tubing-casing diameters. For each curve, we see that a higher flow rate requires a higher bottomhole
pressure.

Because the performance curves shift to the right as the cross sectional area available for flow increases, we
see that for a given bottomhole pressure, the flow rate will increase significantly as we increase the size of
our wellbore hardware. For a specific set of tubular goods, then, the cross section of its performance curve
and the IPR curve specifies the maximum production rate for the given GLR and surface tubing pressure.
(If our desired production rate is lower than this value, then we may use smaller tubular goods with a
performance curve that intersects the IPR curve at a higher pwf.) We conclude, then, that for high
production rates, our gas lift operations will probably require annular flow.

28
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UnloadingDesignforGasLiftWells

Now that we understand the design variables that control continuous gas lift, we should turn to the design
of well unloading or "kick-off".

We unload a well when the fluid level has reached a static Point below the surface or where fluids have
been added to the well in order to kill it Prior to workover operations. When we are ready to Produce the
well again, say, with continuous gas lift, we must first lift the static fluid column, that is, kick-off the well.
We must incorporate unloading operations into a gas lift design.

Several assumptions about the static fluid column or kill fluid (usually salt water) and the manner in which
it will be unloaded are inherent in the design. First, we assume that the static fluid level may reach as high
as the surface are inherent in the design. Even though the reservoir pressure allows for a lower fluid level,
the assumption that a full well must be unloaded provides a built-in safety factor. We assume also that the
density of the well fluids is a little heavier than fresh water. More specifically, we assume that the fluids
have a static or unloading pressure gradient of 0.45 psi per foot. if the density of the kill fluid is known and
is significantly different from this value, an appropriate change should be made.

Next, we consider how the fluids are to be unloaded. With a continuous gas lift installation, we use the
available gas volume and pressure intended for continuous operation. All we need are additional valves in
the tubing to unload the fluids.

There are a number of computer-aided design procedures available. Most of them are based on supplying
sufficient pressure at successively lower valves to cause the kill fluids to be U-tubed to the surface through
each valve in a sequence. We shall consider one such design, employing graphical methods for illustration
purposes.

We begin with the pressure traverse and injection pressure curves which are 500 BOPD and 500 GLR. (31)
obtained from our continuous gas lift design. in our example, we shall use the curves for the 500 BOPD
flow rate and a GLR of 500, reproduced in Figure 1 . We remember that the casing pressure is 100 psi
greater than that needed in the tubing. This allows for an adequate pressure drop across the valve. The
operating valve, as we mentioned earlier, is located at the intersection of the two pressure traverse lines.

We select as our gas design pressure, the available gas line pressure minus 100 psi, and draw it in as shown
in Figure 2 . This represents the gas pressure available on the tubing side of a gas lift valve. it also
represents the pressure available for unloading the well at any valve.

For design safety and to minimize valve interference, we usually select a surface design pressure that is 200
psi above the flowing wellhead pressure. This gives us a surface design pressure of 300 psi. We now join
the 300 psi pressure point with the operating valve pressure at the depth of the operating valve. This gives
us the design gradient ( Figure 3 ).

We now locate our unloading valves graphically. Starting at the surface and a pressure of 300 psi, we draw
a line toward the gas operating pressure with a slope equal to 0.45 psi per foot, the gradient of our kill fluid.
Often, for locating the first valve, we extend the line to the full gas operating pressure as shown in Figure
4 . This defines the depth and pressure of valve 1. Sufficient gas pressure will be available at this depth to
unload (U-tube) the fluids above this point.

The second valve is located by drawing a horizontal line at the first valve depth back to the design gradient
line, then, downward, using a 0.45 psi per foot gradient, to the gas design pressure line.

39
This graphical procedure continues in the same manner until all the unloading valves, down to the
operating valve, have been located. As seen in Figure 5 , we will need four valves to unload the well and
the operating valve to provide continuous gas lift operations.

As we mentioned earlier, there are a number of design options for locating the unloading valves. This is
especially true when we consider the available selection of valves and the ability to specify the valve
opening and closing pressures. Often, for example, a lower valve will be opened before an upper valve is
closed so as to provide for smoother unloading operation.

40
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SummaryofProcedurestoFollowinDesigningaContinuousGasLift
Installation

Let us now summarize the procedures to be followed for a continuous gas lift design.

1. Collect all available wellbore and fluid data.

2. Determine the IPR or PI of the well. With this data and the desired production rate for the well
we plot the average reservoir pressure and flowing bottomhole pressure on a pressure depth curve
( Figure 1 ).

3. For known or assumed production conditions, that is, flow rate, production GLR, and water cut,
we plot the pressure traverse curve for several producing GLRs, and a variety of tubular goods
( Figure 2 ). This could include both tubing and annular flow. One such traverse curve is shown in
Figure 2 .

4. With the given production rate and an assumed set of increasing gas lift GLRs, we calculate the
surface flowing pressure needed to satisfy the operating separator pressure. The required surface
pressure assumed in this design is 100 psi, but we know that it will differ somewhat for each
different GLR, higher for higher values of GLR.

5. For the selected tubular goods and flow system, that is, tubing or annular flow, we draw
pressure traverse curves for various values of gas lift GLR. The intersection of these curves with
the natural flow pressure traverse defines several possible locations for the operating valves
( Figure 3 ). We now select one operating GLR. We remember that the lowest GLR requires the
highest operating pressure, the lowest injected gas volume and lowest compression horsepower.
We would normally select this option. in our example we have selected the 500 GLR curve
because we are constrained by a limiting surface gas pressure.

6. We can now draw in our casing pressure curve. We begin with a gas pressure at the operating
valve depth equal to 100 psi greater than the required tubing pressure at this depth. From this
point, using Equation 1.1 or suitable correlations to provide us the gas gradient in a static gas
column we draw a line joining the gas pressure at the operating valve depth to the surface. This
yields the minimum required gas injection pressure at the surface ( Figure 4 ).

7. To complete the design, we must locate our unloading valves. To do this, we draw in the gas
design pressure line which is 100 psi less than the casing pressure, and our design gradient line
which has a surface pressure 200 psi greater than the required surface flowing pressure ( Figure
5 ).

8. With these lines we begin at the surface and draw a series of lines downward, with an unloading
fluid gradient equal to 0.45 psi/ft, to locate the unloading valves. We remember that we may
extend the first line as far as the casing operating pressure to locate the first valve ( Figure 6 ).

9. Now we turn to the manufacturers catalogs to select the unloading and operating valves which
will satisfy our design over the life of the well. The values are set to meet the required operating
conditions.

10. Before completing our system design, we must be sure that there is sufficient gas volume and
pressure to meet operating conditions and, finally, that we are able to modify the design as inflow
performance characteristics change.

45
The engineer realizes that the design is not a static one. The inflow performance, producing GLR and,
perhaps, water cut of the well will change as production from the well continues. In addition he often
designs for a total field rather than a single well. In essence, he must have one eye on the future and the
other on developing an optimal field design. The third eye is focused on the individual wells which
collectively make up the system.

46
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DesignofIntermittentGasLiftInstallations

We continue our design of gas lift installations by turning to intermittent flow systems. You will remember
that during intermittent gas lift, liquid is allowed to accumulate in the tubing above the gas lift valve. On a
cyclic basis, the liquid is lifted to the surface in a "slug" or piston form by the injection of high pressure gas
below the slug. The injected gas expands and displaces the slug to the surface. Intermittent gas lift
operation, then, is a cyclic operation and the cycle can be divided into three periods: The lift period, the
inflow period, and the pressure reduction period ( Figure 1 ).

The inflow period occurs when fluid flows from the formation into the wellbore and collects in the tubing
above the gas lift valve.

The lift period begins when a sufficient volume of liquid has accumulated and gas is injected through the
operating valve to lift the slug to the surface.

The pressure reduction period begins after the gas slug reaches the surface and the gas lift valve closes.
During this period the lift gas pressure is dissipated, allowing the inflow period to begin again.

A plot of the pressure at the operating valve versus time is shown in Figure 1 . In this case the inflow period
builds the pressure to about 550 psi. Gas is then injected and the liquid slug is displaced to the surface. The
pressure reaches a maximum value of 750 psi and then decreases slightly during the slug movement. The
lift period lasts for about eight minutes. The valve then closes, the pressure reduction period begins and
continues until the pressure drops below 300 psi. As the pressure falls, inflow from the formation begins
again. The time between lifts for this system is about 38 minutes.

We see, then, that the intermittent cycle is controlled by regulating the frequency or injection, the gas flow
rate during injection, and the total quantity or gas injected during each lift period. Maximum production
from intermittent lift will occur when each period or the lift cycle is optimized. Our design, then, should be
one that gives maximum liquid recovery with an economical volume or injected gas.

EstimatingtheProductionCapabilityofanIntermittentGasLiftWell

The production capability or an intermittent gas lift system depends on three factors:

the starting load,

the efficiency or the lift, and

the number or cycles per day

We shall discuss each in order.

The starting load reflects the pressure at the operating valve just as the valve opens. It represents the
pressure imposed at the operating valve by the buildup of liquid in the tubing above it.

Field operations indicate that a starting load or 65 to 75 percent or the gas pressure in the annulus at the
operating valve results in a slug velocity in the optimum recovery range. This corresponds to a gas pressure
of 1.3 - 1.5 times greater than the pressure in the tubing as the valve opens and displacement begins. It has
been shown that this pressure difference will provide slug velocities or 900 to 1200 feed/minute which are
needed for optimum recovery.

52
For normal design situations, the 65 percent starting load factor is used, that is, the liquid is allowed to
build up in the tubing until the tubing pressure is equal to 65 percent or the available casing pressure. The
excess casing pressure provides the slug velocity. The upper limit or the design range, that is, 75 percent, is
used when there is a high surface tubing pressure or a high gas delivery rate into the tubing.

We may calculate the volume of liquid in the tubing with this starting load as follows:

(1.2)
where:

p = the pressure imposed by the fluid in the tubing above the valve. It is equal to the bottomhole tubing
pressure, pt, minus the surface tubing pressure, pts,

h = height of rise or liquid in the tubing. Ignoring the gas column in the tubing, it is equal to p divided by
the pressure gradient of the produced liquid, Gs, in consistent units,

Ftb = tubing volume factor, volume / unit of length,

Be = the liquid influx volume/cycle. Be, then, represents the volume of liquid in the tubing available for lift
during each cycle.

The next consideration is whether this liquid inflow into the tubing is totally lifted during a cycle and, if
not, what level of efficiency exists.

We know that as a slug of liquid moves up the tubing during lift, some of the liquid adheres to the tubing
walls and some becomes entrained as droplets in the gas phase. The lost liquid is referred to as holdup.

Field tests have shown that a holdup of 5 - 7 percent of the starting load per 1000 feet of lift will exist when
the starting load is within the recommended 65-75 Percent. These are the conditions when the slug velocity
is at an optimum and holdup will be low.

For an assumed loss of 5 percent per 1000 feet of vertical lift, the efficiency of lift, E, will be equal to:

(1.3)
where:

E = efficiency of lift, percent

Dv = depth to the gas lift valve, feet.

If, for example, the gas lift valve is at a depth of 4000 feet, the efficiency of lift will be:

53
With this information, we may calculate Bt, the liquid produced per cycle.

. (1.4)
We should produce, then, 80 percent of our starting load.

We now know how to calculate the volume of liquid produced per cycle. What remains, then, is to calculate
the number of cycles possible per day. This number depends on the depth of lift as well as the length of
time required for the pressure reduction and inflow periods. The cycle time is usually adjusted in the field
under actual operating conditions but initial estimates may be made. As a practical matter, we may assume
that the minimum time per cycle is in the range of 1.5 - 3.0 minutes per 1000 feet of lift.

If the minimum time per cycle were 3 minutes per 1000 feet of depth, for example, the maximum number
of cycles per day, Nc, would be approximately equal to:

(1.5)
where:

Nc = cycles / day
1440 = minutes / day.

(Note that if the minimum cycle time was, say, 1.5 minutes per 1000 feet, N c would be 240 cycles/day.)

For an operating valve located at a depth of 4000 feet and this minimum cycle time factor of 3 minutes per
1000 feet of depth, then the maximum number of cycles per day is:

The daily production, then, is obtained by multiplying Nc by Bt. When the intermittent system is installed
in the field you may find from experience that the ideal number of cycles per day is less than this
maximum. This estimate provides a good starting point. It is through field testing that the appropriate cycle
control is ultimately set.

We now have a procedure for designing our intermitting lift system, or, at least, a means to calculate the
systems maximum production capability. The procedure requires that we start with the known wellbore
and fluid data and calculate the liquid inflow, volume per lift cycle, Be, using a 65 percent load factor; then,
we calculate the lift efficiency, E; next, the maximum number or cycles per day, Nc; and then the maximum
daily production rate, q. We see that q will equal:

Sample Problem: We shall apply this procedure to estimate the production capability of a well. We are told
that the depth of the operating valve is 8000 feet; the tubing size is 2 3/8-inches OD, the surface tubing
pressure is 100 psi, the surface operating gas pressure is 800 psi, the gas gravity is 0.65, and the oil gradient

54
is 0.40 psi per foot. We wish to calculate the maximum daily production rate of the well under intermittent
gas lift operations.

To obtain a solution, we follow the procedures just described. First, we calculate the liquid inflow per
cycle. To do this, we must calculate the gas pressure in the annul us opposite the operating valve, with a
known surface pressure of 800 psi, and an estimated gas gradient of 0.02125 psi/ft. We find the gas
pressure at the operating valve to be:

pc = 800 + 0.02125 (8000) = 970 psi.

Using a 65 percent load factor, we find _p:

p = pt - pts

pt = 0.65 pc = 0.65 (970) = 630 psi

p = 630 - 100 = 530 psi.

With this pressure, our produced liquid should rise in the tubing a total of:

This is equivalent to a liquid inflow volume of:

Ftb = 0.0038 bbl/ft (from tables or calculations)

Be = hFtb = (1325) (0.0038) = 5.03 bbls.

Next, we calculate the lift efficiency. For a depth of 8000 feet and an assumed S percent loss per 1000 ft.,
we calculate it to be:

With a 60 percent lift efficiency, we find the liquid production per cycle to be:

Bt = 0.60 (5.03) = 3.02 bbls/cycle.

Next, we calculate the maximum number of cycles possible per day. For a gas lift operating valve located at
a depth of 8000 feet, we find it to be equal to:

We complete our calculations by combining the production per cycle and the maximum number of cycles
per day to give us a maximum production rate of:

q = NcBt = (60) (3.02) = 180 BOPD.

55
If our inflow performance calculations indicate that the well will sustain this rate, it is very likely a good
design. Some field adjustment, though, will very likely be required.

ValveSelection

Now that we have learned the procedure for calculating production rates, we

must complete our intermittent gas lift design. To do this, we must select the appropriate operating valve,
estimate the injection gas requirements per cycle, discuss gas flow control at the surface, and make sure
that we are able to unload the well. We begin with valve selection.

The primary requirement of an operating valve used in intermittent lift is that it is able to handle a large
volume of gas in a short period of time. From our earlier discussion on valves, you will agree that this is an
ideal application for the pilot-operated valve. Its large port allows a large volume of gas to pass once the
valve is opened. A properly designed dome-charged valve may also be used. In some cases, a fluid-operated
valve may be selected, however, because its port is small, it will require a series of operating valves,
opening in succession to propel the slug up the tubing.

CalculatingRequiredGasVolumes

Next, we should consider the volume or gas required during an intermittent cycle. Two-phase slug flow is a
complex phenomenon and it is difficult to calculate the exact gas volumes required. for estimating
purposes, we may assume that the volume required is equal to the volume or gas left in the tubing just as
the slug reaches the surface. We may also assume that the gas in the tubing is at a pressure equal to the
average or the two values or tubing pressure when the valve opens and closes.

The basic gas volume required per cycle is equal to:

(1.6)
where:

pt = the pressure at the operating valve;

pvc = the pressure just as the valve closes;

Vt = the volume of tubing not occupied by liquid, and;

pa = atmosphere pressure (used to convert gas volume in the tubing to standard conditions).

We have not included the effects of temperature and compressibility because our estimate is approximate.

We may apply this equation to our example. We know that the valve opening pressure is 970 psi and we are
told that its closing pressure is 725 psi. The tubing length is 8000 feet and we have calculated that the liquid
fills 1325 feet of it. The 2 3/8-inch tubing contains 0.0217 cubic feet per foot of length. The tubing gas
volume, then, is:

Vt = (8000 - 1325) (0.0217) = 144.8 cu. ft.

56
When we convert this to the number of standard cubic feet contained in the tubing at the average pressure,
we find a value of:

This is the volume of gas required per cycle. We must conserve and reuse the lift gas in subsequent cycles
to create an efficient production operation.

57
SurfaceControlofInjectedGas

We now turn to the control of intermittent gas lift operations. Control of the gas passing from the casing to
the tubing is provided by the gas lift valve. This control is complemented by several types of surface
controllers. These may be provided by time cycle control or choke control. With time cycle control, a clock
drives a pilot which opens and closes a diaphragm-actuated valve on the gas supply line ( Figure 1 ). The
pilot can be adjusted to open and close for specific periods of time.

The choke control method relies on the inflow performance of the well and the gas lift valve operating
spread characteristics to control the cycle. The surface control consists of an adjustable choke or flow
control valve on the gas supply line ( Figure 2 ). The choke is adjusted to admit gas continuously into the
annulus so that its pressure builds at a steady rate.

When the pressure reaches a high enough level, the gas lift valve opens and the slug is displaced. The
choke must be set, then, to admit gas at a rate compatible with the wells inflow capacity. An efficient cycle
frequency is then established. A very important feature of choke control is that it eliminates the cyclical
injection surges from the compressor. In effect, the choke isolates the cyclic surges to the casing annulus.
The compressor operates more evenly and the gas circulated to the well can thus be measured more
accurately.

This difference in opening and closing pressures of the gas lift valve is, as we mentioned earlier, the spread
of the valve. It is this feature of choke control that allows us to store, in the casing annulus, the volume of
gas needed for each intermittent lift cycle. The gas lift valve "spread" makes a storage chamber of the
casing annulus.

We have mentioned a number or aspects of intermittent gas lift but our discussion has not been exhaustive.
We have not considered, for example, the procedure to be followed in locating the unloading valves.
Because the intermittent gas lift design is similar to that for continuous lift in that the liquids are U-tubed to
the surface from one valve to the next, the procedure for locating unloading valves discussed earlier for a
continuous lift system are generally applicable to intermittent lift. The one significant difference for
intermittent flow is that we must define a pressure gradient in the tubing string for conditions where the kill
fluids are being unloaded as slugs. Under these conditions the pressure gradient in the tubing is caused
primarily by frictional losses which are a function of the velocity of flow and tubing size. Empirical
correlations of the "design gradient," indicate that these design gradients are in the range of 0.02 to 0.35
psi/ft. We use the appropriate gradient from these correlations to draw the "design gradient" on the
pressure-depth chart. The unloading values are then found.

We have also not discussed the option of using multipoint as opposed to single point gas injection. Some
controversy exists as to whether the use of multiple valves for gas injection can be successively applied to
intermittent lift. Because it and such other installations as chamber lift do not have widespread application
we shall refer you to Brown (1980) for a more detailed discussion.

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SomePracticalAspectsofUnloadingandOperation

We should now say a few words about the practical aspects of gas lift operation. After gas lift valves have
been installed in our well, the first operation is to unload the fluids. Our objective is to unload the well
without excessive pressure, so that a final, stabilized production rate can be easily obtained. The well may
be unloaded either intermittently or continuously. It is normal for a well placed on continuous gas lift to be
unloaded continuously, and for a well placed on intermittent gas lift to be unloaded intermittently.

Let us first consider continuous gas lift. Our first step is to inject gas slowly into the annulus, probably
through a choke, located at the surface. Pressure is increased approximately 100 psi every 10 minutes.
Immediately the kill fluid will be produced through the tubing. It is common practice to unload the well
into a pit onshore or a tanker offshore until gas starts coming around the first valve or until oil appears in
the produced fluid. A steady stream of fluid will be unloading. If these fluids are turned into a separator,
remember to keep the backpressure on the well as low as possible. As gas is continuously injected into the
annulus, a gradual increase in casing pressure is required to keep fluids flowing from the tubing string.

Valve 1, the uppermost valve, will eventually be uncovered, and gas then enters the tubing string. This is
noted at the surface by a immediate increase in the velocity of the stream of fluid coming out of the tubing
string. A mixture of gas and liquid will soon be produced at the surface, and the casing pressure will level
off at the surface operating pressure of valve No. 1. As gas continues to enter the annulus, the liquid column
in the annulus is lowered until valve No. 2 is uncovered. As soon as this valve is uncovered, gas will flow
through it and enter the tubing. Casing pressure will drop to the surface operating pressure of this valve. At
about the same time, pressure in the annulus opposite valve No. 1 should have been reduced to a low
enough level to cause the valve to close.

Unloading continues from valve to valve until the bottom operating valve is uncovered. At this point the
bottomhole pressure has been reduced to a level where the formation is able to produce into the tubing, and
where the gas injected through the operating valve is sufficient to lift the production under design
conditions.

The unloading process for an intermittent gas lift well is, in principle, very similar to a continuous flow
unloading process. The only significant difference is that the fluid load is unloaded at the surface in the
form of piston-like slugs of liquid. The procedure for intermittent flow is the same as that for continuous
flow until valve No. 1 is uncovered. At this point, the well is placed on intermittent control for unloading.
This is accomplished with a choke or a time cycle controller at the surface so that the well is alternately
produced and shut-in. During this period, the liquids in the annular space will continue to be U-tubed into
the tubing and produced as slugs. A good cycle for unloading is obtained with two to four minutes of gas
injection every 20 to 30 minutes. This allows ample time for stabilization to take place between slugs.

Once the desired operating valve is reached, the choke size or cycle time is adjusted to suit the wells
production characteristics. Thus, for example, you may start operation with a rather large number of cycles
per day and then, in response to the wells production behavior, begin to reduce them in order to reach an
optimal condition. When the liquid production rate begins to fall off, you have just passed the optimal
number of cycles per day. With this information, it is possible to make further refinements to the process by
reducing the duration of gas injection during each cycle. The ultimate objective is to maximize production
and minimize gas volume required. A very useful monitoring procedure involves the simultaneous
recording of the shapes of the tubing and casing pressures. Adjustments are made on the basis of the shapes
of these two curves.

61
SurfaceFacilitiesDesign

We should now look at the surface facilities that might be needed for a typical gas lift installation. There are
a number of pieces of data that must be collected before we begin the design of our surface system. These
include the number and location of wells to be gas lifted, the gas lift valve design for each well, whether we
are to have continuous or intermittent injection, the gas volumes needed with estimates of peak demand, the
availability of gas supply from the separator or external supply, the location of sales gas lines, the required
pressure at the point of injection into our well, the pressure of the separator or supply gas, the sizing of the
compressor and, finally, the auxiliary control and metering system required for our surface system.

In essence, we have a surface system beginning with production at the wellhead and ending with the
injection of gas into the casing annulus or tubing ( Figure 1 ). Beginning at the wellhead we see that the
production travels first to the separator where the liquids and gas are separated. The separator gas is usually
reused as gas lift gas. If there is more gas being produced than is needed, the excess gas is either sold or
injected into the formation. Moving downstream we see that there is a point where outside supply may be
added to our system in the event that the gas from the separator is insufficient to meet the demand. Both the
separator gas and the outside makeup gas then flow through a scrubber, where impurities are removed, and
continue to the compressor, where the pressure of the gas is increased to desired levels. The compressor
must be chosen to provide the appropriate discharge pressure and volume needed at both average and peak
rates. Some of the gas reaching the compressor is normally used as fuel. Downstream of the compressor,
gas is metered and various controls are introduced before the gas is injected into the annulus. In the case of
continuous injection, the control is normally a choke in series with a pressure regulator. For intermittent gas
injection, a time cycle controller, or choke, are the most common forms of control.

We see, then, that the surface system consists of a number of individual components, each of which must be
designed to provide the quantities and peak demands of gas for the gas lift system at the desired injection
pressures. Our intuition tells us that the most ideal gas lift system, especially with respect to the compressor
operation, is one where we have a constant suction pressure and constant discharge pressure on our
compressor. This is easy to achieve in continuous flow operations, because of the continuous supply of gas
available from the separator and because of the continuous need to inject gas. For intermittent systems, the
problem becomes more complicated. Now we have intermittent injection and intermittent production and
the duration of each is different for each well. Control is a little more difficult for time cycle control than
for choke control because the latter has the advantage that the annul us serves as a storage chamber
between lift cycles.

CalculatingCompressionHorsepower

We should now see how compression horsepower is calculated. We know that compressors are available in
many different sizes and descriptions to fit the needs of both gas lift operations and oil field operations in
general.

An equation for approximating brake horsepower for a compressor is given by:

bhp = (l.05)R (23) nQ (1.7)

where:
R = absolute compression ratio per stage. It should not exceed 4.

= (R)l/n,

R = overall absolute compression ratio,

n = number of stages,

62
 1.05 = factor used to correct for pressure drop and gas cooling between stages (becomes 1.0 for
single stage compression),

23 = constant that yields units of BHP/ MMCFD/stage,

Q = desired throughput capacity, MMCFD.

Sample Problem:

Let us apply this equation to an example. We are told that the discharge pressure for a compressor is 200 psi
and the suction pressure is 50 psi. There are to be two stages of compression, and the desired throughput is
2.5 MMCFD.

We substitute this information into Eq. 1.7 as follows:

bhp = (l.05)(2)(23)(2)(2.5) = 241.5 hp.

We would probably order a 250 hp unit.

If only a single stage of compression is desired, we would have:

bhp = (1.00)(4)(23)(l)(2.5) = 230 hp.

In these two cases, the required total horsepower is about equal.

DesignSafetyFactors

In order for our system to have ample capacity, it is customary to carry a mainline pressure that is
approximately 100 psi greater than that called for in our design. This additional pressure will accommodate
line losses that are not calculated exactly or otherwise expected. In addition, the volume that the
compressor is expected to deliver is usually increased by 10 percent to account for volume losses and the
fuel needed for compression.

SummaryofProcedurestoFollowinDesigningSurfaceFacilities

We may summarize the work that must be done, then, in designing our surface system for a gas lift
installation.

1. We begin by making a layout of the entire surface system including the wells, gathering lines,
stock tanks, separators, and other items of equipment that materially affect gas lift operations.

2. We then specify the wells which will undergo either continuous or intermittent gas lift,
including the time during which each is to be undergoing gas lift operation.

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 3. Next, we design the gas lift system for each well, specifying the pressures, the volume, the
cycles, and the expected life of the gas lift operation for that well. This is a key element of our
design in that it provides the pressures, volumes, and cycles to which our system must respond
over time.

4. Next, we make production estimates, including the gas volumes and pressures that will be
available from our separator. The pressure and volume values serve as input to our compressor
calculations.

5. The next step is to specify the gas sales and makeup volumes needed and their availability.

6. We then design the balance of our surface system including the gathering lines and the control
system.

7. The design of our system compressor is next. We can calculate a reasonably accurate measure of
the horsepower needed; however, we usually then meet with manufacturers to be sure that the final
design is one which will meet the needs of our gas lift system.

8. Finally, we remember to build into our design a volume safety factor of 10 percent and a
pressure safety factor of 100 psi.

You should now be able to undertake a preliminary design of a gas lift system. It will require a good deal of
effort on your part, and there will be times when you will want to discuss your design with your senior
engineer and with the engineering staff of a gas lift equipment manufacturer. The final design should be one
that satisfies all of the systems needs without being overdesigned.

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