Strategic misrepresentation in

online dating: The effects of

gender, self-monitoring, and
personality traits
Jeffrey A. Hall
University of Kansas, USA

Namkee Park
University of Oklahoma, USA

Hayeon Song
University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, USA

Michael J. Cody
University of Southern California, USA

ABSTRACT
This study examines factors (including gender, self-monitoring,
the big five personality traits, and demographic characteristics)
that influence online dating service users strategic misrepre-
sentation (i.e., the conscious and intentional misrepresenta-
tion of personal characteristics). Using data from a survey of
online dating service users (N = 5,020), seven categories of mis-
representation personal assets, relationship goals, personal
interests, personal attributes, past relationships, weight, and
age were examined. The study found that men are more likely
to misrepresent personal assets, relationship goals, personal
interests, and personal attributes, whereas women are more
likely to misrepresent weight. The study further discovered
that self-monitoring (specifically other-directedness) was the

We would like to thank Paul Mongeau and three anonymous reviewers. Portions of this manu-
script were presented at the 2008 meeting of the National Communication Association annual
conference in San Diego, CA. All correspondence concerning this article should be addressed
to Jeffrey A. Hall, Department of Communication Studies, University of Kansas, Bailey Hall,
1440 Jayhawk Blvd., Room 102, Lawrence, KS 660457574, USA [e-mail: hallj@ku.edu]. John
Caughlin was the Action Editor on this article.

Journal of Social and Personal Relationships The Author(s), 2010. Reprints and permissions:
http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav, Vol. 27(1): 117135.
DOI: 10.1177/0265407509349633
118 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 27(1)

strongest and most consistent predictor of misrepresentation

in online dating. Agreeableness, conscientiousness, and open-
ness also showed consistent relationships with misrepresen-
tation.

KEY WORDS:deception online dating personality traits self-

monitoring sex differences strategic misrepresentation

Being favorably regarded by others is a prerequisite for many positive

outcomes in life (Leary, 2001). During the initial stages of courtship, indi-
viduals are particularly concerned with the impression they are making, for
instance, how attractive they look (Berger & Bell, 1988; Kunkel, Wilson,
Olufowote, & Robson, 2003). When the goals and background of each
partner are unknown, the possibility of deception is very high. In fact, un-
certainty during relational initiation is magnified by impression manage-
ment concerns. That is, the greater the concern about making a positive
impression, the more communicators must be on guard against deception
(Goffman, 1959; Grammer, Kruck, Juette, & Fink, 2000). These concerns
are often of even greater relevance in computer-mediated communication
(CMC) environments, wherein users can create a self-description that is
often more strategic, controlled, and positive than is likely possible in face-
to-face (FtF) settings (Burgoon & Walther, 1990; OSullivan, 2000; Walther
& Burgoon, 1992). The aspect of self-presentation explored in the present
study is strategic misrepresentation, which is the conscious and intentional
misrepresentation of characteristics about oneself. This manuscript will use
the term strategic misrepresentation instead of deception. However, the
two terms can be used interchangeably.
Online dating services have experienced notable growth over the past
decade, and millions of Americans have gone on a date with someone they
met through such a service or website (Sprecher, Schwartz, Harvey, &
Hatfield, 2008). A primary concern of those who seek a romantic relation-
ship online is the fear of misrepresentation by a potential partner (Gibbs,
Ellison, & Heino, 2006; Lawson & Leck, 2006). Prior research on online
dating suggests that deception does occur (Ellison, Heino, & Gibbs, 2006),
yet often the degree of embellishment is quite small (Toma, Hancock, &
Ellison, 2008). There have been few investigations, however, of individual
differences in willingness to misrepresent online to get a date. Thus, the
present study seeks to identify individual differences in strategic misrepre-
sentation, specifically self-monitoring (Snyder, 1987) and the big five factors
of personality (Nettle, 2005), and tests gender differences in misrepresen-
tation predicted by evolutionary psychology (Geher, Miller, & Murphy,
2008; Haselton, Buss, Oubaid, & Angleitner, 2005).
Hall et al.: Strategic misrepresentation 119

Impression management and computer-mediated

communication

Whereas impression management is important in any interpersonal context,

scholars have used two complementary theories to explore the unique char-
acteristics of self-presentation in CMC settings (Hancock & Dunham, 2001):
(i) the social identification and deindividuation (SIDE) model, and (ii)
social information processing (SIP) theory. The SIDE model (Lea & Spears,
1991, 1992; Spears & Lea, 1992, 1994) claims that because of anonymity
and minimal social and interpersonal cues, impressions formed in CMC are
informed by social categorization, such as group identities, rather than indi-
vidual self-identities. SIP theory (Walther, 1993; Walther & Burgoon, 1992)
and the hyperpersonal model (Walther, 1996, 1997), which is an extension
of SIP theory, posit that CMC users employ more selective self-presentation
via language selection or message construction, taking advantage of the
limitations of CMC. During courtship, the increased ability to manage self-
presentation provides greater opportunities for misrepresentation (Cornwell
& Lundgren, 2001). Compared to offline dating, CMC allows for a highly
crafted and detailed self-presentation and more misrepresentation. With a
broad user base and potentially millions of readily available user profiles,
competition between users of online dating services amplifies the import-
ance of creating a desirable self-presentation (Gibbs et al., 2006; Toma et al.,
2008). It should be noted, however, that online dating is somewhat different
from typical CMC environments. As previous research acknowledged (e.g.,
Ellison et al., 2006; Gibbs et al., 2006), online dating services often channel
initial online relationships into FtF meetings. Thus, the anticipation of future
FtF interaction (Walther, 1996) inherent to most online dating services
discourages users from obvious and blatant deception. Moreover, record-
ability in CMC, or the ability to save and archive profiles, deters users mis-
representation (Hancock, Thom-Santelli, & Ritchie, 2004). Because a user
could save and/or print out a potential partners profile and prior corres-
pondence, such as emails or instant messages, online dating service users
are discouraged from online deception that may be detected or recalled in
an FtF meeting.
Ellison et al. (2006) found that online dating service users sought a
balance between an accurate self-presentation (true self) and a desirable
self-presentation (ideal self). Although users admitted to misrepresenting
themselves online, many felt that misrepresentation would directly inter-
fere with a users ability to develop an offline romantic relationship. Users
often reconciled this conflict by suggesting that deviations from ones true
self were a reflection of a potential, future version of self, rather than sheer
fabrication. This desirable future self often was physically thinner, more
active, and more interesting than the individuals actual self (Lawson &
Leck, 2006). Toma et al. (2008) also showed that online misrepresentation
is not a rare phenomenon. In their study, 81% of the participants lied about
at least one physical attribute in their online profile, although the magni-
tude of most deceptions was so small that it would be hard to detect in an
FtF interaction.
120 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 27(1)

Gender differences in strategic misrepresentation

Evolutionary psychology theory suggests sex differences in mating prefer-

ences and strategies based on disparate reproductive realities men and
women faced in humans distant past (Schmitt, 2005). Females seek males
who have more resources and long-term relationship goals, whereas males
seek females who show signs of fertility (e.g., young age, healthy physical
appearance, waisthip ratio). Due to asymmetric investment in raising
offspring, initial courtship behaviors are particularly prone to deception
(Grammer et al., 2000). During that time, both sexes engage in systematic
misrepresentation, but the topics of misrepresentation depend upon the
desires of the opposite sex. For instance, men and women both believe that
men are more likely to lie about their financial assets (i.e., resources), plans
to marry (i.e., desire for a long-term relationship), and professions of love
(OSullivan, 2008). Furthermore, uncovering deception in a partner is more
upsetting when it is about qualities particularly valued in the opposite sex
(e.g., mens financial resources and commitment as opposed to womens
interest in sex) (Haselton et al., 2005). Thus, we proposed the following
hypotheses and research question:

H1a: When compared to women, men will be more likely to strategically

misrepresent their personal assets.

H1b: When compared to women, men will be more likely to strategically

misrepresent their relationship goals.

RQ1: Is there a gender difference in misrepresenting personal interests,

personal attributes, and past relationships?

On average, men prefer thinner mates (Buss & Schmitt, 1993; Pawlowski
& Koziel, 2002). Therefore, women are more inclined to misrepresent their
weight. In online contexts, weight is perceived to be the topic most common
of misrepresentation by women (Ellison et al., 2006). Toma et al. (2008)
compared the online dating service users actual weight and age with the
images presented on their online dating profile and found that women were
more likely than men to underestimate their weight. Gender differences in
misrepresentation were also found in photographs posted in online dating
sites (Hancock & Toma, 2009). Female profile photos were judged as less
accurate and more elaborated (i.e., retouched or taken by a professional
photographer) than were those of males. Therefore, we offer the following
hypothesis:

H2a: In comparison to men, women will be more likely to strategically mis-

represent their weight.

Gender differences in misrepresentation of age are complicated. What

men desire is not youth per se but rather features of fertility (Kenrick,
Keefe, Gabrielidis, & Cornelius, 1996). As men age, they prefer increasingly
Hall et al.: Strategic misrepresentation 121

younger mates. For example, men in their thirties prefer women who are
roughly five years younger, but men in their fifties prefer women who are
ten to twenty years younger (Kenrick & Keefe, 1992). Although men
consider younger women as more desirable and attractive, this is not true
for women (Haselton et al., 2005). Women seek men who are typically the
same age or older than they are (de Backer, Braeckman, & Farinpour,
2008). In order to match mens desired age range for a partner, older
women will be more likely to strategically misrepresent their age than
younger women. We offer the following hypothesis:
H2b: In comparison to men, women will be more likely to strategically
misrepresent their age.
Because potential partners seek out healthier and more attractive partners,
younger mates are preferred to older mates for both sexes (Kenrick et al.,
1996). In comparison to young individuals, this will increase the likelihood
of older individuals misrepresenting their age. However, Toma et al. (2008)
reported no relationship between participants actual age and misrepresen-
tation of age. They suggest that future research should validate this finding
with a larger and older sample. To explore this relationship, we propose the
following research question:
RQ2: What is the relationship between participants actual age and misrep-
resentation of age? Is there an interaction effect between gender and age?

Personality and strategic misrepresentation

Although men and women differ in sexual attitudes, expectations, and

behaviors, there is considerable variation within each sex (Simpson &
Gangestad, 1991). Self-monitoring a specific trait that is strongly related
to impression management has been regarded as one of the key character-
istics that account for individual differences within the same sex. Snyder
(1987) characterized the high self-monitor as a person who behaves strat-
egically in order to obtain desired outcomes by regulating public expressions
and monitoring self-presentations for the sake of creating and maintaining
desired public appearances. Self-monitoring has been linked to differences
in self-presentational styles and dating strategies. High self-monitors date
more frequently than low self-monitors and are more likely to seek more
attractive partners (Rowatt, Cunningham, & Druen, 1998). High self-
monitors are likely to use a wide range of tactics when influencing others,
including emotional appeals and manipulation, and are more persistent
when attempting to achieve their goals (Barbuto & Moss, 2006). By contrast,
low self-monitors present themselves in ways that reflect their authentic
attitudes, values, and beliefs, and avoid using emotional manipulations to
influence others (Barbuto & Moss, 2006).
Self-monitoring has been described as possessing three dimensions: actor,
extraversion, and other-directed (Briggs, Cheek, & Buss, 1980). In the present
122 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 27(1)

article, we will be exploring actor and other-directed. Self-monitoring actor

refers to the ability to modify self-presentation for the presentational
demands of different contexts, whereas self-monitoring other-directed refers
to the sensitivity to expressive behaviors of others (Gangestad & Synder,
2000). Other-directed self-monitors can accurately understand what another
person is feeling or comprehend the emotion the other is trying to commu-
nicate. In the case of strategic misrepresentation during FtF dating, Rowatt
et al. (1998) found that, when only men were recruited, the actor subscale
of self-monitoring was positively correlated with the use of deception to get
a date, whereas the other-directed subscale was not correlated with decep-
tive self-presentation. However, when they recruited both men and women,
it was found that both acting and other-directed subscales were significant
predictors of deceptive self-presentation. When creating an online profile,
individuals have many opportunities to craft an image that will be attractive
to others, although not entirely accurate. Therefore, self-monitoring directly
taps into the behavior germane to the present study, and thus, the following
research question was set forth:

RQ3: Will high self-monitors be more likely to engage in strategic misrep-

resentation? Will the actor or other-directed dimension better predict strat-
egic misrepresentation?

Refined from a large set of traits, the Big Five factor model (FFM) of
neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness
has been related to relationship behaviors in past research (Gaines, 2007).
Specifically, personality traits affect relationship initiation (Barelds &
Barelds-Dijkstra, 2007) and warrant greater attention in the study of court-
ship (Schmitt, 2004). Several studies indicate relationships between per-
sonality and misrepresentation. Neuroticism is positively related to using
deception to get a date (Rowatt et al., 1998). Extraverts have a greater
interest in sex and sexual variety, and engage in more romantic infidelity
(Nettle, 2005). Therefore, extraverts may be more likely to use strategic
misrepresentation to achieve relational goals. Moreover, individuals low in
conscientiousness have little regard for future consequences and are likely
to favor immediate opportunities (Nettle & Clegg, 2008). Such individuals
would also be more inclined to misrepresent themselves to achieve rela-
tional goals. Similarly, individuals low in agreeableness would be willing to
harm others in order to achieve personal goals (Nettle & Clegg, 2008).
Finally, those high in openness are creative, possess interesting talents, and
have had a variety of experiences. As a consequence, this may increase their
mating value, and decrease the likelihood of misrepresentation. Those who
are low in openness may be more likely to misrepresent because they lack
attractive experiences and talents. In light of these past research findings,
we propose the following hypotheses:

H3: Neuroticism (H3a) and extraversion (H3b) will positively predict strategic
misrepresentation, whereas conscientiousness (H3c), agreeableness (H3d),
and openness (H3e) will negatively predict strategic misrepresentation.
Hall et al.: Strategic misrepresentation 123

Demographic characteristics
As de Backer et al. (2008) noted, it is much easier to present oneself in
desirable ways if one actually possesses desirable attributes. Highly desir-
able mates (e.g., young, attractive, wealthy, intelligent, healthy, and possess-
ing good personality) have high reward value to nearly all potential suitors,
both for short-term and long-term mating (Evans & Brase, 2007; Kenrick,
Groth, Trost, & Sadalla, 1993; Regan & Dreyer, 1999). Conversely, in com-
parison with less educated or less wealthy individuals, potential suitors who
have more education and money will be less inclined to misrepresent their
personal assets. The relative gain of misrepresentation for a less educated
or less wealthy individual will be greater than that of a more educated or
wealthier individual. In addition, if the demographic factors of education
and income affect misrepresentation of personal assets, it would be logical
to assume that those demographic factors influence misrepresentation of
other aspects as well, including relationship goals or personal interests.
Thus, we set forth the following research question:

RQ4: Will education and income predict strategic misrepresentation?

One additional research question guides the present study. By simultan-

eously accounting for gender, self-monitoring, and personality traits, the
present study attempts to better understand the relative impact of gender
and individual differences in online strategic misrepresentation. Thus, the
following research question explores the relative importance of each factor
in accounting for misrepresentation in online dating.

RQ5: Of the predictor variables (i.e., gender, self-monitoring, and other

personality traits), which generates the greatest relative influence on mis-
representation?

Method

Sample
An online survey was administered to users of a large online dating site that
utilizes an algorithm, based on user responses, to match users with potential
dating partners. The survey link was provided in an e-mail newsletter in
February 2007. No incentive was offered for the completion of this survey.
The final data set included 5,020 participants. Participants were 74% female,
and an average age of 39.8 years old (range 1896, SD = 11.4). The median
education level was a bachelors degree, and the median household income
was $40,00060,000. Participants were primarily White, non-Hispanic (83.2%),
with 4.1% Hispanic, 5.3% African-American, 3.5% Asian-American, and
3.6% other. Respondents geographical location was not measured, but
users of this dating service reside throughout the US. Fifty-two percent of
participants indicated that their marital status was single, never married,
whereas 42.5% were divorced, 4.2% were separated, 1.4% widowed, and
.3% indicated they were married. Slightly more than two-thirds (67.4%) of
124 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 27(1)

the sample indicated that they were not in a romantic relationship, 22%
were casually dating, 7.6% were seriously dating or engaged to be married,
and 2.7% listed other.

Measurements
Embedded in a larger survey about participants use of the online dating
service and their experience on recent dates, instructions for the strategic
misrepresentation section asked respondents to self-report their likelihood
of misrepresenting themselves online to get a date. Instructions did not
specify how this misrepresentation could occur (i.e., whether using e-mail
or creating a profile). Based on past research on gender differences in
deception (e.g., Haselton et al., 2005; OSullivan, 2008) and online misrep-
resentation (e.g., Ellison et al., 2006; Toma et al., 2008), target items tapped
five foci of strategic misrepresentation: (i) personal assets, (ii) relationship
goals, (iii) personal interests, (iv) personal attributes, and (v) past relation-
ship. For all foci, items were accompanied by a 10-point scale, ranging from
not at all likely (1) to very likely (10).
Five items measured misrepresentation of personal assets (e.g., income,
education; = .85). Three items measured representation of relationship
goals (e.g., level of interest in a serious relationship; = .83). Seven items
measured misrepresentation of personal interests (e.g., how much the
participant liked a particular TV program; = .92). Four items measured
misrepresentation of personal attributes (e.g., politeness; = .91). Finally,
three items measured misrepresentation of past relationships (e.g., relation-
ship history; = .79).

Self-monitoring. Participants completed the original 25-item revised self-

monitoring scale (Gangestad & Snyder, 2000), which measures two dimen-
sions of self-monitoring: actor and other-directed. The actor scale measures
the degree to which an individual reports having the ability to put on a social
performance, and the other-directed scale evaluates the degree to which indi-
viduals modify their behavior for the benefit of other people or contexts.
Both scales were found to be reliable (actor: = .79; other-directed: = .73).
The five-factor model was assessed using the 44-item Big Five Inventory
(John, Naumann, & Soto, 2008). The items measuring each dimension were
found to be reliable (neuroticism: = .81; extraversion: = .87; conscien-
tiousness: = .80; agreeableness: = .75; openness: = .75).

Results

A series of t-tests were conducted to test the first and second sets of
hypotheses and RQ1. The first set of hypotheses was about comparison
between men and women in terms of misrepresentation in personal assets
(H1a) and relationship goals (H1b). Given that we collected the data from
a large sample (N = 5,020), we set the significance level at .001. The t-tests
revealed that men (M = 2.01, SD = 1.49) were more likely to misrepresent
Hall et al.: Strategic misrepresentation 125

personal assets than women (M = 1.83, SD = 1.34), t(2047.40) = 3.80, p <

.001, 2 = .003, but there was no significant difference in relationship goals
at .001 alpha level, t(2128.23) = 1.96, p = .050, 2 = .001. Therefore, H1a was
supported, but H1b was not. In addition, t-tests indicated that men were
more likely to misrepresent personal interests, t(2033.00) = 8.74, p < .001,
2 = .017 (for males, M = 2.38, SD = 1.63; for females, M = 1.93, SD = 1.43),
and personal attributes, t(1984.50) = 5.92, p < .001, 2 = .008 (for males,
M = 2.15, SD = 1.77; for females, M = 1.82, SD = 1.50). The gender differ-
ence in misrepresenting past relationships was not significant. The second
set of hypotheses compared men and women with respect to their mis-
representation of weight (H2a) and age (H2b and RQ2). Consistent with
hypothesis 2a, women (M = 3.24, SD = 2.74) were more likely than men
(M = 2.37, SD = 2.14) to misrepresent their weight, t(2873.43) = 11.75, p <
.001, 2 = .021. Contrary to H2b, men (M = 2.02, SD = 2.01) were more
likely to misrepresent their age than women (M = 1.80, SD = 1.88),
t(2148.33) = 3.50, p < .001, 2 = .003. Due to strong skewness or kurtosis,
the t-tests were conducted with log-transformed dependent variables; how-
ever, the same results appeared.
We used a regression procedure to test RQ2. Older respondents were
more likely to misrepresent their age than younger respondents, F(1, 5010)
= 21.44, p < .001. Gender and age interacted to influence likelihood of
misrepresenting age. Overall, men were more likely to misrepresent their
age than women, and older people were more likely to misrepresent their
age than younger people. For participants 50 years of age or older (N =
1,121), however, men and women were equally likely to misrepresent their
age, t(1,117) = .42, p = .67. Men older than 50 were less likely to misrepre-
sent their age than men in their 30s or 40s (see Figure 1).
A series of multiple regression analyses were conducted to answer RQ3
and RQ4 and to test Hypotheses 3 (see Table 1). With respect to RQ3, self-
monitoring other-directed was a significant positive predictor across all
dependent variables, whereas self-monitoring actor was not a predictor of
misrepresentation.
H3 predicted the influence of personality traits on misrepresentation, both
with positive (H3a: neuroticism and H3b: extraversion) and negative associ-
ations (H3c: conscientiousness, H3d: agreeableness, and H3e: openness). As
reported in Table 1, neuroticism was not a significant predictor. Thus, H3a
was not supported. Interestingly, extraversion showed inconsistent impacts
across types of misrepresentation. Although it had a positive impact on past
relationship as expected, it had a negative impact on personal interests.
Thus, H3b was only partially supported. Conscientiousness was negatively
associated with personal assets, relationship goals, and personal interests,
partially supporting H3c. Similar to conscientiousness, openness was nega-
tively associated with relationship goals and personal interests, partially
supporting H3e. Agreeableness was found to be a consistent negative
predictor for all dependent variables except for weight. Thus, H3d was also
partially supported. Analyses conducted with log-transformed dependent
variables generated identical results.
126 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 27(1)

FIGURE 1
Gender and age group difference in willingness to misrepresent age

2.4

2.2
Misrepresentation of age

2
Female
Male
1.8

1.6

1.4
20s 30s 40s 50s
Age

With respect to RQ4, higher education was a positive predictor for mis-
representation of relationship goals and personal interests. In addition,
higher income was a positive predictor for misrepresentation of past rela-
tionships.
To answer RQ5, we conducted a series of hierarchical regression analyses
while varying the order of self-monitoring, personality traits, and gender.
Results were identical across the different orders of block entry. Self-
monitoring (other-directed and actor) was the most prominent predictor
for all dependent variables except for weight (see Table 2). The FFM vari-
ables had the second largest predictive effects on misrepresentation, except
for weight. Gender had the largest predictive impact on misrepresentation
of weight. For other types of misrepresentation, the effects of gender were
extremely small.

Discussion

The present study examined individual differences in the strategic misrep-

resentation of personal characteristics by online dating service users. The
results demonstrate that men were more likely to misrepresent in general,
and women were more likely to misrepresent their weight. With the excep-
tion of weight, the strongest predictor of strategic misrepresentation was
self-monitoring other-directed, supporting past research on the importance
of self-monitoring in the presentation of self in the context of offline dating
 TABLE 1
Results of simultaneous regression analyses for the topics of misrepresentation

Dependent variables

Personal Relationship Personal Personal Past

assets goals interests attributes relationships Weight Age

Predictors Beta
Hall et al.: Strategic misrepresentation

Self-monitoring other-directed .18* .19* .21* .16* .22* .14* .07*

Self-monitoring actor .02 .03 .01 .02 .05 .01 .01
Neuroticism .03 .06 .03 .04 .05 .05 .01
Extraversion .01 .01 .08* .06 .07* .06 .01
Conscientiousness .07* .07* .07* .05 .05 .06 .03
Agreeableness .07* .09* .06* .15* .10* .01 .06*
Openness .04 .08* .10* .05 .05 .05 .01
Education .01 .07* .06* .05 .02 .04 .03
Income .01 .02 .01 .03 .06* .03 .02
F 34.86* 56.46* 65.39* 58.40* 50.95* 19.38* 8.49*
R2 .07 .10 .12 .11 .09 .04 .02

Note: *p < .001.

127
 128

TABLE 2
R-square changes from the blocks of predictors

Dependent variables

Personal Relationship Personal Personal Past

assets goals interests attributes relationships Weight Age

Blocks R2 changes

Self monitoring .048* .068* .082* .061* .069* .027* .010*

(other-directed and actor)
Personality .016* .029* .030* .040* .020* .009* .005*
(Neuroticism, extraversion,
conscientiousness,
agreeableness, and openness)
Gender (female = 0; male = 1) .001* .000* .006* .001* .000* .028* .001*

Note: *p < .001.

Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 27(1)
Hall et al.: Strategic misrepresentation 129

(Rowatt et al., 1998). Other personality factors, particularly agreeableness,

also accounted for online misrepresentation.

Gender and strategic misrepresentation

In the context of relationship initiation, explanations for gender differences
in misrepresentation based in evolutionary psychology suggest that men
and women will vary their self-presentation to emphasize traits that are
desirable to the opposite sex (OSullivan, 2008). Specifically, consistent with
these predictions, men are more likely to misrepresent personal assets and
women will be more likely to misrepresent their weight (de Backer et al.,
2008). In fact, weight was the only misrepresentation topic for which gender
explained more variance than self-monitoring or other personality traits.
These findings offer strong support for the impact of being female on the
strategic misrepresentation of weight.
The effects of age on misrepresentation were interesting. Older daters
were more likely to misrepresent their age than younger daters, consistent
with the notion that youth is highly valued by both sexes (Kenrick et al.,
1996). Contrary to expectations, men were more likely to misrepresent their
age than were women; however, there was an interaction between age and
gender. Men between 20 and 40 years of age were more willing to misrep-
resent their age than women. Yet, at ages of 50 and older, men and women
did not differ in the likelihood of misrepresenting their age. This is con-
sistent with the finding that, as women get older, they are more inclined
to misrepresent their age to match mens preference for a younger mate
(Kenrick & Keefe, 1992). This willingness to misrepresent is also true for
men, but only through their 40s, where men become less likely to mis-
represent their age. These results are inconsistent with Toma et al. (2008)
who reported no gender difference in misrepresentation of age. Difference
between samples might explain this inconsistency. The sample in Toma et
al. overrepresented young people (ages 2130) who might not need to
misrepresent their age. By contrast, participants of the current study were
much older (M = 39.8, SD = 11.4). The present study suggests that the effect
of gender on the misrepresentation of age must take into account the age
of the individual (and vice versa).
Men were more willing than women to misrepresent four of seven types
of characteristics, including personal interests and personal attributes, for
the purpose of getting a date. During courtship men are more willing to,
and are perceived to, lie more than women to achieve short-term mating
goals (Haselton et al., 2005; OSullivan, 2008). The present studys results
suggest that men are more likely to misrepresent both characteristics that
demonstrate long-term mating value (e.g., personal assets) and personal
characteristics relevant to screening potential partners in online dating
(e.g., personal interests, personal attributes, and age). Given a lack of signi-
ficant gender difference in Toma et al.s (2008) study (which compared online
profiles with three actual characteristics such as age, weight, and height), the
current studys findings are likely to be a result of mens greater willingness
to self-report misrepresentation. Investigating actual misrepresentation will
130 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 27(1)

be useful in understanding whether mens greater self-reported willingness

to misrepresent matches actual misrepresentation.

Personality and strategic misrepresentation

Across all dependent variables, self-monitoring other-directed accounted
for the greatest amount of variance in the likelihood of misrepresentation.
Conceptually, the predictive value of self-monitoring other-directed is
consistent with the constraints of online dating. Individuals who are high in
self-monitoring other-directed are sensitive to the desires of others, and
thus, they are more likely to modify their self-presentation to attract a
potential partner, taking advantage of the characteristics of CMC. Self-
monitoring actor demonstrated no relationship with strategic misrepresen-
tation. These results illustrate the benefit of using the multi-dimensional
model of self-monitoring, and imply that the study of self-monitoring has
considerable predictive value to the study of online self-presentation as
well as the initiation of courtship.
With the exception of extraversion and neuroticism, there were consist-
ent relationships between the Big-Five personality characteristics and
strategic misrepresentation. The relationship between extraversion and mis-
representation is topic dependent. More extroverted individuals were more
likely to misrepresent past relationships, but less willing to misrepresent
personal interests. Extraverts are likely to have a variety of sexual experi-
ences (Nettle, 2005), and thus, it might be necessary for them to misrepre-
sent the nature of their relational past. However, extraverts may be less
likely to misrepresent their personal interests because they feel that their
outgoing personality is likely to be seen as appealing. Additionally, neuroti-
cism was not significantly related to misrepresentation, which suggests that
it is not an important factor in predicting deceptive behavior online.
More consistent relationships appeared between misrepresentation and
the other three personality traits. Conscientiousness negatively predicted
misrepresentation for personal assets, relationship goals, and personal
interests. This finding parallels Nettle and Cleggs (2008) finding that indi-
viduals who are low in conscientiousness are more inclined to misrepresent
themselves to achieve relational goals because they have little regard for
future consequences. Agreeableness was also negatively related to strategic
misrepresentation for all categories except for weight. As predicted, people
with an agreeable personality are less likely to misrepresent themselves
online for the purpose of getting a date. Finally, more open individuals were
less likely to misrepresent themselves for relationship goals and personal
interests. Those who are less open to new experiences find themselves at a
greater need to misrepresent online to appear more interesting and adven-
turous. In summary, these findings indicate that the utility of the FFM in
explaining misrepresentation in online dating depends upon the topic, which
supports Gaines (2007) call for more research on personality in courtship.

Demographic characteristics and strategic misrepresentation

Finally, the present study explored demographic factors of education and
income in misrepresentation. Neither education nor income was a significant
Hall et al.: Strategic misrepresentation 131

factor for misrepresentation of personal assets, personal attributes, weight,

and age. Yet, education positively affected misrepresentation of relationship
goals and personal interests. Given that people with more education are
likely to have a high reward value to potential suitors (Kenrick et al., 1993),
this finding is somewhat surprising. Considering the competitive environ-
ment that is online dating, it appears that even highly educated individuals
are inclined to misrepresent characteristics relevant to mate selection, partic-
ularly to embellish their personal interests. In addition, income affected
misrepresentation of past relationships positively. Perhaps individuals with
a higher income have had a variety of past relationships and have reason
to be deceptive. Future studies are encouraged to clarify these results.
The final research question explored the relative predictive value of
gender and individual differences in explaining online misrepresentation.
The relative value of each predictor is dependent on the topic of misrepre-
sentation. For example, misrepresentation of weight is more strongly
predicted by gender than by personality. Conscientiousness, openness, and
agreeableness are more predictive of misrepresentation about participants
relationship goals and personal interests, but less predictive of the other
four topics. For all topics, however, self-monitoring other-directed was a
consistent and strong predictor of strategic misrepresentation. To identify
which individual characteristics predict deception, researchers must be
sensitive to the topic of misrepresentation.

Summary, limitations, and directions for future research

The present study integrated past research on deception in CMC, evolu-
tionary psychological explanations of gender difference, and personality
traits. The current study replicated past research on deception and self-
presentation in online dating (e.g., Ellison et al., 2006; Gibbs et al., 2006;
Toma et al., 2008). Demonstrating the predictive value of personality, the
current study shed new light on the study of misrepresentation online. Thus,
individual differences among online dating service users should be given
particular attention in the future. Finally, unlike past investigations of decep-
tion in courtship using samples of undergraduate students (e.g., Haselton
et al., 2005; OSullivan, 2008), the present study explored strategic mis-
representation using a large and older sample of users of a large online
dating service.
One of this studys limitations is that it relied on participants self-reports.
Thus, it was not possible to compare participants reported likelihood of
misrepresentation with their actual physical and behavioral characteristics.
Given that participants are less likely to report socially undesirable beha-
viors, there may be discrepancies between self-reported willingness to mis-
represent and actual misrepresentation. The limitation should be remedied
by collecting participants actual characteristics. Future research should also
explore actual self-misrepresentation for aspects of self that are less easy
to verify, such as personal assets and personal interests. As de Backer et al.
(2008) note, some categories of misrepresentation (e.g., weight and height)
can be identified on a first date, yet other categories such as personal assets
and past relationships may never be fully known. In addition, personal
132 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 27(1)

interests and relationship goals may change as a consequence of looking

forward to, or actually dating, someone (Ellison et al., 2006). For instance,
an individual might become interested in certain activities (e.g., movies or
hiking) as a result of engaging in them with their new dating partner. There-
fore, identifying deception is likely to be quite difficult even if participants
were interviewed both before and after dates. Also, as Gibbs et al. (2006)
note, the anticipation of future interaction may encourage online daters to
improve themselves prior to meeting FtF. Future longitudinal studies should
explore the relationship between self-reported willingness to misrepresent,
actual characteristics of the individual, and the resulting transformations of
self as a consequence of dating or finding a mate.
Results from this study may not be unique to CMC settings. Online daters
may be discouraged from blatant deception because of a desire for offline
relationships. However, this aspect of deceptive communication is likely to
be relevant to offline dating as well. Further, individuals with certain char-
acteristics that lead to misrepresentation may be drawn to online dating
services. Online daters differ from offline daters on a number of character-
istics, such as age, gender, and past relationship history (Sprecher et al.,
2008), which might also make them more willing to misrepresent themselves
on certain topics. For example, is the tendency of women to misrepresent
their weight due to online dating service users being heavier than offline
daters? Future studies should compare misrepresentation of self in both
online and offline courtship.
In addition, participants were asked to report the degree to which they
would misrepresent their age. However, it is unclear whether exaggerations
would tend toward being younger or older. Although it stands to reason that
older adults would be more likely to report being younger, it is unknown
whether younger participants would misrepresent themselves as younger
or older. Future studies should be careful to measure both the existence
and direction of misrepresentation.
Finally, despite the very large sample size (N = 5,020), predictors explained
relatively little variation in misrepresentation reports. Although several of
the present factors influence misrepresentation in online dating, only about
10% of total variance was explained across the seven traits. A large portion
of the variance in individuals willingness to misrepresent online is left un-
explained. Misrepresentation in online dating is a very complicated process,
and thus future studies would benefit from identifying new predictors.

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