Important Concepts and Formulas - Permutations and

Combinations

1. Multiplication Theorem (Fundamental Principles of Counting)

If an operation can be performed in mm different ways and following which a
second operation can be performed in nn different ways, then the two
operations in succession can be performed in mnmn different ways.

2. Addition Theorem (Fundamental Principles of Counting)

If an operation can be performed in mm different ways and a second

independent operation can be performed in nn different ways, either of the
two operations can be performed in (m+n)(m+n) ways.

3. Factorial

Let nn be a positive integer. Then nn factorial can be defined as

n!=n(n1)(n2)1n!=n(n1)(n2)1

Examples

5!=54321=120 3!=321=65!=54321=120 3!=321=6

Special Cases

0!=1 1!=10!=1 1!=1

4. Permutations
Permutations are the different arrangements of a given number of things by
taking some or all at a time.

Examples

All permutations (or arrangements) that can be formed with the letters a, b, c
by taking three at a time are (abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, cba)

All permutations (or arrangements) that can be formed with the letters a, b, c
by taking two at a time are (ab, ac, ba, bc, ca, cb)

5. Combinations
Each of the different groups or selections formed by taking some or all of a
number of objects is called a combination.

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Examples

Suppose we want to select two out of three girls P, Q, R. Then, possible

combinations are PQ, QR and RP. (Note that PQ and QP represent the same
selection.)

Suppose we want to select three out of three girls P, Q, R. Then, only possible
combination is PQR

6. Difference between Permutations and Combinations and How to

identify them

Sometimes, it will be clearly stated in the problem itself whether permutation

or combination is to be used. However if it is not mentioned in the problem,
we have to find out whether the question is related to permutation or
combination.

Consider a situation where we need to find out the total number of possible
samples of two objects which can be taken from three objects P, Q, R. To
understand if the question is related to permutation or combination, we need
to find out if the order is important or not.

If order is important, PQ will be different from QP, PR will be different from

RP and QR will be different from RQ

If order is not important, PQ will be same as QP, PR will be same as RP and

QR will be same as RQ

Hence,
If the order is important, problem will be related to permutations.
If the order is not important, problem will be related to combinations.

For permutations, the problems can be like "What is the number of

permutations the can be made", "What is the number of arrangements that
can be made", "What are the different number of ways in which something can
be arranged", etc.

For combinations, the problems can be like "What is the number of

combinations the can be made", "What is the number of selections the can be
made", "What are the different number of ways in which something can be
selected", etc.

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pq and qp are two different permutations, but they represent the same
combination.

Mostly problems related to word formation, number formation etc will be

related to permutations. Similarly most problems related to selection of
persons, formation of geometrical figures, distribution of items (there are
exceptions for this) etc will be related to combinations.

7. Repetition

The term repetition is very important in permutations and combinations.

Consider the same situation described above where we need to find out the
total number of possible samples of two objects which can be taken from three
objects P, Q, R.

If repetition is allowed, the same object can be taken more than once to make
a sample. i.e., PP, QQ, RR can also be considered as possible samples.

If repetition is not allowed, then PP, QQ, RR cannot be considered as possible

samples.

Normally repetition is not allowed unless mentioned specifically.

8. Number of permutations of n distinct things taking r at a time

Number of permutations of n distinct things taking r at a time can be given by

nPr= n!(nr)!n!(nr)! =n(n1)(n2)...(nr+1)=n(n1)(n2)...(nr+1) where 0rn0
rn

Special Cases
nP0 = 1
nPr = 0 for r>nr>n

nPr
is also denoted by P(n,r). nPr has importance outside combinatorics as well
where it is known as the falling factorial and denoted by (n)r or nr

Examples
8 P2 = 8 7 = 56
5P4= 5 4 3 2 = 120

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9. Number of permutations of n distinct things taking all at a time

Number of permutations of n distinct things taking them all at a time

= nPn = n!

10. Number of Combinations of n distinct things taking r at a time

Number of combinations of n distinct things taking r at a time ( nCr) can be

given by
nCr = n!(r!)(nr)!n!(r!)(nr)! =n(n1)(n2)(nr+1)r!=n(n1)(n2)(nr+1)r! wh

ere 0rn0rn

Special Cases
nC0 = 1
nCr = 0 for r>nr>n

nCr is also denoted by C(n,r). nCr occurs in many other mathematical contexts
as well where it is known as binomial coefficient and denoted by (nr)(nr)

Examples
8C 2 = 87218721 = 28
5C4= 5432432154324321 = 5

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Permutations

Permutations of objects when all objects are not distinct

Number of ways in which nn things can be arranged taking them all at a time,
when p1p1 of the things are exactly alike of 11st type, p2p2 of them are exactly
alike of a 22nd type ... prpr of them are exactly alike of rrth type and the rest all
are distinct is
n!p1! p2! pr!n!p1! p2! pr!

Number of permutations of nn distinct things taking rr at a time

(repetition allowed)

Number of permutations of nn distinct things taking rr at a time when each

thing may be repeated any number of times is nrnr

Circular permutations - Case 1: When clockwise and anticlockwise

arrangements are different

Number of circular permutations (arrangements) of nn distinct things

=(n1)!=(n1)!

Circular permutations - Case 2: When clockwise and anticlockwise

arrangements are not different

Number of circular permutations (arrangements) of nn distinct things, when

clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are not different (i.e., when
observations can be made from both sides)
=12(n1)!

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Permutations under Restrictions
Case 1: When s particular things are always to be included
Number of permutations of n distinct things taking r at a time, when s
particular things are always to be included in each arrangement, is
(n-s)C(r-s) r!

Derivation of the formula

(rs) objects can be selected from the (ns) objects in (n-s)C(r-s) ways.

s objects can be selected from s objects only 1 way.

Totally r objects are selected and these can be arranged in r! ways.

Total number of arrangements = (n-s)C(r-s) r!

Alternative Form
Some text books give the formula as (n-s)P(r-s) rPs which is same as (n-s)C(r-s)
r!

(n-s)C(r-s)

r! =(ns)!r![ns(rs)]!(rs)!=(ns)!r![ns(rs)]!(rs)! =(ns)!r!(nr)!(rs
)!=(ns)!r!(nr)!(rs)!

(n-s)P(r-

s) rPs =(ns)![ns(rs)]!r!(rs)!=(ns)![ns(rs)]!r!(rs)! =(ns)!r!(nr)!(r

s)!=(ns)!r!(nr)!(rs)!

As you can see, both these formulas are indeed the same.

Case 2: When a particular thing is always to be included

Number of permutations of n distinct things taking r at a time, when a

particular thing is always to be included in each arrangement, is
(n-1)C(r-1) r!

Derivation of the formula is similar to that of case 1.

Alternative Form
As we have seen for case 1, the same formula can also be expressed as (n-1)P(r-
1) r

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Case 3: When s particular things are never included

Number of permutations of n distinct things taking r at a time, when s

particular things are never included is
(n-s)Cr r!

Derivation of the formula

Remove the s objects which are never included and we are left with (n-s)
objects. r objects can be selected from these (ns) objects in (n-s)Cr ways.

r objects can be arranged in r! ways.

Total number of arrangements

= (n-s)Cr r!

Case 4: When a particular thing is never included

Number of permutations of n distinct things taking r at a time, when a

particular thing is never included, is
(n-1)Cr r!

Derivation of the formula is similar to that of case 3.

Case 5: When m particular things always come together

Number of permutations of n distinct things taking them all at a time, when m

particular things always come together, is
(n-m+1)! m!

Derivation of the formula

Group these m objects and consider it as a single object. Then the total
number objects = (n-m+1). These (n-m+1) objects can be arranged in (n-
m+1)! ways

m objects can be arranged in m! ways.

Total number of arrangements = (n-m+1)! m!

Case 6: When m particular things never come together

Number of permutations of n distinct things taking them all at a time, when m

particular things never come together, is

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n! - (n m + 1)! m!

Derivation of the formula

Total number of arrangements possible using n distinct objects taking all at a
time = n!

Number of arrangements of n distinct things taking all at a time, when m

particular things always come together, is
(n-m+1)! m! (As we have seen in case 5)

Hence, number of permutations of n distinct things taking all at a time, when

m particular things never come together
= n! - (n-m+1)! m!

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Combinations
Number of combinations of n distinct objects taking r at a time when each
object may be repeated any number of times
= (n+r-1)Cr

Number of ways in which one or more objects can be selected from n distinct
objects (i.e., we can select 1 or 2 or 3 or or n objects at a time)
= nC1 + nC2 + ... + nCn = 2n - 1

Number of ways in which one or more objects can be selected out of S1 alike
objects of one kind, S2 alike objects of second kind and S3 alike objects of third
kind
= (S1 + 1)(S2 + 1)(S3 + 1) - 1

The above formula can be generalized as follows.

Number of ways in which one or more objects can be selected out of S1 alike
objects of one kind, S2 alike objects of second kind , S3 alike objects of third
kind and so on ... Sn alike objects of nth kind
= (S1 + 1) (S2 + 1)(S3 + 1)...(Sn + 1) - 1

Number of ways in which one or more objects can be selected out of S1 alike
objects of one kind, S2 alike objects of second kind and rest p different objects
= (S1 + 1)(S2 + 1)2p - 1

The above formula can be generalized as follows.

Number of ways in which one or more objects can be selected out of S1 alike
objects of one kind, S2 alike objects of second kind and so on ... Sn alike objects
of nth kind and rest p different objects
= (S1 + 1) (S2 + 1) ... (Sn + 1) 2p - 1

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Combinations under Restrictions
Case 1: When s particular things are always to be included

Number of combinations of n distinct things taking r at a time, when s

particular things are always to be included in each selection, is
(n-s)C(r-s)

Case 2: When a particular thing is always to be included

Number of combinations of n distinct things taking r at a time, when a

particular thing is always to be included in each selection, is
(n-1)C(r-1)

Case 3: When s particular things are never included

Number of combinations of n distinct things taking r at a time, when s

particular things are never included in any selection, is
(n-s)Cr

Case 4: When m particular things never come together

Number of combinations of n distinct things taking r at a time, when m

particular things never come together in any selection, is
nCr - (n-m)C(r-m)

Case 1: r > (n-m).

Example: Number of combinations of 4 different things (A,B,C,D) taking 3 at

a time, when 2 particular things (A,B) never come together.

Here, n=4, r=3, m=2

As per the formula, ans = 4C3 - 2C1 = 4 - 2 = 2

This is correct. These combinations are (A,C,D), (B,C,D)

Case 2: r = (n-m).

Example1: Number of combinations of 4 different things (A,B,C,D) taking 2

at a time, when 2 particular things (A,B) never come together.

Here, n=4, r=2, m=2

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As per the formula, ans = 4C2 - 2C0 = 6 - 1 = 5

This is correct. These 5 combinations are (A,C) (A,D) (B,C) (B,D) (C,D)

Example2: Number of combinations of 5 different things (A,B,C,D,E) taking

2 at a time, when 3 particular things (A,B,C) never come together.

Here, n=5, r=2, m=3

As per the formula, ans = 5c2 - 2C(-1) = 10 - 0 = 10 (Note that nCr = 0 when r
< 0)

This is correct. These 10 combinations are (A,B), (A,C), (A,D), (A,E), (B,C),
(B,D), (B,E), (C,D), (C,E), (D,E)

Case 3: r < (n-m)

Example1: Number of combinations of 5 different things (A,B,C,D,E) taking

2 at a time, when 2 particular things (A,B) never come together.

Here, n=5, r=2, m=2

As per the formula, ans = 5C2 - 3C0= 10 - 1 = 9

This is correct. These 5 combinations are (A,C), (A,D), (A,E), (B,C), (B,D),
(B,E), (C,D), (C,E), (D,E),

Example2: Number of combinations of 6 different things (A,B,C,D,E,F)

taking 2 at a time, when 3 particular things (A,B,C) never come together.

Here, n=6, r=2, m=3

As per the formula, ans = 6C2 - 3C(-1)= 15 - 0 = 15 (Note that nCr = 0 when r
< 0)

This is correct. These 15 combinations are (A,B), (A,C), (A,D), (A,E), (A,F),
(B,C), (B,D), (B,E), (B,F), (C,D), (C,E), (C,F), (D,E), (D,F), (E,F)

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Geometrical Figures - Permutations and Combinations
In this chapter, we are dealing with formulas related to geometrical figures
using the principles of permutations and combinations.

Number of triangles that can be formed by joining the vertices of a polygon of

n sides
= nC3

Number of quadrilaterals that can be formed by joining the vertices of a

polygon of n sides
= nC4

Suppose there are n points in a plane out of which m points are

collinear. Number of triangles that can be formed by joining these n points as
vertices
= nC3 - mC3

Suppose there are n points in a plane out of which no three points are collinear.
Number of triangles that can be formed by joining these n points
= nC3

Suppose there are n points in a plane out of which m points are collinear.
Number of straight lines that can be formed by joining these n points
= nC2 - mC2 + 1

Suppose there are n points in a plane out of which no points are collinear.
Number of straight lines that can be formed by joining these n points
= nC2

Number of rectangles that can be formed by using m horizontal lines and n

vertical lines
= mC2 nC2

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Number of diagonals that can be formed by joining the vertices of a polygon of
n sides
= n(n3)2

More Formulas in Permutations and Combinations

Sum of all numbers formed from given digits

If all possible nn digit numbers using nn distinct non-zero digits are formed,
sum of all the numbers so formed
=(n1)!=(n1)! (sum of the nn digits) (111 ... nn times)

Number of handshakes

Suppose there are nn persons present in a party and every person shakes hand
with every other person. Then, total number of handshakes
= nC2=n(n1)2=n(n1)2

Derangements

Any change in the existing order of things is called a derangement.

If nn things are arranged in a row, number of ways in which they can be

deranged so that none of them occupies its original place is

n!(111!+12!13!++(1)n1n!)n!(111!+12!13!++(1)n1n!) =n!nr=0(1)r1r!

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Useful Relations - Permutations and Combinations
n! = n.(n-1)!
nCr = nPrr!nPrr!
nPn = n!
nP0 =1
nP1 =n
nPn = nPn - 1
nPr = n(n-1Pr-1)
nCr = nC(n - r)

Example
8C6 = 8C2 =8721=28=8721=28

nCn =1
nC0 =1
nCr-1 + nCr = (n+1)Cr (Pascal's Law)

nCrnCr-1=n-r+1rnCrnCr-1=n-r+1r

nC0 + nC1 + nC2 + ... + nCn = 2n

Example
4C0 + 4C1 + 4C2 + 4C3+ 4C4 =24=16=24=16

If nCx = nCy then either x = y or (n-x) = y

Selection from identical objects: Some Basic Facts

(a) The number of selections of r objects out of n identical objects is 1

(b) Total number of selections of zero or more objects from n identical objects
is n+1.

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Distributing Balls into Boxes

Here, we are counting the number of ways in which k balls can be distributed
into n boxes under various conditions.

The conditions which are generally asked are

1. The balls are either distinct or identical.

2. The boxes are either distinct or identical.
3. No box can contain more than one ball or any box may contain more than
one ball.
4. No box can be empty or any box can be empty.

This is an area which many students choose to ignore. However these concepts
will help us in solving many advanced problems in permutations and
combinations.

We can use the principles of permutations and combinations to deal with

problems of distributing balls into boxes. The concept of identical boxes are
more complicated and generally studied in detail in combinatorics.

The table below explains the number of ways in which k balls can be
distributed into n boxes under various conditions. All the below mentioned
cases are derived under the assumption that the order in which the balls are
placed into the boxes is not important. (i.e., if a box has many balls, the order
of the balls inside the box is not important).

Distribution of How many balls boxes can contain

k Balls into n No Restrictions 1 1 =1

Boxes (At most (At least (Exactly one)
one) one)

Distinct Distinct nk n
Pk S(k,n) n! n
Pn = n! if k = n
0 if k n
(formula 1) (formula 2) (formula 3) (formula 4)
(more info)

(k+n-1) n (k-1)
Identical Distinct C(n-1) Ck C(n-1) 1 if k = n

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 0 if k n
(formula 5) (formula 6) (formula 7) (formula 8)

Distinct Identical ni=1S(k,i)i=1nS(k,i) 1 if k n S(k,n) 1 if k = n

(formula 9) 0 if k > n 0 if k n
(more info) (formula 10) (formula 11) (formula 12)
(more info)

Identical Identical ni=1P(k, i)i=1nP(k, i) 1 if k n P(k, n) 1 if k = n

(formula 13) 0 if k > n 0 if k n
(more info) (formula 14) (formula 15) (formula 16)
(more info)

S(k,n), Stirling number of the second kind can be defined as

S(k,n)=1n!n1i=0(1)inCi(ni)kS(k,n)=1n!i=0n1(1)inCi(ni)k
=1n![nC0(n0)knC1(n1)k=1n![nC0(n0)knC1(n1)k +nC2(n2)k++(1)n1nCn1(1)k]
+nC2(n2)k++(1)n1nCn1(1)k]

Special Cases
S(0,0) = 1
S(k,0) = 0 for k 1
S(k,n) = 0 for k < n

P(k,n) = The number of partitions of the integer k into n parts.

Formula for P(k,n) is much harder than that of S(k, n). The following
examples will explain how we can find the value of P(k,n).

What is the value of P(6,3) ?

The partitions of 6 into 3 parts are

4+1+1
3+2+1
2+2+2
(Note that 4 + 1 + 1, 1 + 4 + 1, 1 + 1 + 4 are same. Similarly we need to
consider all other cases as well)

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Hence the number of partitions of 6 into 3 parts = 3
=> P(6,3) = 3

What is the value of P(6,2) ?

The partitions of 6 into 2 parts are

1+5
2+4
3+3
Hence the number of partitions of 6 into 2 parts = 3
=> P(6,2) = 3

What is the value of P(6,1) ?

Here, we count the number of partitions of 6 into 1 part.

Clearly the number of such partitions = 1
=> P(6,1) = 1

Now try to find out the value of P(6,4)

The partitions of 6 into 4 parts are

1+1+1+3
1+2+2+2
Hence the number of partitions of 6 into 4 parts = 2
=> P(6,4) = 2

Special Cases
P(0, 0) = P(k, k) = P(k, k-1) = P(k, 1) = 1

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Counting non-negative integral solutionsNumber of non-negative
integral solutions of equation x1+x2++xn=kx1+x2++xn=k

= Number of ways in which kk identical balls can be distributed

into nn distinct boxes

=(k+n1n1)=(k+n1n1) = (k+n-1)C(n-1)
Counting positive integral solutionsNumber of positive integral
solutions of equation x1+x2++xn=kx1+x2++xn=k

= Number of ways in which kk identical balls can be distributed

into nn distinct boxes where each box must contain at least one ball

=(k1n1)=(k1n1) = (k-1)C(n-1)
Example 1: Find number of non-negative integral solutions of the equation
x1+x2+x3+x4=7x1+x2+x3+x4=7

One solution is x1=3,x2=3,x3=0,x4=1x1=3,x2=3,x3=0,x4=1

Another solution is x1=1,x2=0,x3=3,x4=3x1=1,x2=0,x3=3,x4=3

Note that x1=1,x2=0,x3=0,x4=8x1=1,x2=0,x3=0,x4=8 is not a solution because

each xixi must be a non-negative integer.

Total number of solutions

= (k+n-1)C(n-1) = (7+4-1)C(4-1)= 10C3 = 120

Example 2: Find number of positive integral solutions of the equation

x1+x2+x3=15x1+x2+x3=15

Solution 1
Using the formula, required number of solutions
= (k-1)C(n-1) = (15-1)C(3-1) = 14C2 = 91

Solution 2
Give one to x1x1, one to x2x2 and one to x3x3.
Remaining quantity is 15-3=12 which is to be distributed to x1,x2x1,x2 and x3x3
Therefore, required number of solutions
= number of non-negative integral solutions of
x1+x2+x3=12x1+x2+x3=12
= (k+n-1)C(n-1) = (12+3-1)C(3-1) = 14C2 = 91

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Example 3: A lift starts at the basement with 10 people (6 men and 4 women,
excluding the operator) and all get out by the time lift reaches 5th floor. Find
the number of ways in which the operator could have perceived the people
leaving the lift if all people look alike to the operator?

Required number of ways

= Number of non-negative integer solutions
to x1+x2+x3+x4+x5=10x1+x2+x3+x4+x5=10
= (k+n-1)C(n-1) = (10+5-1)C(5-1) = 14C4 = 1001

Let x1,x2,,xmx1,x2,,xm be integers.

Then the number of solutions to the equation

x1+x2++xm=nx1+x2++xm=n
subject to the
conditions a1x1b1,a2x2b2,a1x1b1,a2x2b2, ,amxmbm,amxmbm

is equal to the coefficient of xnxn in

(xa1+xa1+1++xb1)(xa2+xa2+1++xb2)(xam+xam+1++xbm)

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1. Division and Distribution of Distinct Objects
Case 1

Number of ways in which n distinct things can be divided into r unequal

groups containing a1, a2, a3, ......, ar things (different number of things in each
group and the groups are unmarked, i.e., not distinct)

= nCa1 (n-a1)Ca2 ... (n-a1-a2 - ... -ar-1)Car

=n!a1! a2! a3! ar!=n!a1! a2! a3! ar!

(Note that a1+a2+a3++ar=na1+a2+a3++ar=n)

Case 2

Number of ways in which n distinct things can be distributed among r persons

such that one person get a1 things, another person get a2 things, ... and another
person gets ar things(each person gets different number of things)

= Number of ways in which n distinct things can be divided into r unequal

groups containing a1, a2, a3, ......, ar things (different number of objects in each
group and the groups are numbered, i.e., distinct)

=n! r!a1! a2! a3! ... ar!=n! r!a1! a2! a3! ... ar!

(Note that a1+a2+a3++ar=na1+a2+a3++ar=n)

Case 3

Number of ways in which mnmn distinct things can be divided equally

into nn groups (each group will have m things and the groups are unmarked,
i.e., not distinct)

=(mn)!(m!)n n!=(mn)!(m!)n n!

Case 4

Number of ways in which mnmn distinct things can be distributed equally

among nnpersons (each person gets m number of things)

= Number of ways in which mnmn distinct things can be divided equally

into nn groups(each group will have m things and the groups are numbered,
i.e., distinct)

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=(mn)!(m!)n=(mn)!(m!)n

2. Division and Distribution of Identical Objects

Case 1

Number of ways in which n identical things can be divided into r groups, if

blank groups are allowed (here groups are numbered, i.e., distinct)

= Number of ways in which n identical things can be distributed among r

persons, each one of them can receive 0,1,2 or more items

= (n+r-1)C(r-1)

Case 2

Number of ways in which n identical things can be divided into r groups, if

blank groups are not allowed (here groups are numbered, i.e., distinct)

= Number of ways in which n identical things can be distributed among r

persons, each one of them can receive 1,2 or more items

= (n-1)C(r-1)

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