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Deformation of solids AS
AS
Ideal gases
Temperature A2
Thermal properties of
Materials
N Average kinetic energy
pV = N k T n N
Pr essure of gas
1 Nm per molecule
A
p c2
3 V
pV = nRT
1
2
m c 2 32 kT
10.2 Kinetic 10.3 10.4 Kinetic
10.1 theory of Pressure energy of a
Equation of gases of a gas molecule
State
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Reference
Textbook Homework
THE GAS LAWS
How do gases behave if their pressure, volume or
temperature is changed.
It is sensible to vary two of the previous quantities while
keeping the other constant in three separate
experiments:
(i) Variation of pressure with volume at a
constant temperature
(ii) Variation of pressure with temperature at a
constant volume
(iii) Variation of volume with temperature at a
constant pressure
http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age16-19/Thermal%20physics/Gas%20laws/
6/28/2016 5
Parameters
V - volume of container
p - pressure of gas in container
T - absolute temperature of gas
N - number of molecules of gas M = Nm
m = mass of a gas molecule total mass
of gas
V, p and T are called macroscopic properties
(what we can see and measure).
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VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH VOLUME
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VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH
TEMPERATURE (Pressure Law)
The water is heated and the
pressure of the air in the sealed
glass beaker is measured with Pressure
the pressure gauge. (The gauge
volume of the air is effectively
constant).
Results of this experiment
show that for a fixed mass of
gas at constant volume: beaker
Constant volume
gas thermometer
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PRESSURE LAW
If a fixed mass of gas with a pressure P1 and a
temperature T1 changes to a pressure P2 and
temperature T2 with no change of volume this can be
written as:
6/28/2016 O 10
CHARLES LAW
Capillary tube
The capillary tube has a small plug of
concentrated sulphuric acid placed in it and it is
then sealed at the other end.
6/28/2016 11
VARIATION OF VOLUME WITH
TEMPERATURE
If a fixed mass of gas with a volume V1 and a
temperature T1 changes to a volume V2 and
temperature T2 with no change of volume this
can be written:
p and M constant
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Gas
When working with gases we preferred to
work with a quantity called the number of
mole rather than mass of gas.
Absolute temperature: T/K = 0C + 273
6/28/2016 13
Definition
1 mole (or mol) is the
amount of substance, Avogadro constant (L,
which contains as NA) is the number of
many elementary units atoms in 0.012 kg of
or entities as there are carbon-12.
atoms in 12g of 12C. NA = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1
e.g. 1 mole = 2 g of H2
If there are N molecules
= 32 g of oxygen gas.
in a container, then the
(entities many be atoms,
number of mole of the
molecules, ions, electrons substance is N
or other particles). n
NA
6/28/2016 14
Molar mass
The molar mass (Mr) is For M kg of a substance of
defined as the mass of molar mass Mr, the
one mole of the number of mole,
substance
unit : g mol-1 M
n
e.g. molecular mass of Mr
12C = 12 g mol-1
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Example 11.1 n
N
NA
M
n
Mr
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Equation of state (Ideal gas equation )
pV = nRT
Combining the equations Now the volume of one
PV = constant, mole of an ideal gas at
P/ = constant and Standard Temperature
T
V/ = constant gives:
T
and Pressure (STP)
(1.014x105 Pa and
pV 273.15 K) is 0.0224m3
constant and so
T
For 1 mole of gas the 1.014x105 x 0.0224
constant is known as the = 1 x R x 273.15 and
molar gas constant (R) therefore
R = 8.314 JK-1mol-1.
pV = RT [given in DATA SHEET]
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Ideal gas equation (alternative)
p1V1 p 2V2
Derivation
T1 T2
pV = nRT
pV = N k T N
pV RT
NA
k = Boltzmanns constant =
R/NA = pV = N k T
= 8.31/6.02x1023
= 1.38x10-23 J K-1
N = number of molecules
[Values given in DATA
SHEET]
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What is an ideal gas?
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Example 11.3
A volume 250 cm3 of gas Solution
is trapped in a cylinder Pushed in slowly means
closed by a smooth the temperature is
piston, at a pressure of constant.
1.2 x 105 Pa. The piston
is pushed in slowly until
the volume of gas is pV pV
150 cm3, what is the 1.2 x 105(250) = p 150
new pressure. (Ans. p = 2.0 x 105 Pa
2.0 x 105 Pa)
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12 cm 4.0 cm
Example 11.4
trapped air p H
A uniform capillary tube is thread of mercury
closed at one end by a Solution
thread of mercury of
H = atmospheric pressure
length 4.0 cm When the
tube is placed = 76 cmHg
horizontally the column of A = 20 cm
air has a length of 12 cm. V= 12A cm
Take the atmospheric a) p = pressure of trapped
pressure to be 76 cmHg. air = 76 cmHg
The tube has a cross-
(p to the right equals
sectional area of 20 cm2.
the atmospheric
a) What is the pressure of pressure to the left)
the trapped air?
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Example 11.4
b) When the tube is held V= AL
vertically, p = (H + 4 ) = 80
i) with the open end H cmHg
upwards, what is the (p supports the
length of the column 4.0 cm
mercury thread and
of trapped air? atmospheric
pressure)
A = cross-sectional area of
p L pV pV
tube
76(12A) = 80AL
L = 11.4 cm
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Example 11.4
ii) With open end c) If the temperature of the
downwards? gas is 270C, calculate
p + 4 = H the number of mole of
p = 76 4 = 72 cmHg gas enclosed.
L
p
(atmospheric pressure
pV
supports the n
mercury thread and RT
trapped gas) 1.01x10 5 (0.12) 20(10 4 )
pV pV
8.31( 273 27 )
76(12A) = 72(A L)
L = 12.7 cm H 9.98 x10 3 mol .
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Example 11.5 (Ans. a) 15.9m3, b) 651,
c) 3.95 x 1026 molecules,
d) 2.86 x 104 g)
A mass of carbon dioxide
Solution
occupies 15.00 m3 at 100C
a) p 2V2 p1V1
and 101.97 kPa.
T2 T1
a) What will be its volume at
40.00C and 106.63 kPa? 106.63V2 101 .97 (15)
Calculate ( 273 40) ( 273 10)
gas and
101.97 x10 3 (15)
d) the mass of gas if the molar
mass of CO2 is 44 g. 8.31( 273 10)
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= 651 moles 26
Example 11.5 N M
n n
NA Mr
c) 1 moles contains 6.02 x
1023 molecules
651 moles contains
651x6.02 x 1023 = 3.92 x
1026 molecules
d) mass of gas
= 651(44) = 2.86 x 104 g
Example 11.6
Two flasks having equal b) the original pressure
volumes are connected by a in the flasks.
narrow tube with a tap which (Ans.a) 552 mol. b)
is closed. The pressure of air 80.0kPa, 160.0kPa)
in one flask is double the
other. After the tap is opened
the common pressure in the
flasks is 120.0 kPa. Find
a) the number of moles of gas
used if volume of each flask is
5.6 m3 at temperature 200C
and
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calculations a) total number of moles
2 pV 2(120 x10 3 )5.6
RT 8.31( 273 20)
p1 2p1 = 552 mol
5.6 m3 5.6 m3 b) conservation of mass
200C 200C or number of moles
p1 (56) 2 p1 (56)
Final pressure =120.0 kPa 8.31( 273 20) 8.31( 273 20)
552
p1 = 80.0kPa
p2 = 160 kPa
Real gases (info.)
The ideal gas behaviour and the relationship
between p, V and T are based on experimental
observations of gases such as air, helium,
nitrogen at temperatures and pressures around
room temperature.
In practice, if we change to more extreme
conditions, such as low temperatures and high
pressures, gases start to deviate from these
laws as gas atoms exert significant
intermolecular forces on each other.
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Nitrogen (info.)
What happen when nitrogen is
cooled down towards Volume
absolute zero?
First a follow a good straight
line at high temperature.
As it approaches the
temperature at which it
condenses it deviates from
ideal behaviour, and at 77 K it
condenses to become liquid
nitrogen.
77 100 200 300
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T/K
31
The behaviour of real gases (info.)
In our consideration of gases so far we have assumed
that the intermolecular forces are zero and therefore
that they follow the kinetic theory of gases exactly.
However this is not the case with actual gases.
6/28/2016 B. H. Khoo 33
pressure
Real gases (info.)
volume
6/28/2016 34
www.chem.neu.edu/.../Lectures/Lecture04.htm
Real gases VERY RARELY BEHAVE LIKE IDEAL
GASES since
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Summary
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Intermolecular forces
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Ludwig was born in 1844 (Austria). Boltzmann was
Boltzmann awarded a doctorate from the University of
Vienna in 1866 for a thesis on the kinetic
theory of gases supervised by Josef Stefan.
After obtaining his doctorate, he became an
assistant to his teacher Josef Stefan.
Boltzmann taught at Graz, moved to
Heidelberg and then to Berlin. In these
places he studied under Bunsen, Kirchhoff
and Helmholtz. .
Attacks on his work continued and he began to
feel that his life's work was about to collapse
despite his defence of his theories.
Depressed and in bad health, Boltzmann
committed suicide just before experiment
verified his work. On holiday with his wife
and daughter at the Bay of Duino near
Trieste, he hanged himself while his wife
and daughter were swimming.
6/28/2016 http://corrosion-doctors.org/Biographies/BoltzmannBio.htm 38
The Kinetic Theory of Matter is the statement of how
we believe atoms and molecules, particularly in gas
form, behave and how it relates to the ways we have
to look at the things around us. The Kinetic Theory is
a good way to relate the 'micro world' with the 'macro
world.'
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Assumptions
P Point molecules. The volume of the molecules is
negligible compared with the volume occupied by
the gas, V >> b
I Intermolecular forces. The molecules are far
apart that the intermolecular forces are negligible.
N Number. There is a large number of molecules
even in a small volume and that a large number of
collisions occurs in a short time. The average of
many impacts gives a smooth pressure.
E Elastic collision. Molecules are perfectly elastic
sphere that they undergo elastic collisions.
D Duration. The duration of collision is negligible
compared with the time between collision i.e. t2 >>
t 1.
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Brownian motion experiment
Gives us evidence of continuous random
motion of particles in liquids and gases.
We can imagine that the particles as solid
spherical tiny billiard balls.
6/28/2016 B. H. Khoo 42
Kinetic Theory
When we study about ideal gas equation we are interested
in macroscopic properties of gases (pressure, volume, and
temperature that we can measured).
It gives us a good description of gases in may different
situation.
It does not explain why gases behave in this way.
Kinetic theory of gases is a theory which links these
microscopic properties (mass, velocity, kinetic energy) of
particles to the macroscopic properties of a gas.
On the basis of these assumptions, it is possible to use
Newtonian mechanics to show the gas laws,gas
particles move with a range of speeds..
6/28/2016 43
Temperature and kinetic energy
Molecules in gases moved about randomly at high speed.
They collide with one another and with the walls of their
container.
Collisions with the walls give rise to the pressure of the
gas on the container.
When a thermometer is place in the container, the
molecules collide with it and imparting their kinetic energy
to the thermometer.
At higher temperature, the molecules move faster or with
greater kinetic energy. They give more kinetic energy to
the bulb and the mercury rises higher.
Hence the reading on the thermometer is an indication of
the kinetic energy of the gas molecules Average kinetic energy
per molecule
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1
2
mv 2 3
2
kT
m (v u )
Kinetic theory and gas pressure F
t
Kinetic theory states that the molecules of a
gas moves continuously at random and often
collides with the wall of the container.
When a molecule collides with the wall of the
container it undergoes change in momentum.
The rate of change in momentum means that
a force acts on the molecules. By Newtons
third law of motion an equal but opposite
force acts on the wall.
Pressure is the average force acting per unit
area as a result of impact of molecules of the
gas on the wall of the container.
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1 Nm
Derivation of p c2
y 3 V
L
Assumed
L all particles move in the x
L direction with the same
speed u.
particles are monatomic
x
chsfpc5.chem.ncsu.edu/.../lecture/II/II.html
6/28/2016 46
Change in momentum
For a molecule,
Change in momentum,
u=u
p = m (v u) = - 2mu
The time for the particle to impact
the same face of the wall is
t = 2L/u
mass = m
(as speed = dist./time)
v=-u Force on particle,
p 2 mu
wall of container F
t 2L / u
vector mu 2
L
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Pressure
Assumptions
1) All the molecules have Pressure on wall
the same velocity. p = FT/A = Nmu/L
2) All molecules move in p = Nmu/V where V = L
the x-direction Correcting for assumptions
Force on wall by N 1) in general the
molecules molecules can have any
velocity in any direction,
Nmu 2
FT NF 2) of the molecules
L move in any of the three
directions
Force on wall = - force on
pV = Nm<c>
particle (NTLOM).
6/28/2016 48
Pressure exerted by a gas
N = number of molecules
1 Nm
p c
2
m = mass of a molecule
3 V V = volume of container
c = speed of a molecule
<c> = mean square speed
p c
1
3
2
= density of gas
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1 Nm
Pressure of gas p c
2
3 V
depends on
number of particles in the container, greater
number of particles greater pressure.
the greater the speed of gas the greater the
pressure
mass of gas and
volume of container.
At higher temperature, the speed increase so
pressure increases.
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mean square speed, <c>
is the mean or average of the square of the
speed of all the particles in the container.
If there are n particle with speed c, n
particle with speed c, n with speed c. and
nn particles with speed cn, then
Total number of particles
N = n1 + n2 + ..nn
n1 c12 n 2 c 22 n3 c 32 ........ n n c N2
c2
N
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Root mean square speed (crms)
3kT
c rms c
2
m
6/28/2016 54
Average translational kinetic energy of
a molecule
From kinetic theory of Average kinetic energy of
gases, a molecule
pV = Nm<c> Ek = m<c>
= 3/2 kT
Ideal gas equation this equation shows that
pV = NkT the mean kinetic energy
Since both equations are is directly proportional
for ideal gas to the thermodynamic
temperature.
Nm<c> = NkT
m<c> = 3kT
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Internal Energy of ideal gas
Total kinetic energy
Internal energy
EkT = mN<c> U = total kinetic energy
= 3/2 NkT or 3/2 nRT = 3/2 NkT or 3/2 nRT
(internal energy is mainly
kinetic energy)
for ideal gas there is an increase in
no intermolecular temperature of the gas
force between the means an increase in
total kinetic energy of
particles. the gas, thus an
the energy is totally increase in internal
kinetic energy. energy
6/28/2016 56
Internal Energy of ideal gas
U = 3/2 NkT or 3/2 nRT
The internal energy of an
ideal monatomic gas is This means that if the
directly proportional to its absolute temperature of
absolute temperature. a gas is doubled by heat
This is true regardless of the transfer, for example,
molecular structure of the from 200 K to 400 K,
gas. However, the then its internal energy
expression for U will be a bit is also doubled.
different for gases that are This does not apply to
not monatomic. the Celsius temperature,
Absolute temperature of a since its zero points are
gas is directly proportional not referenced to the
to its average random zero-point energy.
kinetic energy per molecule.
6/28/2016 57
Mass, kinetic energy and temperature.
m<c> = 3/2 kT In a sample of air, the
mean KE of the nitrogen
KE is directly molecules is the same as
proportional to the that of oxygen and carbon
absolute temperature, dioxide molecules.
T. As the temperature
is double the average Carbon dioxide molecules
KE per molecule have a greater mass than
increases. oxygen molecules.
Air is a mixture of Since the kinetic energy is
several gases for the same, oxygen
example nitrogen, molecules move faster
oxygen and carbon than carbon dioxide
dioxide. molecules.
6/28/2016 58
1) A gas that obeys Boyles
Self Test 11 law, the gas laws and the
1) What is an ideal equation of state for all
temperature, pressure and
gas? volume.
2) The pressure p in an 2) N = number of molecules,
ideal gas is given by m=mass of particles,
the expression V=volume of container and
<c> is the mean square
p
1 Nm
c2 speed.
3 V 3) pV=nRT
State the meaning of p = pressure of gas
each of the symbols V = volume of container
in the equation. n = number of mole of gas
3) State the equation of R = molar gas constant
state of an ideal gas T = absolute temperature
and the meaning of
the symbols used.
4) State the basic 5) m= mass of particle,
assumptions of the kinetic <c>= mean square
theory of gases. speed; k = Boltzmann
5) State the meaning of constant; T= absolute
each of the symbols in the temperature.
equation. It is the average kinetic
1
2
m c 2
3
2
kT energy of a particles in a
What is the significant of gas.
m <c>? 6) No, as the kinetic energy
6) Can we say that since is not double. Kinetic
yesterday the energy is proportional to
temperature was 10C absolute temperature
and today the rather than Celsius
temperature is 20C, then temperature.
today is twice as hot?
PYP 11.1
A kinetic theory formula relating the pressure p and the
volume V of a gas to the root-mean-square speed of
its molecules is
p
1 Nm
c2 Ans. A
3 V
In this formula, what does the product Nm represent?
A. the mass of gas present in the volume V.
B. the number of molecules in unit volume of the gas
C. the total number of molecules in one mole of gas
D. the total number of molecules present in volume V
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PYP 11.2
The simple kinetic theory of gases may be used to derive
the expression relating the pressure p to the density
of gas.
p 3 c
1 2
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PYP 11.4
The pressure p of a gas Solution
occupying a volume V and Note: = Nm/V
containing N molecules of
mass m and mean square p = 1/3 <c>
speed <c> is given by 1.00x105 = 1/3 1.6 <c>
p
1 Nm
c2
cr = 433 m/s
3 V
The density of argon at a
pressure 1.00x105 Pa and at a
temperature 200 K is 1.60 kg
m. What is the root mean
square speed of argon
molecules at this temperature?
6/28/2016 64
PYP 11.5 pV = nRT
6/28/2016 65
PYP 11.5
6/28/2016 66
PYP 11.5
di) State the assumption Solution
made in the kinetic di) The volume of the
theory of gases for the molecules is negligible
volume of the when compare to the
molecules of an ideal volume of the container.
gas. dii) compare
dii) Comment on your volume of container 0 .5
answer to cii) with volume of molecules 9.12 x10 5
reference to this 5.5 x10 3
assumption. volume of container is very
much greater than
volume of molecules.
6/28/2016 67
PYP 11.5
ai) The kinetic theory of Solution
gases leads to the ai) It is the average kinetic
equation energy of a molecule.
1
2
m c 2
3
2
kT
Explain the significance of ii) At absolute zero of
the quantity m<c> temperature i.e. T =0,
the kinetic energy is
ii) Use the equation to zero, i.e. the molecules
suggest what is meant by are at rest.
the absolute zero of
temperature. [3]
6/28/2016 68
PYP 11.5
Initially, the tap is closed and
b) Two insulated gas cylinders cylinder A contains 1.2 mol. of
A and B are connected by a an ideal gas at temperature of
tube of negligible volume, as 37C. Cylinder B contains the
shown in Fig.
same ideal gas at pressure 37C.
x 1.2x10Pa and a temperature.
i) Calculate the amount, in
mole of the gas in cylinder B.
cylinder A
cylinder B
Solution
i) pV = nRT
1.2x10(2.0x10) =
Each cylinder has an internal n(8.31)(273 +37)
volume of 2.0x10m. n = 0.932 mol.
6/28/2016 69
PYP 11.5 pV = nRT
6/28/2016 70
m (v u ) u
Boltzmann F L
constant = R/NA t
-u
1
m c kT
2 3
pV = NkT 2 2
1 Nm L
p c2
a gas that obeys 3 V
gas laws, PV=nRT
at all T, p and V kinetic theory