Dietary Protein and
Strength Athletes
Lonnie Lowery, PhD, James F. Edel, BS, and Isaiah M. McBride, BS
Department of Health, Exercise and Rehabilitative Sciences, Winona State University, Winona, Minnesota
SUMMARY
DIETARY PROTEIN, PARTICULARLY
IN THE AMPLE AMOUNTS USED BY
MANY STRENGTH ATHLETES, HAS
LONG BEEN CONTROVERSIAL, IN
PART BECAUSE OF LACK OF DATA.
THE SAFETY (E.G. RENAL AND
BONE HEALTH) AND EFFICACY
(ENHANCED PROTEIN SYNTHESIS,
MUSCLE ACCRETION, AND FAT
LOSS) OF VARIOUS PROTEINS
HAVE NOW BEEN RESEARCHED
TO VARYING DEGREES, HOW-
EVER. PROTEIN TYPE, DOSE, PERI-
EXERCISE TIMING, ENERGY
INTAKE, AND TRAINING STATUS
ARE CONSIDERATIONS. RECOM-
MENDATIONS SHOULD NOT BE
EXTRAPOLATED FROM OTHER
POPULATIONS. THIS REVIEW
COVERS DATA SPECIFIC TO THE
STRENGTH TRAINING POPULA-
TION AND OFFERS PRACTICAL
ADVICE ON MANIPULATING PRO-
TEIN FOR OPTIMAL BENEFITS.
INTRODUCTION
ssessment of best practices
A in sports nutrition typically
involves some form of safety
and efficacy evaluation from the scien-
tific literature. With regards to dietary
protein, practical translation from pub-
lished findings has been difficult at
times. Meaningful data have not been
available on key issues, which have led
to controversy. Different professions
seem to have adopted different views.
Clinicians and health educators share
messages that are not always in agree-
ment with exercise and nutrition
26 VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2012
scientists on topics such as the safety
of large intakes (27,30,31). Unfortu-
nately, data from nonathletic popula-
tions and unsubstantiated professional
opinion have often been used in educa-
tional materials (30). Indeed, textbooks
sometimes reference each other rather
than using relevant primary literature
and thus have perpetuated certain
health concerns. Recent strength
athletespecific data do exist, however.
The efficacy of dietary protein for build-
ing and repairing various tissues, pro-
viding building blocks for bodily
enzymes, immune proteins, and trans-
porters and for helping to maintain
bodily fluid balance and pH clearly
makes it an essential nutrient. Indeed,
there have been suggestions from scien-
tists to increase "official" governmental
recommendations in coming years
(15,23). Decades of research exist sup-
porting proteins role in enhanced mus-
cle protein synthesis, both when
considered as daily intake and when
timed close to resistance exercise
(3,34,39,41,42,51,53). Despite this con-
sensus that acute protein synthesis is
increased with purposeful, well-timed
intake, it is less clear scientifically how
much muscle accretion is augmented
over time. This is, in part, due to wide
variation in individual responses to the
resistance training stimulus. Although
enhanced muscle gains are probable,
the hypertrophy would come slowly
(43,48,50). Certainly, protein intake is
not infinitely linear in its relationship
to nitrogen retention or protein synthe-
sis, even for strength athletes. At some
point as dosing escalates, nitrogen ex-
cretion becomes substantial (indicating
waste, in a sense). Physiologic limits of
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association
anabolic hormones, for example, deter-
mine how far the dietary protein and
resistance exercise stimuli take the ath-
lete. Ample protein intake beyond nitro-
gen equilibrium does not necessarily
lack value; however, it may offer advan-
tages such as affecting intracellular sig-
naling pathways or offering satiety or
increasing metabolic rate. Finally, varia-
bles such as protein type, dose, peri-ex-
ercise timing, energy intake, and training
status all affect outcomes in research
and thus affect sports nutrition recom-
mendations for athletes.
PROTEIN SAFETY (LARGE
INTAKES)
It is interesting to note that safety data
specific to healthy persons or certainly to
strength athletes consuming ample pro-
tein is quite limited. Scientific examina-
tions of issues commonly mentioned by
clinicians, such as renal stress, dehydra-
tion, gout, bone catabolism, and an
adverse impact on diet quality (e.g., fiber
or saturated fat intake), have been few.
Pencharz et al. (40) concluded: the data
on the safe upper limits of amino acid
intake in humans is essentially observa-
tional. These researchers suggest that an
experimental rational basis is needed to
define the upper limits of tolerance for
dietary amino acids. We should not rely
on extrapolation or professional opinion,
perhaps even less so from nonscientists
and nonathletes.
KEY WORDS:
protein; protein synthesis; whey; casein;
soy; milk; beef; egg; postworkout; timing;
nutrition; hypertrophy; energy; kcal; sup-
plement; whole food
Indirect research and plausibility argu-
ments that generate concern, such as
the Brenner hypothesis (increased kid-
ney filtration is damaging), have not been
borne out in limited population-specific
studies. For example, 2 early investiga-
tions by Poortmans and Dellalieux (44)
and Brandle et al. (7) found no adverse
effects of high-protein dietsalthough
both studies compared large male
strength athletes with somewhat dissim-
ilar control groups (27,30). New research
by Lowery et al. (28) more closely
addressed certain control issues and
reported no differences in kidney dam-
age (urinary microalbumin) or kidney
function (creatinine clearance) in quasi-
experimental designs of strength athletes
consuming very large amounts of protein
(approximately 250 g daily; 3.2 g/kg
body mass; 34% of energy intake) com-
pared with controls on a more typical
diet. Importantly, these designs involved
long-term data, using self-reported
intakes of over a decade (28).
Protein-focused research on bone
resorption and ultimately bone mineral
density (BMD) is similarly uncommon,
with specific data on strength athletes
only becoming available in 200911 to
our knowledge. Older data on the cal-
ciuria of high-protein (e.g., meat) diets
in nonlifters suggested potentially dele-
terious effects (17). Concerns and cau-
tionary language on bone loss, based on
these findings, are still present in educa-
tional materials offered to college stu-
dents and by certain personal training
groups (30). This has, however, drawn
critique from the scientific community
because extra calcium in the urine does
not equate to low BMD or increased
fracture risk (14,36). Indeed, Lowery
et al. (32,33) reported no differences,
after correcting for body mass differen-
ces, in whole-body or site-specific BMD
when comparing strength athletes who
do or do not habitually seek extra pro-
tein in the diet.
Similarly, data on purported dehydra-
tion, gout, and poorer diet quality have
not been supported by scientific study in
strength athletes (27,28,29). This is not to
say all sports that involve resistance
training will have similarly benign
findings or that very long durations of
intake beyond a decade are completely
without consequence. These are topics
for future research. The current, practical
conclusion that can be made by a review
of the literature is that large protein
intakes in healthy strength athletes, such
as weightlifters, bodybuilders, power-
lifters, and strongman athletes can be
wasteful but do not appear harmfulup
to perhaps 3 g/kg daily and over periods
of about 10 years.
PROTEIN TYPES
The concept of dietary variety is a widely
accepted one, ensuring that the individ-
ual receives a broad spectrum of
nutrients, does not overconsume any
one nutrient or contaminant, and of
course complies with his training diet.
This section thus explores a variety of
protein food options. There are 5 pri-
mary types of dietary protein that will
be discussed: whey, casein, soy, egg,
and beef. These protein types can be
found in a variety of dietary sources.
Whey and casein are milk proteins. Milk
proteins combined with resistance train-
ing have been linked to an increase
in protein synthesis and an increase in
muscle strength (16,20,26,50). Egg pro-
tein supplements are derived from
chicken egg whites or whole egg sour-
ces. There are limited studies linking the
effects of egg protein in response to ath-
letes (24,37,39). Soy protein is found in
the soybean and is generally considered
a complete protein. This nonanimal pro-
tein is thus a widely accepted vegetable
protein source. Soy can be used by ath-
letes searching for nonanimal proteins or
by those with lactose intolerance. Beef is
also a high-quality complete protein
one that also contains zoochemicals,
such as creatine and carnosine, that
may be beneficial to strength athletes.
These 5 proteins come in various forms
and have different physiologic effects.
The milk protein whey is a derivative
of a curd processing technique of milk.
Whey is divided into a few supplemen-
tal forms: isolates, concentrates, and
hydrolysates. The differences of these
forms are in the processing method.
Isolated whey proteins, or simply
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
concentrated forms (less pure in
a sense), are very high-quality proteins
but whey hydrolysates (enzymatically
predigested in part) are also available.
Again, note that whey isolates are con-
sidered more specific to the protein
itself, as opposed to whey concentrates
that include greater amounts of other
substances. As noted by Campbell
(10), The primary differences among
these forms are the method of process-
ing, plus small differences in fat and
lactose content, and amino acid pro-
files. Whey protein isolate is the most
pure and concentrated form of whey
protein available. It contains 90% or
more protein and very little fat and
lactose. Whey protein concentrate
has anywhere between 25% and 89%
protein depending upon the product.
Whey hydrolysate supplementation
arguably the optimal form of whey
has been shown to increase muscle
protein synthesis greater than soy
and casein postresistance training
(49). Furthermore, studies have found
that hydrolyzed whey isolate can
increase actual gains in lean mass and
strength over 10 weeks compared with
casein (13). It is logical, especially con-
sidering further studies on acute pro-
tein synthesis and training gains
performed by Phillips et al. (42,43) that
whey proteins, including isolates and
hydrolysates, are the best choice for
muscular gains when consumed post-
workout. These facts, along with
wheys superior solubility to traditional
casein, make it attractive.
But what of other complete proteins?
Casein, the main protein in common
cows milk, is referred to as a slow-
digesting protein (41) compared with
whey, egg, and soy because it clots in
the stomach. In a number of studies,
casein did not increase protein synthe-
sis like whey protein postexercise
(4,49,53). However, casein prevents
bodily protein breakdown by promot-
ing an anticatabolic effect that is not
found in whey protein (4). Casein
may also be superior for satiety (1).
Although it may not be the single best
choice from a protein synthetic per-
spective, casein can be an inexpensive
27
Dietary Protein and Strength Athletes

high-quality protein choice. Indeed,
data does exist, suggesting it may be
similar in efficacy to whey in the long
run. As stated by Tipton et al. (53) and
restated by Phillips et al. (43), Both
whey and casein protein have recently
been demonstrated to be effective in
supporting a positive leucine and phe-
nylalanine balance following resistance
exercise, with no apparent difference
between the two proteins. From
a whole-body perspective, the linger-
ing elevation in amino acids seen after
casein ingestion suggests that it may be
beneficial to consume in the evening,
before the overnight fast. This is spec-
ulation, however, given the notion of
refractoriness (serum amino acids do
not indefinitely increase muscle protein
synthesis). This is not to say casein is
the only, or even the single best, choice
in the evening. To the authors knowl-
edge, evening protein comparisons
have not been reported. An athletes
goals and needs can help determine
protein choices. For example, whey
may enhance sleep quality or next
day alertness (35). Yet in the interest
of dietary variety, food preferences,
protein quality, functional food proper-
ties, and whole-body protein synthesis,
casein is a valid choice.
Soy protein foods, like whey, have 3
subcategories: soy flour, soy concen-
trate, and soy isolate. Soy isolate has
the greatest concentration of protein
compared with concentrates and flour
(22). Soy protein can be an inexpensive
adequate option for supplementation.
Much of the lay concern regarding
soys estrogenic or feminizing effects
among strength athletes appears over-
stated. Nevertheless, some hormonal
concerns are indeed present in the sci-
entific literature, and soy does have
a poorer leucine content than whey
(47). Despite its similar protein quality
(protein digestibilitycorrected amino
acid score, PDCAAS) and relative
speed of digestion/absorption, soy
does not increase muscle protein syn-
thesis as much as whey protein does
(49). For these reasons, soy is best
suited for those eschewing higher-
quality animal products, such as whey
or egg. Soy is probably not the pre-
ferred protein choice for omnivores,
given the lactose free availability of
physiologically superior and more neu-
tral tasting, versatile dairy proteins
(Table 1).
Egg protein probably gets less atten-
tion than whey, casein, or soy but is
a recommended, very high-quality pro-
tein. Egg protein is widely known
among nutritionists to be ranked highly
in various measures of protein quality
(protein efficiency ratio, PDCAAS,
etc.), and eggs offer functional food
benefits and nutrients not found to
the same extent in dairy proteins or
meats (2). Indeed, it was egg protein
that was investigated by Moore et al.
(39) when they determined that a 20-g
post-workout dose was close to the
optimal dose for peak protein synthesis.
Eggs may best be consumed as whole
foods because of their nutrient richness,
functional food qualities, and quick
preparation.
Dietary sources of beef protein include
hamburger, beef tips, cubed steak, and
other cuts of meat derived from cows.
Because of its solid nature, beef protein
is a slower-digesting protein. The value
of beef to resistance trainers is estab-
lished, but studies differ somewhat
with regards to its superiority versus
a lacto-ovo vegetarian type of diet, at
least in older men (11,21). Beef is a rich
source of calories and nutrients, such as
creatine, that may support muscle
gains. Early research by Ingwall (25),
using cultured cells and organs, sug-
gested that creatine was the chemical
signal coupling increased muscular
activity with contractile mass. How-
ever, Haub et al. (21) performed a study
focused on the effectiveness of a lacto-
ovo vegetarian type of diet versus
a beef-based diet and found no signifi-
cant differences in strength, body com-
position, resting energy expenditure,
and muscle creatine/phosphocreatine.
Beefs primary advantage may be in its

Table 1
Protein characteristics and practical applications

Practical application

Proteins Speed of protein When to consume Dietary sources Complete protein

Whey Fast 30 min before exercise and immediately after Dairy products Yes
Casein Slow Breakfast, evenings,* during major meals Dairy products Yes
Soy Medium During major meals at least 2 hours before Soybeans Yes
or after exercise
Soy flower
Soy milk
Egg Fast 30 min before exercise and immediately after, Whole egg, egg whites Yes
during major meals
Beef Slow (solid) During major meals, evenings* 90% lean hamburger, Yes
(meat) round steak
*Speculation based on satiety and/or daily preferences and/or whole-body protein retention.

28 VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2012

culinary versatility and attractiveness to
many strength trainers.
PROTEIN TIMING AND DOSE
The timing of ingested protein in relation
to a bout of resistance exercise is perhaps
the most promulgated aspect of sports
nutrition because the post-exercise car-
bohydrate window concept was popu-
larized in the 1980s and 1990s. Earlier
protein synthesis work by researchers,
such as Tarnopolsky, has been continu-
ally expanded upon by these investiga-
tors and their colleagues such as Tipton
and Phillips. Importantly, these research-
ers and others have shown that the stim-
ulus of resistance exercise opens a muscle
protein synthetic window of opportu-
nity that is additive or synergistic with
the provision of other stimulatory factors,
such as the amino acid leucine (of which
whey protein is richest), insulin release
from eating, and amino acid building
blocks in general. The net effect between
the immediate post-exercise period and
perhaps 36 hours later appears to be
greater activation of the mammalian
target of rapamycin pathway within
muscle cells, positively affecting protein
synthesis (34).
As discussed in the Protein Types sec-
tion of this article, whey protein may be
the ideal source of rapidly accessible
amino acids to pair with the resistance
exercise stimulus (42,43). Indeed, a recent
quote from Phillips group is summative:
There is mounting evidence that the
timing of ingestion and the protein
source during recovery independently
regulate the protein synthetic response
and influence the extent of muscle
hypertrophy (8).
The optimal single dose of peri-workout
protein appears to be 1020 g, although
different types of protein may differ to
some extent (39,45,48,54). Earlier data
(48,54) suggest that approximately
640 g of protein (and/or indispensable
amino acids) is effective at increasing
protein synthesis post-workout. In the
context of an entire day, this is not a large
amount (a few eggs or 12 scoops of
protein powder), and resistance trainers
routinely consume double this amount
in peri-exercise drinks and meals. It is
interesting to note that an optimal leu-
cine dose is contained in a typical serving
of whey protein (the richest source of
this stimulatory amino acid). With con-
sideration for metabolic effects beyond
protein synthesis, from satiety to a high
thermic effect to potential for psycholog-
ical and immune support during hard
training, substantial daily protein intakes
approximating the traditional one gram
per pound are not unreasonable for
healthy athletes (31,52).
ENERGY INTAKE AND TRAINING
STATUS
Daily energy intake affects protein
needs. As stated by Butterfield (9):
. when energy balance is negative,
an intake of protein as high as 2 g 3 kg
body weight21 3 d21 may be inade-
quate to maintain N equilibrium.
That is, on a low calorie intake, even
fairly large amounts of protein may
not be enough. Butterfield (9) also
demonstrated that as one adds more
and more daily kilocalories above his
requirement, he tends to experience
better and better nitrogen retention.
This is not a new concept. Data from
Chiang and Huang (12) illustrated
that for each 15% increase in kilocalo-
ries intake, nitrogen retention progres-
sively increased. Specifically, at a fixed
protein intake of 1.2 g/kg daily, there
were incremental increases in nitrogen
retention with greater kilocalories
consumption. At maintenance energy
intake, 15% above maintenance
energy and at 30% above, nitrogen bal-
ance increased from 7.2 to 23.8 to 33.3
mg N 3 kg21 3 d21 in the ascending
calorie series and decreased from 27.8
to 17.6 to 4.8 mg N 3 kg21 3 d21 in the
descending series. These classic data
are corroborated by overfeeding stud-
ies by Roberts et al. (46) and Bouchard
and Tremblay (6), in which nonlifters
exhibited a body protein deposition of
1333% of 1,000 kcal daily surpluses.
Note that these are nonathletes.
Although energy surplus alone is not
sufficient for optimized muscle protein
synthesis, this is a practical point of
which coaches and athletes should
stay cognizant. Many athletes undereat
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
or skip meals (31), a fact that would
hamper muscular gains.
Focusing too much on protein is not
optimal, as illustrated by some of the
math involved. With approximately
2,800 surplus kcal (and just 72 g of pro-
tein) necessary to build a pound of new
muscle tissue (6,18,55), regular meals
should always be addressed when work-
ing with athletes. A typical college male
needs approximately 3,000 kcal per day
(5), so it is not unheard of for a collegiate
athlete to need upward of 4,500 kcal
dailynot easily done with healthful
dietary variety, given daily schedules
and demands. In fact, proteins high
satiety value could interfere with ath-
letes attempts to gain weight. It is sug-
gested that, when an athlete asks
whether s/he should seek extra protein,
a coach replies with his or her own
question: That depends; how many
calories are you consuming? More spe-
cifically, athletes differ nutritionally and
in their training, so a coach should con-
sider the overall diet when screening the
need for seeking extra protein. If an ath-
lete is not skipping meals and consumes
multiple servings of foodsincluding
complete proteins of animal originat
each of 4 or more meals and snacks, just
one or perhaps 2 scoops (approximately
2040 g) of whey protein post-workout
is likely enough.
Training status also appears to play
a role. Research by Hartman et al.
(19) suggested that dietary require-
ments for protein in novice resis-
tance-trained athletes are not higher,
but lower, after 12 weeks of resistance
training. It is interesting that more
experienced lifters (those who are adap-
ted to resistance training) may actually
need less protein, provided energy is
adequate. This is not to say that ample
protein intake is unimportant for this
population. Although data by Hartman
et al. (19) suggest well-adapted lifters,
consuming plenty of calories may
have lower protein requirements;
official protein needs (i.e., the recom-
mended dietary allowance) do not
technically differ between novice and
advanced resistance trainers. Further,
seeking ample protein intake at any
29
Dietary Protein and Strength Athletes
Table 2
Supplemental and whole-food protein pros and cons: practical applications
Pros
Supplemental proteins
Fast preparation
Low spoilage risk (dry powders, bars)
Quickly corrects inadequate intakes
Liquids facilitate surplus intake
(pro or con)*
Whole food sources of protein
Specialized diets (soy for vegetarians)
Large variety of foods
Physical properties in recipes
Personal preferences/compliance
Filling/satisfying (pro or con)*
Additional nutrients
*Liquids have faster gastric emptying and may be helpful for repeat intake and weight gain.
state of training has a favorable bene-
fit-to-risk ratio. Physique gains and
other health benefits (31) appear
probable without risks for healthy per-
sons. (Again note: One should stay
cognizant that energy intake is often
inadequate in hard training athletes
and should be screened.)
But what of other potential benefits,
other than nitrogen retention, during
novice through advanced training?
Functional food proteins, such as
whey, may play a role in such things
as antioxidant defenses, body fat con-
trol, and reduced overtraining risks
(31,38). More research is needed in
these areas.
SUMMARY
Dietary protein interventions are a safe
and effective tool for strength athletes
in their pursuit of muscular gains
and potentially enhanced performance
over time. Although strength athletes
30 VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2012
absorbable iron that dairy products
do not contain. Individuals also have
different taste preferences. Further,
Cons the various proteins exhibit different
physical properties that are useful
in preparing certain recipes. Finally,
Easy to overdose/overconcentrate portability of proteins without spoilage
(gastrointestinal osmotic distress) (i.e., dry meats and powders) is also of
Cost of specialty formulas practical benefit during busy schedules
(Table 2).
Liquids are less-filling (pro or con)*
Lonnie Lowery
is an assistant
professor of
Lactose intolerant (some milk protein Nutrition and
foods) Exercise Physiol-
ogy in the
Incomplete proteins (vegetable Department of
source) Health, Exercise and Rehabilitative
Fat and cholesterol content (pro or Sciences at Winona State University, and
con) the President of N.E.W. Associates, Ltd.
Solids may reduce surplus intake
(filling)* James F. Edel is
Preservative content (e.g., nitrites) an undergradu-
ate research
assistant in the
Department of
Health, Exercise
and Rehabilita-
tive Sciences at Winona State University.
often overconsume protein, perhaps in
response to marketing by the food and
Isaiah M.
supplement industry, the now common
McBride is an
practice of consuming perhaps 20 g of
undergraduate
(usually dairy) proteins after resistance
research assistant
exercise is recommended.
in the Depart-
From a practical perspective, the prin- ment of Health,
ciple of dietary variety should be Exercise and
applied. Protein-rich foods are more Rehabilitative
than just vehicles for specific proteins Sciences at
or amino acids, and protein is a nutrient Winona State
that is essential for reasons beyond just University.
muscle mass. Protein foods offer a vari-
ety of nutrients and benefits to the
hard training strength athlete. Dairy
foods and/or supplements offer whey,
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32 VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2012