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Table of Contents
Page
1 Introduction 3
1.1 Definition 4
1.2 Purpose and Scope 4
1.3 Intended Users 4
Page 2 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
1 Introduction
A vital contribution towards the success of the company wide energy conservation
policy comes through documenting the company best practices in methodology; tools
and applications in the field of energy efficiency optimization. Besides, capturing the
knowledge of the in-house expertise in such field and distributing such knowledge
among our facilities and engineering services departments. Hence, a consistent effort
has been exerted in Saudi Aramco to produce Best Practices to help our engineers
achieve their energy efficiency optimization mission through the design and building of
energy conscious facilities following the same new paradigm implemented in the
existing facilities.
This particular Best Practice document introduces a brief methodology for grassroots
projects energy assessment, associated with short-cut tools that can help satisfy the
above mission.
The first and most important thing to learn and apply from this quick review
methodology for energy efficiency optimization in grassroots project is that;
It is important during the early phase of any project that we see its big picture.
In this document when we talk about project phases we mean only the following three
phases; project studies phase, design basis scoping paper preparation, and project
proposal phases.
We need to make sure that the system-approach that take into consideration the
process(es), hot and electricity utilities, and the cooling and refrigeration utilities needs
is utilized. This approach has to prevail on the current state-of-art sequential sub-
system by sub-system approach during the project study phase.
Removing some degrees of freedom from our options subjectively shall be avoided as
much as possible. During feasibility study phase, it is absolutely necessary to
investigate different combined process and utilities system schemes.
Page 3 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
1.1 Definition
The purpose of this best practice document is to describe a methodology for the
quick review of new projects from energy efficiency optimization point of view.
Besides, introducing short cut tools by which quick assessment for energy
efficiency improvement can be conducted. Its scope include quick energy
assessment methodology in a step-by-step manner, simple models for data
representation, and short cut tools for evaluating process schemes for energy
efficiency optimization.
This Best Practice manual is intended for use by project and process engineers
in Saudi Aramco, who are responsible for process &facilities planning, process
engineering and energy systems engineering. This particular document will
enable them to conduct quick review of new projects from energy efficiency
optimization point of view to make sure that they are planning for and designing
of new energy-conscious facilities in Saudi Aramco.
In Saudi Aramco our projects have four main phases. These phases are the
project study phase, design basis scoping paper phase, project proposal phase
and finally expenditure request approval and completion phase.
Page 4 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
The evolutionary approach can be adapted versus the more time consuming
revolutionary approach. The old projects data base shall be fully utilized to
facilitate the energy review process and result in merits.
The plants energy utility needs shall be defined with reasonable level of
flexibility and the energy utility system; electricity, fuel, steam and other
energy-related utilities shall be defined one by one to find the near- optimal
consumption of such utilities that guarantee minimum deficiency in the utility
supply to plant processes subject to controlled minimum capital cost. The
company reliability figures shall prevail at least for the time being.
Page 5 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
On the macro level the energy system components are generation, distribution
and utilization. The objective will be to minimize waste in energy fresh
resources and capital in these three components. This can be done via the
continuous upgrade of the efficiency of energy system components in
generation, distribution and utilization. However, the utilization component has
a unique feature, where its boundaries are not completely dictated by the
process. Therefore, the room of improvement in this component can have
tangible impact on the process capital cost in addition to energy utility system
cost.
Page 6 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
There are three essential tasks that need to be conducted during the review of the
old project schemes in order to draw useful conclusions for the new project
process and utility design
(A) Data analysis, Models building and establishing Targets
(B) Insights, Opportunities and Estimated savings potential
(C) Screen and Formulate Improvement Strategy
Page 7 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
The following example addresses the problem of using cogeneration or not using
cogeneration to satisfy the process heat and power supply to the process. The example
below is an actual study conducted by one of our external consults. It shows that for
process heating and power supply requirements, it is important to consider as much as
possible number of options and economically screen them before you decide where to
go for this issue.
Steam raised in boilers at 150 psig, power purchased from SEC and all equipment on
electric drives.
Summer
Year Water Desalter Stabiliser Summer Duty Stripping Other Total Steam Demand
Cut Heater Reboiler Steam Users
% MMBTU/h MMBTU/h MMBTU/h Mlb/h Mlb/h Mlb/h Mlb/h MMBTU/h
Winter
Year Water Desalter Stabiliser Winter Duty Stripping Other Total Steam Demand
Cut Heater Reboiler Steam Users
% MMBTU/h MMBTU/h MMBTU/h Mlb/h Mlb/h Mlb/h Mlb/h MMBTU/h
Page 8 of 92
Issue Date: 10 September 2006
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011
Water Cut 1% 1% 6% 9% 11% 14% 17% 19% 22% 24% 27% 30% 32% 35% 38% 40% 43% 46% 48% 51%
Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
Power requirement Aquifer WIPs MW 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93
Formation WIPs MW 9 9 9 9 9 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 50 50 50 50
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit
ESPs MW 6 7 9 12 14 17 21 25 29 33 38 44 49 55 62 69 76 83 91 99
Other GOSP MW 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46
Utilities MW 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Total Power MW 139 140 143 145 147 175 178 182 205 210 215 220 226 232 238 245 269 276 284 292
Estimated Power Demands
SABP-A-012
New Projects Energy Efficiency
Page 9 of 92
Optimization Review Methodology
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
The steam demand ranges from 323 Mlb/h for summer 2011 to 1001 Mlb/h for Winter
2030.
Minimum criteria to be used for phased installation of equipment is 7-10 years, however
from the above table it can be seen that >50% of final capacity is required by 2015.
Therefore, 100% capacity installation is required from 2010.
4 x 50% units will be installed each with capacity of 500 Mlb/h, giving N+2 intallation
in year 2030. It is assumed that one boiler will be down for maintenance at any one
time and that the steam load will be shared equally between the remaining boilers.
During summers the required steam demand can be met by a single boiler. However it is
assumed that the load is shared by two boilers to allow speedy ramp-up should one
boiler trip. It is possible to share this load over 3 boilers but the boilers would be
operating at close to 20% turndown.
Summer
2011 2015 2022 2030
Total Steam demand Mlb/h 323 352 452 482
Running boilers (N+1) 2 2 2 2
Production per boiler Mlb/h 161.5 176.0 226.0 241.0
Turndown % 32% 35% 45% 48%
Winter
2011 2015 2022 2030
Total Steam demand Mlb/h 443 557 921 1001
Production per boiler 2 3 3 3
Production per boiler Mlb/h 221.5 185.7 307.0 333.7
Turndown % 44% 37% 61% 67%
Page 10 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
Operational cost factors will be based on power import and fuel consumption as shown
in the following table:
This option looks at raising steam at 750 psig (52 bara) and letting down through steam
turbine drivers for the compressors.
The GOSP gas compressors power demands are constant throughout the life of the
plant; therefore 100% steam capacity would be required from 2010.
It is estimated that 35 MW of power is available from 454 t/h (1001 Mlb/h) steam
through 750 100 psig pass-out turbines. This matches the operating duty for all the
running gas compressors.
Page 11 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
BOILERS
750 psig
1001000 lb/h
100 psig
60 psig
Condensing
turbine
Condensate
Excess steam in the summers and during the early years can be used to generate
electricity via a condensing steam turbine generator and hence reduce the amount of
purchased power required further. Refer to tables below:
Summer
2011 2015 2022 2030
Steam Produced Mlb/h 1001 1001 1001 1001
Steam for Process Heating Mlb/h 323 352 452 482
Excess Steam Mlb/h 678 649 549 519
Power produced hp 24726 23668 20021 18927
Page 12 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
Winter
2011 2015 2022 2030
Steam Produced Mlb/h 1001 1001 1001 1001
Steam for Process Heating Mlb/h 443 557 921 1001
Excess Steam Mlb/h 558 444 80 0
Power produced hp 20350 16192 2918 0
Operational cost factors will be based on power import and fuel consumption as shown
in the following table.
Page 13 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
Base Case :
Power Water Injection Pumps (PWIP) are electric motor driven and installed in 2
phases. Each PWIP is limited to 400MBPOD or a motor size of approx 25,000 hp with
4 PWIPs installed in Phase 1 and a 5th installed in 2019.
This option considers same capacity and phasing of PWIPs as base case, however each
PWIP is connected to a combustion gas turbine (CGT) with a waste heat recovery unit
generating low-pressure steam. Refer to sketch below:
CGT
WIP 25,000 hp
GE Frame 5
138.9 Mlb/h
To Users
300 Mlb/h
WHRU
All other drivers are electric motor with power purchased from SEC.
Assume that back-up boilers are operating at 30% turndown. In the summers & early
years it is assumed only one back-up boiler is running at turndown, in order to minimize
heat bypassed to GT/WHRU exhaust.
Page 14 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
Each PWIP is coupled to a GE Frame 5 CGT complete with a WHRU, which can
produce up to 139 Mlb/h steam.
In 2018 at end of Phase 1 total steam that can be generated by WHRUs is 556 Mlb/h.
With back-up boilers operating at 30% turndown there is excess heat from the WHRUs
which is discharged to the GT exhaust.
In 2030 when 5 PWIPs are installed total steam production from WHRUs will be 695
Mlb/h. 306 Mlb/h steam made up from boilers.
Summer Winter
No PWIPs 4 5 No PWIPs 4 5
Steam from WHRUs Mlb/h 556 695 Steam from WHRUs Mlb/h 556 695
Steam from Boilers Mlb/h 150 150 Steam from Boilers Mlb/h 150 305
Process Steam req'd Mlb/h 395 482 Process Steam req'd Mlb/h 705 1001
Installation requirements:
2010-2018 4 x Frame 5 GE CGTs direct drivers for PWIPs complete with WHRU
[555.6 Mlb/h steam + 100,000 hp (74MW) Power]
3 x 500 Mlb/h back-up boilers
Other considerations:
In years 2010 to 2015 there will be excess heat available from WHRU. This can be
used to raise excess LP steam that can be used for BFW preheat or Crude preheating or
by-passing the WHRU to stack.
Operational cost factors will be based on power import and fuel consumption as shown
in the following table (excess heat loss via GT Stack is also included):
Page 15 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
Excess Heat from GT Exhaust, Summer MMBTU/h 389 360 399 369
Excess Heat from GT Exhaust, Winter MMBTU/h 267 151 -1 -1
This option is same as Option 2 except 4 off larger PWIPs (and associated GT Direct
Drives) are installed in year 2010. The best GT match is Siemens SGT-700 for the
new PWIPs duty. The Siemens GT operates at higher power output and lower steam
production.
CGT
WIP 30,345 hp
SGT-700
115 Mlb/h
To Users
541 Mlb/h
WHRU
Page 16 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
All other drivers are electric motor with power purchased from SEC.
Assume that back-up boilers are operating at 30% turndown. In the Summers & early
years it is assumed only one back-up boiler is running at turndown, in order to minimise
heat bypassed to GT/WHRU exhaust.
Each PWIP is coupled to a Siemens GT-700 complete with a WHRU, which can
produce up to 115 Mlb/h steam.
In 2018 at end of Phase 1 total steam that can be generated by WHRUs is 460 Mlb/h.
With back-up boilers operating at 30% turndown there is excess steam or heat lost with
by-pass of WRHU to the stack.
Summer Winter
2018 2030 2018 2030
No PWIPs 4 4 No PWIPs 4 4
Power Produced hp 121380 121380 Power Produced hp 121380 121380
Steam from WHRUs Mlb/h 460 460 Steam from WHRUs Mlb/h 460 460
Steam from Boilers Mlb/h 150 150 Steam from Boilers Mlb/h 250 541
Process Steam req'd Mlb/h 395 482 Process Steam req'd Mlb/h 705 1001
excess/ (make-up) Mlb/h 215 128 excess/ (make-up) Mlb/h 5 0
Installation requirements:
Other considerations:
In years 2010 to 2015 there will be excess heat available from WHRU. This can be
used to raise excess LP steam that can be used for BFW preheat or Crude preheating or
wasted via GT stacks.
Towards 2030 and in winter, two back-up boilers are required to operate @ 54%. This
is due to the lower steam production from the Siemens GT-700, the closest GT size to
the PWIPs power rating.
Operational cost factors will be based on power import and fuel consumption as shown
in the following table (excess heat loss via GT Stack is also included).
Page 17 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
Excess Heat from GT Exhaust, Summer MMBTU/h 293 264 162 132
Excess Heat from GT Exhaust, Winter MMBTU/h 171 55 1 1
One back-up boiler will be running at 30% turndown. Base heat load provided by
WHRUs of the GTGs and all the drivers including PWIPs are electric motor.
Central Cogen sized for process heat match remaining power purchased from SEC.
CGT
GEN 72,415 hp
GE Frame 6
335.1 Mlb/h
To Users
350 Mlb/h
WHRU
Page 18 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
Installation.
Operational cost factors will be based on power import and fuel consumption as shown
in the following table (excess heat loss via GT Stack is also included):
Excess Heat from GT Exhaust, Sum MMBTU/h 330 271 561 516
Excess Heat from GT Exhaust, Winter MMBTU/h 86 7 -1 30
Page 19 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
CGT
GEN 171,250 hp
GE Frame 7
584.2 Mlb/h
750 psig 2921 Mlb/h
WHRU
1001 Mlb/h
To process 150 psig
heating
1920 Mlb/h
Condensing
177,415 hp
turbine
Page 20 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
In 2018 PWIP power requirement is 100,000 hp. This requires approx 2337 Mlb/h
steam from 750 175 psig pass out turbine. Power required for remaining drives is
approx 155,560 hp (116 MW).
In 2030 PWIP power requirement is 125,000 hp. This requires approx 2921 Mlb/h
steam from 750 175 psig pass out turbine. Power required for remaining drives is
approx 274,910 hp (205 MW).
However, process heat requirement in 2030 is only 1001 Mlb/h (60 psig), therefore,
excess steam is routed to condensing turbine to generate more power.
In 2030 5 x GE Frame 7 CGTs are required to raise steam for PWIP steam turbine
drives, which will generate 856,250 hp. An additional 177,415 hp is generated by the
condensing steam turbine giving total available power generated = 1,033,665 hp. This
is well in excess of the required 274,910 hp.
Installation:
Page 21 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
No base load boilers required, as the GT system has a N+2 supply arrangement.
In this option all drivers are electric motor and all power is produced by central CGTs
with no back up from SEC. Therefore, N+2 CGTs are required.
Steam is raised at 750 psig in WHRU and passed through a steam turbine. 150 psig
steam is extracted for process heating demand.
CGT
GEN 88,370 hp
GE Frame 7
302.5 Mlb/h
750 psig 1210.0 Mlb/h
To
condenser
GTs running at 100% rate, the actual maximum power or heat demand is supplied with
around 90% turndown on the GT and associated steam turbine generator.
Page 22 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
Installation:
2010 - 2018 5 x GE Frame 7 CGTs complete with WHRU (3 operating, two standby),
[907 Mlb/h Steam + 265,000 hp (198 MW) Power]
1 x 87,165 hp (65MW) condensing turbine
(based on maximum of 1210 Mlb/h of steam)
In summer, the plant power demand will dictate the turndown ratio of the operating GT
machines, and in all cases, there will be excess heat. In winter 2015 & 2022, the heating
requirement will dictate the GT turndown rates.
Operational cost factors will be based on power import and fuel consumption as shown
in the following table (excess heat loss via GT Stack is also included).
Excess Heat from STG condenser, Summer MMBTU/h 455 427 410 142
Excess Heat from STG condenser, Winter MMBTU/h 455 356 294 142
Excess power in 2015 & 2022, can be reduced by the installation of after burner to
divert energy from power to heat.
Page 23 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
The following are the procedures which normally render an acceptable energy
efficient process design in a project proposal phase:
1- Data extraction for the study to be done for each stream that needs to be
heated or vaporized and any stream that needs to be cooled or condensed
in the base design case. As if each stream will be handled through
utilities. (No integration in the base case design).
2- Targets for energy utility to be calculated for the process with integration
and without integration.
3- The grand composite curve for the base case design shall be utilized to
help show the right/optimal level of utility mix. for heating and cooling
utilities.
4- The same graph (GCC) needs also to be utilized to show the potential
cogeneration opportunities and best drivers for the process, if any.
6- These steps should be done for at least 6 DTmin., before selecting the right
one. Of-course, in such cases a preliminary evaluation of the HENs capital
cost will be needed, or whatever targeting method you use, to reach the
close-to-optimum DTmin. (These calculations can be done easily using
state-of-the art software(s) like SPRINT, currently available at Saudi
Aramco ESU)
8- The process scheme produced may have some environmental, safety and
control/operability constraints that may justify forbidding streams
matching and warrant the removal of some streams from the heat
integration schemes or even removing all of them from integration
scheme; it does not matter as long as the design is pursued systematically
and the techno-economical justifications are detailed and documented.
Page 24 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
10- Trade-off between the energy saving impact $ and for instance the
control/operability impact $ shall be calculated, documented and shown in
the energy assessment study.
In general, there are very important constraints in form of early decisions taken
at early stages of the project life that confine the scope of work in any energy
efficiency optimization study. It will not be practical, logical and even
beneficial to continue arguing about the logic or correctness of past decisions
because the review process shall move on fast but with enough rigors and
without losing the essence of why we are doing energy studies for new designs.
In order to get the best out of any energy study, we suggest that you explore few
important modifications that would have the most impact on the base case
design from energy efficiency point of view and also help save significant
capital cost.
The following example is an actual one about an oil and gas separation project
where the base case design has been studied from energy efficiency optimization
point of view by an outside consultant/engineering company and has been
reviewed with the comments below.
The proposed comments are a result of small effort spent on an energy study
review with the available information at that stage bearing in mind that only
major things shall be reported back for consideration. Changes have to be
practical and do not have any major change on the project schedule. However, it
may help correct some of the quit clear points in the base case design.
Page 25 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
The first most important item which is fundamental and does not even need
investigation is the unnecessary recycle of the NGL stabilizer over head gas
stream back to the process. This recycle in base case design is not technically
useful. Such type of recycles has to be eliminated as long as these recycle
streams have no separation sink. These recycle streams normally, do not only
affects the size of all equipment, piping,etc., down the stream it joins resulting
in huge capital waste but also has no production benefit from NGL separation
point of view. It also affects energy utilities such as the refrigeration package
capital and operating cost. In any case recycle streams without separation or
conversion sink should not be recycled back to the process.
The two graphs below show the place of the recycle that need to be demolished
and an idea that need to be investigated with others by the process designers to
explore the extra capital cost used due to the recycle and to enhance if possible
the amount of NGL that can be recovered. Here below some ideas that can be
explored along the major change of using de-ethanizer instead of NGL stripper,
for instance.
425 Psig
260 Psig
445 Psig
440 Psig
GOSP condensate from
condensate inlet manifold
Condensate Feed Drum
NGL Stripper
Page 26 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
Sales Gas
Dried HP gas to export
Condenser
425 Psig
260 Psig
445 Psig
440 Psig
GOSP condensate from
condensate inlet manifold
Condensate Feed Drum
NGL
This condenser could use the process stream that have a temperature of
50 F and the rest can come from the refrigeration package
NGL Stripper
425 Psig
445 Psig
sales Gas
260 Psig
440 Psig
GOSP condensate from
condensate inlet manifold
Condensate Feed Drum
330 Psig
-New HP flash drum or small stripper with 20% of the feed load to
NGL
recover more NGL
-Smaller existing Stripper using less steam &redesigned to allow
more NGL recovery instead of the heavy components loss in the top
Page 27 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
The graph below suggests that integration between the discharge of compressors
and the crude stabilization process can be done through several options upon the
implementation of pinch techniques. One option is possible through a hot water
system. This integration option can result in huge steam saving and savings in
the fin-fans electric power loads as well as a reduction in capital. The scheme
below can have different options based upon the location of the pump-
around/inter-heater and the water return temperature. Note that we are only
giving here a configuration while several configurations can also be produced
and explored. The savings here in capital and operating cost is quite clear and
there is no operability problem but simulation and more in-depth review of the
process will be warranted.
Page 28 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
The graph below shows that electricity can be generated from the proposed
utility system design to minimize the power purchased from the grid.
In the current base case design, only 4 MW could be generated from the current
situation using BPST generator.
Khurais Project
Combined Heat & Power System
HRSG
4GT
BPST
168 Klb/hr 4 MW
Mid Pressure
95 psig
365 Deg. F
24.5 Klb/hr
Process LP Steam
Demand
Page 29 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
The proposed scheme below shows that via increasing the HRSG pressure and
temperature, it is possible to produce about 20 MW power of electricity.
Khurais Project
Combined Heat & Power System
HRSG
4GT
BPST
168 Klb/hr 20 MW
Mid Pressure
95 psig
365 Deg. F
24.5 Klb/hr
Process LP Steam
Demand
The HRSG HP Steam can be utilized to drive a steam turbine generator for
power recovery. The steam balance and the steam property will not be affected.
In general it is recommended to produce the steam at the highest possible
pressure to generate more power. The optimum steam pressure can be decided
by the designer.
The graph below suggests that simple pinch calculation might also be useful in
exploring the best way to match the shown hot and cold streams in order to
further minimize the utility consumption. The result may exhibit no need to
modify the existing design especially after the consideration of modifying the
NGL recovery and stopping the recycle, however it may worth its exploration.
It is important also to consider both the NGL cold section and the refrigeration
system simultaneously to minimize capital and compressor work-shaft.
Page 30 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
TEG unit
425 Psig
260 Psig
445 Psig
440 Psig
GOSP condensate from
condensate inlet manifold
Condensate Feed Drum
NGL Stabilizer
It is important to note that the above mentioned suggestions and others in line
with it can saves energy utility in form of steam consumption, electricity
consumption and increase the in-situ generation of electricity to reduce the
purchased power.
It may also result in an increases the NGL recovery and reduces the overall
process plant and utility plant capital cost due to the elimination of boilers, fin
fan coolers and the reduction of the capital cost. These benefits need to be
verified by process designers via simulation and economic analysis.
Page 31 of 92
Document Responsibility: CSD/ESD/Energy Systems Unit SABP-A-012
Issue Date: 10 September 2006 New Projects Energy Efficiency
Next Planned Update: 10 September 2011 Optimization Review Methodology
Later in the project phase watch for robust condensate recovery system
Do not forget Piping insulation for long distance pipelines
Consider having flexible operation of main equipment to allow for its load
management
Optimize air compressors design
Consider the use of Economizers and Pre-heater in the boilers
Consider the use of turbo-expander instead of JT valves and to drive gas
compressors
Watch for power generation from high pressure liquids
Re-consider the use of gas turbines versus the more efficient steam turbines
Increase boiler steam pressure and temperature to the extent that matches
process needs unless electricity generation is the controlling factor
Use auxiliary turbines to minimize steam let downs
Use steam in the process optimally to save capital cost
Consider using air pre-heaters for combustion air
Use ASD on BFW pumps
Integrate the flue gases in with the rest of the process using grand composite
curve developed by pinch technology( see later section)
Recover valuable gases from fuel gases and fully utilize the streams pressure
Minimize the H2 wheel in your plant
Cool down the inlet temperature to compressors
Reduce cooling medium return temperature in refrigeration cycles
Consider heat rejection of the refrigeration system in process cold or even
hot section, to the ambient and to another refrigerant
Use highest efficiency turbines in your CHP system (thermo-flow software
can help in such selection)
Utilize motors instead of turbine drivers if it is more economical since they
are more efficient
Optimize steam use in strippers
Minimize live steam utilization
Consider Mechanical energy integration
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In your plot-plan make sure that energy exporters are close to energy
importers
Avoid non-isothermal mixing of streams
Use cooling water instead of air, if possible, to cool down compressors
discharge
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The basic Steam Mass Balance does not require high accuracy as long as the
developed model still makes sound engineering sense. (i.e., output is much
higher than input)
Common engineering sense shall be used to estimate what the unknowns. For
example condensate return, blow-down and flares can be defined after getting
good idea about main consumers.
98+5 t/h
98 t/h
HP Boiler
HP
68 t/h 21 t/h 8 t/h 0.0 t/h 0.0 t/h
Proc. #1
1 t/h
6.28 MW
HP Process
Proc. #2 Condensate
0.0 t/h
MP Boiler 68 t/h 0.0 t/h
chemicals
MP
27 t/h 9 t/h
Vent 30 t/h
MP Process
Proc. #4 Condensate
Proc. #1 2 t/h
18 t/h
0.0 t/h Vent
38 t/h 1 t/h
Deaerator 0.0 t/h
30 t/h 0.0 t/h
BFW LP
(42+5) t/h 7 t/h 4 t/h
Raw water Effluent 5 t/h LP Process
Make-up Treatment Plant Proc. #1
Proc. #3
Condensate
Process Condensate
Est. 50 % Returned
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The purpose of this section is not to conduct a pinch study but to get some
energy targets regarding the utilities consumption for a desired plant area. This
can be done essentially via three methods, graphical, algebraic and using
mathematical programming/optimization. In this document the only one method
is going to be explained. In Saudi Aramco we have some software(s) that can be
used to conduct in depth analysis.
Any heat exchanger can be represented as a hot stream that is cooled down by
another cold stream and/or cold utility and a cold stream that is heated up by a
hot stream and/or hot utility with a specified minimum temperature approach
between the hot and the cold called Tmin.
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The process exhibited below in the graph shows the situation when the two
streams do not have a chance of overlap that produce heat integration between
the hot and the cold.
Feed Product
H PROCESS C
120
T HOT UTILITY
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 H
COLD UTILITY
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Moving the cold stream to the left on the enthalpy axis without changing its
supply and target temperatures till we have small vertical distance between the
hot stream and the cold stream we obtain some overlap between the two streams
that result in heat integration between the hot and the cold and less hot and cold
utilities. As been depicted in the graph below with shrinkage in the hot and cold
lines span.
Feed Product
H PROCESS C
120
T HOT UTILITY
100
HEAT
80
RECOVERY
60
Pinch
(MAT)
40
20
H
COLD UTILITY
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
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For demonstration, all hot streams will be represented in the process by one long
hot stream to be called the hot composite curve. Same thing be done for all
cold streams in the process.
The next step will be drawing the two composite curves/lines on the same page
in Temperature (T)-Enthalpy diagram with two conditions:
1- The cold composite curve should be completely below the hot composite
curve, and
The resulting graph is depicted below and known as thermal pinch diagram.
Opportunity for
heat recovery
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600
Hu3
Hu2
500
Hu1
400
300
Enthalpy ( kW)
200
700 1400 2100 2800
Upon maximizing heat recovery in the heat exchanger network, those heating
duties and cooling duties not serviced by heat recovery must be provided by
external utilities.
The most common utility is steam. It is usually available at several levels. High
temperature heating duties require furnace flue gas or a hot oil circuit. Cold
utilities might be refrigeration, cooling water, air cooling, furnace air preheating,
boiler feed water preheating, or even steam generation at higher temperatures.
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Although the composite curves can be used to set energy targets, they are not a
suitable tool for the selection of utilities. The grand composite curve drawn
above is a more appropriate tool for understanding the interface between the
process and the utility system. It is also as will be shown in later chapters a very
useful tool in studying of the interaction between heat-integrated reactors,
separators and the rest of the process.
The GCC is obtained via drawing the problem table cascade as we shown
earlier.
The graph shown above is a typical GCC. It shows the heat flow through the
process against temperature. It should be noted that the temperature plotted here
is the shifted temperature T* and not the actual temperature. Hot streams are
represented by Tmin/2 colder and the cold streams Tmin/2 hotter tan they are
in the streams problem definition. This method means that an allowance of
Tmin is already built into the graph between the hot and the cold for both
process and utility streams. The point of zero heat flow in the GCC is the
pinch point. The open jaws at the top and the bottom represent QHmin and
QCmin respectively.
The grand composite curve (GCC) provides convenient tool for setting the
targets for the multiple utility levels of heating utilities as illustrated above.
The graphs below further illustrate such capability for both heating and cooling
utilities.
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The above figure (a) shows a situation where HP steam is used for heating and
refrigeration is used for cooling the process. In order to reduce utilities cost,
intermediate utilities MP steam and cooling water (CW) are introduced. The
second graph (b) shows the targets for all the utilities. The target for the MP
steam is set via simply drawing a horizontal line at the MP steam temperature
level starting from the vertical axis until it touches the GCC. The remaining
heat duty required is then satisfied by the HP steam. This maximizes the MP
steam consumption prior to the remaining heating duty be fulfilled by the HP
steam and therefore minimizes the total utilities cost. Similar logic is followed
below the pinch to maximize the use of the cooling water prior the use of the
refrigeration.
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The points where the MP steam and CW levels touch the GCC are called utility
pinches since these are caused by utility levels. The graph (C) below shows a
different possibility of utility levels where furnace heating is used instead of HP
steam. Considering that furnace heating is more expensive than MP steam, the
use of the MP steam is first maximized. In the temperature range above the MP
steam level, the heating duty has to be supplied by the furnace flue gas. The flue
gas flowrate is set as shown in graph via drawing a sloping line starting from the
MP steam to theoretical flame temperature Ttft.
If the process pinch temperature is above the flue gas corrosion temperature, the
heat available from the flue gas between the MP steam and pinch temperature
can be used for process heating. This will reduce the MP steam consumption.
In summary the GCC is one of the basic tools used in pinch technology for the
selection of appropriate utility levels and for targeting for a given set of multiple
utility levels. The targeting involves setting appropriate loads for the various
utility levels by maximizing cheaper utility loads and minimizing the loads on
expensive utilities.
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T-tft
(C)
T*
MP
CW
Refrigeration
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Normally, Plants Operations have choices of many hot and cold utilities and the
graph below shows some of available options. Generally, it is recommended to
use hot utilities at the lowest possible temperature while generating it at the
highest possible temperature. And for the cold utilities it is recommended to use
it at the highest possible temperature and generate at the lowest possible
temperature. These recommendations are best addressed systematically using
the grand composite curve.
Boiler House
And Power Plant
Fuel
Steam
W
Turbines
Gas W
Turbines
BFW
Hot Oil preheat
Circuit
Heat W
Process Pump
Furnace
Cooling W
Towers
Refrigeration
Air preheat
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The graph below shows that utility pinches are formed according to the number
of utilities used. Each time a utility is used a utility pinch is created. It also
shows that the GCC right noses sometimes known as pockets are areas of heat
integration/energy recovery. In other words it does not need any external
utilities. These right noses/pockets are caused by;
- Region of net heat availability above the pinch
- Region of net heat requirement below the pinch
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GCC curve can be used by engineers to select the best match between utility
profile and process needs profile. For instance, the steam system shown below
needs to be integrated with the process demands profile to minimize low
pressure steam flaring and high or medium pressures steam let downs. Besides
it helps selecting steam header pressure levels and loads.
HP Boiler
HP
Proc. #1
HP Process
Proc. #2 Condensate
MP Boiler
chemicals
MP
Vent
MP Process
Proc. #4 Condensate
Proc. #1
Vent
Deaerator
BFW LP
Raw water Effluent LP Process
Make-up Treatment Plant Proc. #1 Proc. #3
Condensate
Process Condensate
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T HP
MP
Process GCC
LP
BFW
CW
H
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The superimposed steam system on the process grand composite curve shows
that while process heating needs can be achieved electricity can also be
generated to satisfy process demands and/or export the surplus to the grid.
The graph below shows how we can use the GCC not only to select utility type,
load but also to define the steam headers minimum pressure/temperature to
minimize driving force and save energy.
T Qh
HP
MP
LP
BFW
CW
Qc
H
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Grand Composite Curve can also be utilized to select the load and return
temperature of hot oil circuits. The graph below shows that while in many cases
the process pinch can be our limiting point in defining the load (slop of the hot
oil line) and the return temperature of the heating oil. In some other cases the
topology of the GCC is the limiting point not the process pinch. This is also
shown in the second graph below. This practical guide to select the load and the
target temperature of the hot oil circuits is also applicable to furnaces as will be
shown later in this chapter.
Process Pinch temperature is the Limiting temperature for the Hot oil return temperature
T*
T supply
Hot Oil
T return
Process CW
Pinch
Refrigeration
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Process Pinch temperature is not the Limiting temperature for the Hot oil return temperature
But the topology of the GCC curve
T* T supply
Hot Oil
CP-min
T return
Process CW
Pinch
Refrigeration
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Grand composite curve (GCC) can also be used to select the process
refrigeration levels and the synthesis of the multiple-cycles refrigeration systems
as we did in the steam system. The schematic graph below shows a simplified
refrigeration system.
Condenser 25C
CW
Process -5C
0C
-40C
Process
-35C
-70C
Process
-65C
Work
Compressor
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The GCC as we mentioned before can be used to place the refrigeration levels as
we did with steam levels. The graph below shows how we can do that.
Tcw
- 5 C
- 40 C
- 70 C
When a hot utility needs to be at a high temperature and/or provide high heat
fluxes, radiant heat transfer is used from combustion of fuel in furnace. Furnace
designs vary according to the function of the furnace, heating duty and type of
fuel, and method of introducing combustion air.
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Steam and power balances provide the link between the process utility
requirements and the utility supply. They determine the basis for cogen or no
cogen decision, import power requirements or power export potential, boiler
sizes, fuel consumption, steam-turbines flows, boiler feed-water requirements,
steam flows in various parts of the process,etc.
An easy way to explore the site power and steam optimal generation and
utilization is through what is called site hot and cold composite curve. It is
important to emphasize on that we recommend, on the contrary of most
literatures, that you include other process steam demands in the balance
calculation in order to depict more accurate picture.
The first step in constructing the site source-sink composite diagram is to draw
the site-source composite curve and the site-sink composite curve via looking at
each process grand composite curve and extract the source(s) and sink(s)
streams while ignoring the pockets, areas of process heat integration, as shown
in graphs below. Source streams are the ones that have negative slopes, while
the sink streams are the streams that are having positive slopes.
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T* Process A heat
sink profile
Process
(A)
GCC
Process A
heat
source profile
H
Process B heat
sink profile
T*
Process
(B)
GCC
Process B heat
source profile
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Now let us use a simple example to show that site composite curves can be
drawn the same we do for drawing single process composite curves.
For the simple example shown in the table above, first step will be tabulating the
site sources and sinks as shown. The second step in developing the site-
composite curves now is the development of the two tables below. These two
tables, list all the source and sink streams temperatures of each process (A,
B,.N), extracted from its grand composite Curves like the ones shown above,
in an ascending order with the cumulative enthalpy (result of adding the
enthalpy of all source streams or sink streams laying together in a certain
temperature interval) corresponding to the lowest hot temperature and lowest
cold temperature respectively equal to zero.
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30
20
H
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The site-sink/cold composite curve shall lie completely below or to the left of
the site-source/hot composite curve and this can be done via dragging the site-
sink/cold composite curve to the right on the enthalpy axis (H). This process
shall stop at a vertical distance between the cold and the hot composite curve for
a temperature equal to reasonable minimum temperature approach.
T Qh =480 kW
20
Qc=60 kW
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It is important to note that the construction of the grand composite curve of each
process relies on a built-in Tmin between the hot composite and the cold
composite curves. It is a Tmin/2 (half Tmin) lower shift in the actual hot
streams temperatures and Tmin/2 upper shift in the actual cold streams
temperatures. Since the heating and/or cooling utilities are going to be used as
buffer for the purpose of integration among different processes it is important to
have another shift in hot and cold streams temperatures, which is complete
Tmin instead of half Tmin. If these curves are drawn without considering hot
utility/steam as a buffer the graphs will look like the composite curves shown
above. However, in order to better show site-steam generation capability from
the site-source composite curve and its demand based upon the site-sink
composite curve we need to plot the two composites curves as shown below.
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T
HP
MP MP
Site Sink Profile
LP LP
CW
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Studying the process heating and cooling demands should not be done in
isolation of the process needs for electricity. The interaction between the
process units, hot utility and cold utility systems is extremely important.
Sometimes it is not very clear to the straight forward old perceived intuitions.
Accurate process steam demands and generation capabilities are essential for
proper targeting of the site cogeneration design.
After recovering heat between process steam generation and process steam
usage, the balance of the heating demand and other process steam users will be
satisfied by fuel fired in the utility boilers to generate the required steam
demands. Normally, very high pressure steam will be produced to produce
power and use the exhausted steam in satisfying the process demand. The
shaded area, in the left graph below, is a region where higher pressure steam is
expanded through steam turbine to lower pressure steam to produce power. This
shaded region can be used roughly to compare between the amounts of power
that can be produced from a site at different scenarios. The site steam headers
might also have a pinch where above it there is a steam supply deficiency and
below it there is a surplus of heat/steam supply and the site needs to reject it to
the environment. This is normally rejected to water or air coolers.
In order to maximize the true cogeneration of power and steam from the site,
low pressure steam generated is expanded to vacuum pressure steam, which is
ultimately condensed using cooling water.
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While this graphical procedure can render some insights we recommend that
you use algebraic method to with simple equations for steam turbine to estimate
the exact amount of power that can be co-generated with steam need to satisfy
the process demand. Schematic representation of the method is shown to the
right of the graph below.
Fuel
VHP
HP
Steam generated
by the process
E1
MP
Steam Consumed
E2 by the process
LP
VP
E3 VP
CW
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Back to the graphical method that can give very useful insights, the graph below
can be used to as we said before in getting an idea about amounts of power that
can be produced from a site in different scenarios.
T
Fuel
VHP
VP
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In steam turbine situation, the larger the flow of steam through the turbine, the
greater is the amount of power that will be produced and the larger the pressure
difference and hence the larger the saturation temperature difference across the
turbine, the greater the potential for power generation. Such power generation is
proportional to the Carnot Factor for a heat engine (Th-Tc)/Th, where Th and Tc
are the heat input and the heat reject temperatures respectively in degree k.
Therefore, the shaded areas in the above graph can be considered to be
approximately proportional to the amount of power that can be generated by
steam turbines in the utility system.
The heat and power scheme shown in the graph above represent the process
maximum heat recovery scenario in a site that is pinched. It is important to note
here that this scenario might not be the optimal scenario for the site heat and
power satisfaction economically. Therefore, it is a scenario but not the scenario.
This fact might be against the intuition we built in last decades that in our
process designs we need to maximize heat recovery against heat exchanger
capital cost via minimizing the heat supply from the utility and heat rejection to
cold utility to get optimum designs. Putting power supply for drivers in the
process and for other usage in the big picture changes the old intuition and the
optimality of maximum heat recovery versus HEN design. In addition, when
other elements get into the big picture too such as water and refrigeration system
the intuition might change again. This fact is due to the decomposition of the
process-utility system to sub-systems with high interaction. For the sake of this
document this point will not be further discussed but will be explained with one
example shown in the graph below.
VHP VHP
VHP VHP
= + W-cond
True cogeneration
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In the above graph, waste heat recovery in the process is not maximized as was
the case in the example discussed earlier. In fact, in the above example extra
amount of fuel is being fired generating more very high pressure steam in the
utility boilers. You can notice that larger area between the two steams profiles
have been produced which mean extra power generation capability of the site in
this case.
In this case the site steams profiles corresponds to a scenario in which waste
heat recovery has not been maximized, can be decomposed into two parts as
shown to the right of the graph above.
The first part is the one that exhibit maximum waste heat recovery for a pinched
site, where steam turbine are used to generate electricity after matching the site
steam needs first. The second part represents an area of power generation
through the expansion of steam from VHP all the way to vacuum pressure
through condensing steam turbine. The first part represents what some people
call true cogeneration opportunity in the site. In many cases site should not,
from thermodynamics efficiency point of view, use condensing power
generation in process plants since it will be less efficient than centralized stand-
alone power stations that use condensing power generation in extremely more
efficient cycles. However, for certain ranges of site power- to- heat ratios as we
are showing next it can be more efficient. There are other important factors
such as operability, supply security/reliability and so on which need to be taken
into consideration besides thermodynamics during the design phase of utility
system design.
The cost of imported power must be balanced against the fuel and other costs
(e.g., water treatment) associated with power generation besides the operability,
reliability and so on to be able to strike the right balance between cogeneration
and power import or export. Having said that, depending on the process case we
have we are selecting between two extreme cases. The first one in which all the
power is imported from the grid or third party, and the second where all the
power is generated on site. The second case can be done through true
cogeneration and condensing turbines as per the above graph. The cases in
between which can have infinite combination can be screened used heuristics
and optimization techniques.
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Before we close this point let me emphasize again that it is important to watch
for the amount of steam used by the process for purposes other than process
heating and to include such steam users in the site composite curves or our
algebraic balance.
The selection of the most appropriate cogeneration system for any site depends
entirely upon what is called power-to-heat ratio. This term, in most of the
literatures, is defined as follows:
It is important to note here that process steam used in process activities other
than process heating needs to be included in the Qsite term calculated as
follows:
Qsite = Qp + Qp + others
FiredHeaters SteamMains
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The cogeneration efficiency cogen of a system, where the fuel is fired in the
utility system and some of the energy produced is used to generate power, some
provides useful process heat and some is lost, can be defined as follows:
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Now let us plot cogeneration efficiency (2) versus site power-to-heat ratio (1)
cogen
Rpinch
Rsite
This plot can render very useful information about the cogeneration or no
cogeneration decision as an option in supplying power and process heating to
any new facility.
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cogen
Import
central
Rpinch Rsite
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The second site power-to-heat ratio graph above shows when cogeneration
efficiency becomes less than the central power generation efficiency. Such
information can be used to decide for certain facility the power-to-heat ratio at
which, it is better to import electricity than generating it on-site. It is important
to note here that this curve is using thermodynamics to select between the
cogeneration and no cogeneration option in supplying new facility with its need
of power and process heating, when to choose one over the other and if possible
to what extent we shall have cogeneration as a very good option with clear
merits. However, things in new project studies do normally depend upon
economics rather than thermodynamics. Having said that, the curve can be used
to screen all options and reject the ones that are quite clear to be
thermodynamically unattractive and leave the cases which do deserve rigorous
economic evaluation.
cogen
Export
Import
central
Rpinch Rsite
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The site power-to-heat ratio graph also shows the true-cogeneration range and
when thermodynamically exporting power will be attractive.
Selection of Driver:
One of the major decisions in any new project is the source of the power supply
to the project. Is it going to be completely from the grid? Or vise versa, on-site
generation and zero dependence on the grid. Is it going to be partially produced
at site and the rest is coming from the grid? How does the split scheme will
look like? Can we generate our power needs and some extra capacity at site and
wheeling to the grid, other company facilities or exporting power to other users
and so on. Studying these alternatives needs a decision regarding not only
process heating needs but also process and utilities drivers types.
Drivers are essential in any oil and gas facility. They are required to drive gas
compressors, refrigeration compressors, air compressors, pumps, fans, mixers
and other equipment. The most frequently used are motors, steam turbines, gas
turbines, diesel generators and turbo-expanders. Many factors need to be taken
into consideration for the selection of most proper combinations of drivers.
These factors include difficult trade-off between capital cost, operating cost,
flexibility, reliability, environmental issues and operations preferences.
Another important choice regarding power supply to new project is how we are
going to supply power to the process equipment? Whether to generate power
and distribute it for use in electric motors to run such equipment or to place
direct drivers or let some of equipment use motors and the others use direct
drivers.
The allocation is an important degree of freedom that can help in the whole
process optimization. In brief most of the times some of the equipment will run
directly using steam and gas turbines and the rest will run through motors.
There are some pros and cons for each selection. A direct drive, steam turbine
driving water injection pump, can be cheaper compared with a large steam
turbine producing power, distribution of the power and utilizing the power in an
electric motor to drive the water injection pump. On the other hand, a large
single generator can serve many electric motors and drives many of the process
plants equipment such as compressors, pumps, fans and so on.
The direct drivers are not very flexible since they are linked to specific
equipment and its hot exhaust might not find the right sink in the process.
Generally the best solution is usually a combination of electric generators and
direct drives.
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The graph below simply depicts basic features of a typical closed loop cooling
water system. The main elements of the system are the cooling water tower and
water-process heat exchangers network. Cooling water from the cooling tower
is pumped to heat exchangers where process waste heat is rejected to the
environment.
The cooling water gets heated in the process-water heat exchangers network and
returned to the cooling water tower. The hot water returned to the tower is
cooled mainly by the evaporation of water as it flows down the packed water
cooling tower.
The hot water flows counter currently air in the cooling tower. The packing
provides enough surface area for heat and mass transfer between air and hot
water.
Air is humidified and heated and rises through the packing. The evaporated
water leaving the tower reflects the amount of cooling made to the incoming hot
water.
Water is lost through evaporation and drift in the tower and a frequent blow
down is also another source of losing water, that need to be compensated
through a make-up mechanism. Without going in depth mathematically we can
physically understand what happens inside the cooling tower and the main
variables that affect its size/cost and operational efficiency. The circulated
water return back to the cooling water tower with return temperature that is
higher than the air temperature used in cooling down this water. The air
temperature is function of its water content, too. If the air is saturated or close to
saturation, it will not be efficient in cooling down the circulated water.
A perfectly sized cooling tower allows water to be cooled from the circulated
water temperature to desired water cooling temperature by cooling the coming
water using ambient air through evaporation. Maximum evaporation takes place
when water in the form of tiny quantity is exposed to the maximum air flow for
the longest possible time/biggest heat and mass transfer surface area and highest
possible temperature driving force between the return water and air wet bulb
temperature. Air wet bulb temperature is the temperature of the
entering/ambient air measured with a wet bulb thermometer, which is a one
whose bulb is encased within a wetted wick. In other words it is the air
temperature after being saturated with water. By evaporation water can not be
cooled down below the air wet bulb temperature.
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The process of cooling through evaporation process via the removal of latent
heat allows the water to be cooled below the ambient dry bulb temperature. The
dry air enters the cooling tower and starts to gain moisture and enthalpy till it
reaches equilibrium with water. The water can be cooled 15 F or more while air
mass dry bulb temperature increases only slightly. Water can not be cooled
below the wet bulb temperature of an air stream by evaporation, since this
temperature is the saturation temperature of the air.
Having said that, cooling towers design and operation philosophy affects our
investment and operating costs, energy operating cost due to air coolers power
consumption, and such costs depend heavily on two major variables, the hot
water return temperature and the circulation water flowrate.
Increasing the water return temperature, of-course for fixed flowrate, allows
more heat to be removed from the process if needed or allows lower water
flowrate that is mean smaller cooling towers.
The purpose of this section of the best practice is to give brief but useful
background about cooling water targeting. It enables quick estimation for
cooling water loads using minimum available information especially at project
studies phase. Other documents shall address in more details stuff about cooling
systems components, models and operation which is not the intention of this
best practice document.
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F2,T
2
FE,T
E
Cooling Water
Network (Qcu)
Make-up water
FM,TM
F0,T0 F1,T1
FB
Cold Blow-down
The above graph gives the basis of a cooling water system model that can be the
topic of another best practice document.
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Most cooling water networks involve the use of cooling water directly from the
cooling tower in each heat exchanger. This philosophy leads to a parallel
configuration of the process-water coolers. The other logical way of process-
water cooling systems is the series arrangement as shown in graph below.
Mixed configurations can also be used to attain desired performance.
HE1 HE2 HE 3
Series Configuration
HE 1
HE 2
HE 3
Parallel Configuration
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The graph below shows a cooling duty for a hot process stream. The cooling is
being supplied by cooling water stream with an inlet temperature T1. The
cooling water flow is decreased resulting in an increase in the cooling water line
slope (1/FCp) until the temperature difference has been minimized to the desired
one. If the cooling duties are arranged in parallel, then minimizing cooling
water flowrate per process-water cooler will minimize total cooling water
flowrate and maximize the water return temperature.
T
Hot process stream Tmin
T2
The series and the parallel configurations have three main differences as
follows:
The series configuration increases the efficiency of the cooling tower/reduce
its capital cost
In the same time it decreases the temperature driving forces in the process-
water coolers resulting in more expensive water coolers
It also increases the pressure drop through cooling water network and
consequently the pumping cost
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The graph below shows a representation of a heat exchanger using cooling water
in which both the inlet and outlet temperatures of the cooling water have been
maximized.
T
Hot process stream Tmin
Tout-max
Tmin
Tin-max Feasible Region
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Now we can use the limiting cooling water profile concept for drawing the
composite curve of several cooling operations to obtain the limiting cooling
water profiles of all the process-water cooling operations all in one graph. As
shown in graph below.
T(C)
T(C)
80
60
40
20
Q (kW) Q (kW)
The, graph to the left, is divided to several temperature intervals. Within each
temperature interval, the heat duty for the individual streams is combined
together to produce the cooling water composite curve. This profile, in the
graph to the right, represents a single stream that is equivalent to the 4 individual
streams.
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Pinch }
Cooling water supply line
For maximum re-use
Q (kW)
The cooling water supply line begins at the at the cooling water temperature
coming from the cooling tower after the addition of the make-up water.
(Cooling water temperature supplied to the process-water coolers)
The slop of this line is 1/Fcp where F is the flowrate of the cooling water and
cp is the water specific heat. Minimizing F which is the cooling water
flowrate achieves our objective. It increases the slope of the line. We can
continue decreasing the cooling water flowrate, increasing the slope of the
cooling water supply line in graph, until we reach a situation where the line
touches the cooling water composite curve. In such case there is no temperature
driving force between the cooling water composite curve and the cooling water
supply line. This point shown in graph is called the cooling water system pinch.
The slope of the red line in the above graph can be used to calculate the
theoretical minimum cooling water required for the process which has the four
cooling operations tasks shown above.
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It is important to note here that the cooling water supply line shown red in the
above graph specify the maximum water return temperature that render the
theoretical minimum cooling water flowrate required by the process. In many
cases, this cooling water return temperature is not dictated by the minimum
cooling water flowrate but by the operational constraints.
Such practical constraints arise from corrosion aspects in the piping and heat
exchangers network, temperature limits in cooling tower packing and/or fouling
of the cooling water. In addition to these constraints other optimization
variables, other than minimum cooling water supply, need to be considered such
as minimum pressure drop to avoid excessive pumping in the system in case of
series configurations as shown earlier. It is outside the scope of this document
to address such constraints and extra optimization variables since we are most of
the time at conceptual phase during the projects studies phase.
Refrigeration System:
Before we talk about the integration of refrigeration cycles with the process let
us examine first the refrigeration cycle using a temperature-entropy diagram.
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The figure below shows again the main components of a typical refrigeration
cycle. We start examining the cycle at the exit of the condenser at point # 1.
Expansion Valve
Compressor
2 3
Low Pressure Vapor Low Pressure Vapor
and Liquid (two Phases)
Evaporator
Here the refrigerant is a high pressure liquid, very near to saturation (i.e., about
ready to boil). We reduces the pressure on the liquid by passing it through an
adiabatic valve (H=0.0). It partially vaporizes at point #2. The heat required
for vaporization, since we do not give it external heat, comes from the fluid
itself, cooling it. We next pass this fluid through the refrigeration coils where
the rest of the liquid evaporates. In doing so, it takes heat from the surroundings
(from food or process). We now have a low pressure liquid/fluid, point # 3,
which is all vapor and very near saturation (just ready to condense). We then
increase the pressure on the fluid by compressing it. An ideal compressor
operates isentrpoically (at constant entropy, S=0.0), arriving to point # 4. It
has been heated up due to compression becoming a superheated vapor well
above saturation. We then cool it by rejecting the heat to the surrounding or
cooling medium in the process, returning ultimately to being a liquid at high
pressure, point # 1.
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The graph below shows this cycle on a plot of temperature versus entropy
diagram. The advantage of viewing such a cycle on temperature versus entropy
and not pressure versus enthalpy is that the area enclosed in the cycle represents
the ideal work needed to run the cycle. Any improvements to the cycle will
show up as reductions in this area, provided that we pick up the same amount of
heat in the evaporator both before and after the improvement since this amount
of heat is normally the one dictated by the process needs.
T, K
4
1
liquid
Vapor
2 3
Vapor and liquid
Entropy, S(J/mol K)
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The first is to use a multi-stage compressor as shown below to reduce the area
enclosed in the cycle which represents the idea work needed to run the cycle.
T, K
liquid
Vapor
Multistage
Vapor and liquid Compressor
Entropy, S(J/mol K)
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In such case we compress only part way and then cool the vapor back to its
saturation temperature. We compress again to the final pressure. The area
saved on the right side of the above graph represents the savings in the ideal
work needed to run this cycle.
The second possible improvement shown in the graph below is using a let down
turbine rather than a valve to drop the pressure of the high pressure liquid.
T, K
Turbine Expansion
liquid
Vapor
Multistage
Compressor
Vapor and liquid
Entropy, S(J/mol K)
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This expansion is shown in the straight line. This step appears to increase the
area enclosed which means extra ideal work will be required to run this cycle.
However, it also increases the length of the line that represents the heat we pick
up in the evaporator from the process. In other words we are increasing our
refrigeration capacity. It is really an improvement since the area (that represent
the ideal work needed to run the cycle) per unit heat we pick from the process
(process demand) in the evaporator is actually reduced when we use the let
down turbine. In general, we should normally use one cycle to elevate the low
temperature heat by no more than 30C. If we need to increase the temperature
of the heat more than that, it pays to use multiple cycles where a lower
temperature cycle passes heat to the cycle above it, which in turns passes the
heat to the cycle above it, repeating until the top cycle, which passes the heat to
the ambient conditions. This configuration is shown in the double cycle shown
in the figure below.
Condenser
Expansion Valve
Evaporator Compressor
Condenser
Expansion Valve
Compressor
Evaporator
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If it is reasonable to use the same refrigerant in the two cycles we can eliminate
this loss in temperature driving force by exchanging heat between the two cycles
as shown in the figure below without this common evaporator/condenser shown
in the figure above.
Condenser
Expansion Valve
Flash Compressor
Two phase fluid
Vapor
Liquid
Compressor
Expansion Valve
Evaporator
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In this figure we replace the evaporator/condenser unit with a flash drum. The
two cycles trade fluid rather than just heat. The lower cycle puts vapor into the
flash unit while the upper cycle feeds in 2-phase fluid.
The lower cycle takes away the liquid while the upper cycle takes the vapor
from the flash unit. Material balance requires each cycle to remove the same
amount of refrigerant as it put into the flash unit. The lower cycle trades vapor
for liquid, while the upper cycle trades vapor and liquid for vapor alone. It is as
if they have traded heat. This trade is done with no temperature driving force
and makes it an attractive alternative to improve a cascaded refrigeration cycle.
There are many other ways to improve refrigeration cycles and what does really
concerns us is to design a good refrigeration cycle that also best fit with our
process using the type of insights that we got from grand composite curve.
Choice of refrigerant:
The freezing point of the refrigerant should be well below the evaporator
temperature.
The table below gives the freezing points of famous refrigerants. (Robin Smith
Chemical Process Design and Integration book, 2005)
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It is also desirable to have a refrigerant with a high latent heat. A high latent
heat will lead to a lower flowrate of refrigerant around the loop and reduce the
power requirements. Evaporator operating pressure is another important factor,
since it is very desirable not to operate the system at a pressure below
atmospheric to avoid any possibility of air leakage to the system. Another
important factor affecting the choice of refrigerant relates to the shape of the two
phase region on a temperature-entropy diagram. For instance, if the slope of the
saturated vapor phase line is steep, it results in lower need for superheating,
decreases the heat transfer area needed for condensation.
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Where;
Once these pressures been calculated the pressure difference across the
compressor and expansion valve will be estimated assuming no significant
pressure drop through the heat exchangers and piping.
Mass flowrate of the refrigerant (M) can be estimated from the process
refrigeration need/ process heat duty that to be rejected to the refrigerant in the
evaporator (Qevap) and the latent heat of vaporization of the refrigerant (ref) at
the evaporator temperature(Tevap)
M = Qevap/ ref
Once the mass flowrate (M) is known we can determine the volumetric flowrate
(F) into the compressor from the refrigerant vapor density ()
F = M/
Use vendors data to estimate the compressor efficiency , if not available use
the for reciprocating compressor the isentropic efficiency (Eff-isen) that can
be estimated as follows using this empirical equation: (Robin Smith,
Chemical process Design and Integration Book)
Where;
W = power required for compression in N.m/s
Pevap and Pcond = Inlet and outlet pressure for compressor N/m
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is = Isentropic efficiency
F= Inlet volumetric flowrate m/s
= Ratio of heat capacities Cp/Cv
4A.5 Tri-Generation
The popularity of power turbine inlet air cooling for compressor is increasing as
its benefits for producing extra power can result in a significant reduction in
both capital and operating cost. In hot weather environments, cooling inlet air to
the compressor of a gas turbine system is a low cost option for preventing the
loss of output or even increasing it above rates site capacity.
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Exhaust
Mass-flow
ELECTRICITY
Absorption
Exhaust Gas
Chiller
STEAM TO PROCESS
HRSG
PROCESS CONDENSATE / FEED WATER
17
Tri-generation process
250
P o w e r O u tp u t
200
Approx 20%
150
100
Power Output without Inlet Air Cooling
50
Power Output with Inlet Air Cooling Use of Trigen
0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
18
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The above graph shows the improvement of the power generation output of
approximately 20%-30% after the use of Tri-generation with in-let air cooling.
In the Middle East with average temperatures over 115F during the summer
months this curve highlights the in-let air cooling impact during high power
demand period of the year. The cooler winter months with lower power demand
have fewer benefits.
W Stripper
Absorber
compressor
Refrigerant vapor Refrigerant vapor
Waste Heat
Pump
Revision Summary
10 September 2006 New Saudi Aramco Best Practice.
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