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This was the guiding principle behind the first edition of this sensor instal-
lation handbook. The principle is still valid today, and questions of instru-
mentation & control and sensor installation are more topical than ever.
Legislation increasingly calls for economic use of energy. At the same time,
there are stringent requirements relating to the indoor environment. If we
are to satisfy both sets of requirements in the best way possible, we must
have all the necessary measured data at our disposal, and sensors that func-
tion reliably for many years.
To meet this objective, we not only need professional, top quality products,
but also some basic rules of good practice.
To the reader
CLIMA-SUISSE
Verband Schweizerischer und Liechtensteinischer
Heizungs- und Lftungsfirmen
(Association of heating & ventilation companies in Switzerland
and Liechtenstein)
To the reader
A control system is only as good as the sensor used to measure the control-
led variable (temperature, humidity, pressure etc.) and transmit it as a mea-
sured value to the controller. It is crucial that the sensor should provide an
accurate measurement of the controlled variable at the reference point in
the control loop. However, it is often found in practice that too little atten-
tion has been paid both to the way in which the sensor is mounted, and to
its location. This generally results in a failure to meet the desired conditions
satisfactorily, and this, in turn, can lead to customer complaints.
The Swiss controls companies Landis & Gyr Building Control (Schweiz) AG,
Steinhausen, Fr. Sauter AG, Basle, and Staefa Control System AG, Stfa,
decided some time ago to contribute towards better control engineering by
producing a "Sensor Installation" handbook. Thanks to the active involve-
ment of Sulzer Infra (Schweiz) AG, Zurich, the handbook incorporates prac-
tical expertise from experienced system contractors.
While "Sensor Installation" is written for the benefit of engineers and instal-
lers on site, it will also provide the project engineer with useful information
at the design stage. It is written by practitioners for practitioners, but also
makes a contribution to energy optimisation.
The writers hope that this booklet fulfils the aims described.
Best regards,
Fr. Sauter AG, Basle Staefa Control System AG Sulzer Infra (Schweiz) AG
Zurich
Authors:
Ren Bader
Director of Training
Fr. Sauter AG, 4016 Basle
Willy Landolt
Siemens Building Technologies (Schweiz) AG
Ewald Senn
Formerly of: Sulzer Infra (Schweiz) AG
Paul Zger
Central Branch Manager
Siemens Building Technologies (Schweiz) AG
1
General notes for all sensors
2
General notes for all sensors
Always allow a sufficient length of spare
cable so that the sensor can be removed
at any time without disconnecting the wiring.
3
General notes for all sensors
4
Temperature Immersion sensors Water
Incorrect installation
5
Temperature Immersion sensors
Plastic sleeve
6
Temperature Immersion sensors
Water-resistant seal
7
Temperature Immersion sensors
Incorrect installation
8
Temperature Immersion sensors
If the active length (a) of the sensor probe is
longer than the diameter of the pipe, the sensor
should be installed diagonally, or in a bypass
pipe or bend.
9
Temperature Immersion sensors
10
Temperature Immersion sensors
Sensors mounted without immersion pockets or
with slotted or perforated immersion pockets
must be identified accordingly. Label
Installed without
immersion pocket
minimum 10 x d
maximum 15 x d
minimum 10 x d
maximum 15 x d
11
Temperature Cable sensors Water
Temperature Cable sensors
12
Temperature Probe sensors Air
13
Temperature Capillary sensors with probes
Temperature Capillary sensors
g
on
wr
rig
ht
14
Temperature Capillary sensors
The ambient temperature at the device head
must always be higher than the temperature
to which the sensor probe is exposed.
15
Temperature Capillary sensors
16
Temperature Averaging sensors
17
Temperature Averaging sensors
If air washers are used for humidification, install the sensor element
downstream of the eliminator plate, in the direction of air flow.
18
Temperature Averaging sensors
Do not bend the capillary too tightly
(radius of bend must not be less than 50 mm).
19
Temperature Frost protection Air
Temperature Frost protection
20
Temperature Frost protection
When installing on "drawer"-type units, ensure
that the electrical connections are long enough
to enable the units to be pulled out.
21
Temperature Frost protection
22
Temperature Frost protection
Use spacing clips to maintain a 50 mm
clearance.
23
Temperature Room sensors
Temperature Room
24
Temperature Room
Do not install on external walls.
25
Temperature Room
26
Temperature Outdoor sensors
Temperature Outdoor
The system design determines the faades
(N,S,E,W) on which the sensor should be
located.
27
Temperature Outdoor
28
Temperature Outdoor
Seal gaps between cable/plastic tubing and
conduit.
29
Temperature Outdoor sensors Cable sensors
Temperature Outdoor
30
Temperature Surface-mounted strap-on sensors
Temperature Surface
The surface must be clean and smooth (remove
paint). The sensor must be fixed firmly to the
surface. Use heat-conductive compound.
Important:
Avoid exposure to external heat gains.
31
Temperature Surface
32
Temperature Wind sensors
Temperature Wind
Install on the faades exposed to the main wind
direction.
Make sure the sensor is accessible
(for inspection/testing).
33
Temperature Solar sensors
Temperature Solar
34
Temperature Solar
Avoid shade (from trees or neighbouring
houses etc.)
35
Humidity Duct sensors
Humidity Duct
Important:
When installing sensors in ducts with negative
pressure, it is possible for air from an external
source to be drawn into the device and the
installation hole.
(Seal tightly to prevent false readings.)
36
Humidity Duct
A test hole must be provided for every humidity
sensor (downstream of the sensor).
Recommended diameter: 40 mm.
37
Distance for humidification measurements for BM
Humidity Duct
BM is the distance between the humidifier and the humidity sensor neces-
sary to allow the air to absorb 100% of the water supplied. The required
distance depends on the amount of water supplied, the velocity of the air
and the type of humidifier system.
If the humidity sensor is not mounted at the required distance, it will
produce a false reading.
Humidification systems:
Air washers BM downstream of eliminator plate
Tray-type humidifier BM 3.5 m
Spray rehumidifiers BM 5.5 m
Spray humidifiers See water volume diagram (adiabatic) page 39
Ultrasound humidifiers
Centrifugal humidifiers
Atomizer humidifiers
see diagram for steam page 40
Pressurized steam BM = Isotherm
Pressure-free steam BM = Isotherm 1.3
38
Distance for adiabatic humidification
Humidity Duct
measurements
This diagram is designed for use in winter, with
an absolute humidity content of 1.5 g/kg on the
intake side, and a supply air temperature of
18 C.
Method: Enter the air velocity (in m/s) on the left edge of the diagram (e.g.
2.0 m/s). From this point, draw a line to the right, along the line indicating
the increase in humidity (example: x = 10 g/kg).
Starting where the two lines intersect, draw a vertical line and read the
required distance BM for humidification measurements on the horizontal line
at the bottom of the diagram (6.7 m). 39
Distance BM for humidification measure-
Humidity Duct
Method: Enter the increase in humidity in g water/kg air (e.g. 4.5 g/kg) on
the right edge of the diagram.
Draw a horizontal line extending from this point towards the left.
Enter the minimum duct air velocity (in m/s) on the bottom edge of the
diagram (e.g. 1.9 m/s) and draw a vertical line extending upwards from
this point.
From the point of intersection of these two lines, draw a diagonal line ex-
tending upwards and parallel to the existing diagonals. Read the distance,
BM, in metres, from the scale on the edge of the diagram (example 8.5 m).
40
Humidity Duct
Humidity sensor
41
Humidity Room sensors
Humidity Room
H%
42
Humidity Room
Seal gaps between cable/plastic tubing and
conduit.
43
Pressure General
Pressure General
44
Pressure General
Where there is a risk of condensation, the diffe-
rential pressure tube must be installed at a gra-
dient of 1:30 and fitted with a drain mechanism.
The drainage point must be lower than the de-
vice head and sensing point. Protect from frost
and avoid U-shapes.
dg = Equivalent diameter
45
Pressure Air
Pressure Air
Important
Protruding fixing screws will impair correct
measurement.
Correct installation.
46
Pressure Air
Avoid using tips which protrude into the duct
for static pressure measurements.
47
Pressure Air
48
Pressure Air
Where more than one sensor is used, the sen-
sors should be installed on the same plane in
the flow, and not in a position where one device
will obstruct the air flow to the other.
49
Pressure Room
Pressure Room
Pressure Suction
Options:
Calculate average based on pressure measure-
ments taken on several faades.
Measure pressure in an open space
(min 1.5 m above ground level).
Multiple sensing point on flat roof.
50
Pressure Liquids
Pressure Liquids
Pressure tapping point:
Sensing hole: diameter 5 mm, drilled and
deburred.
Wrong:
Air bubbles and condensate remain trapped.
51
Pressure Liquids
Wrong:
Condensate cannot be drained.
Condensing gases
Measure at the top to prevent condensate from
entering the pressure tube.
53
Flow velocity Air
Flow velocity Air
Fan-belt monitoring
The differential pressure across the fan is only
suitable for fan-belt monitoring.
Negative connection () on suction side
use copper tube
Positive connection (+) on discharge side:
use Pitot tube
Flow monitoring
Differential pressure
Do not monitor flow or differential pressure
where flow resistance is variable, e.g. at filters,
cooling coils, fans etc. Suitable locations:
heating coils, silencers, baffles, attenuators.
54
Flow monitoring Water
Incorrect installation
55
Air quality sensors Room sensors
Air quality Room
CO2 sensors
Selective gas sensors may require maintenance
at regular intervals. Please consult the manufac-
turers instructions. The sensor must be installed
in an accessible location.
56
Air quality Room
Avoid recesses (e.g. shelving) and alcoves.
57
Liquid level sensing
Liquid level
Pressure measurement:
The pressure is defined by the height of the li-
quid medium, measured from the sensor to the
Measured surface of the liquid. There are no critical factors
variable
to consider when installing the pressure sensor.
The sensor material must be suitable for use
Pressure detector
measures liquid
level with the liquid medium.
Compressed
The pressure measurement is determined by the
air
height of the liquid above the bubble-tube
outlet.
Measured
variable
58
Liquid level
Floats:
These are used in open and sealed systems.
The device head must be installed above
the maximum expected liquid level.
Conductance systems:
These are used in open and sealed tanks.
The measured result is determined by the length
of the immersed electrodes.
Mounting: The distance from the next electri-
cally conductive component must be as
specified by the manufacturer.
59
Liquid level
Mounting:
The liquid-level tube and the location of the
level switch are determined by the manufac-
turer. Level switches are installed at the same
height as the required liquid level.
Location
of sensor
60
Principles of operation
Principles of operation
General
All measuring systems transmit physical variables such as temperature,
humidity, pressure etc. with a particular response characteristic.
The response characteristic (e.g. Tt = dead time / T = time constant or
lag) refers to the reactions of the measuring systems.
Tt = Dead time
61
Time constant of measuring sensors in liquids
Principles of operation
Time constant T
The time taken to transmit 63% of the total change in the measured
variable is referred to as the time constant, T.
It takes a period equivalent to five times the time constant to transmit
approximately 99% of the change in measured variable.
62
Example of response characteristic
Principles of operation
Sensor in water without immersion pocket
63 %
1,6 sec
63 %
16 sec
Sensor in immersion pocket without contact fluid
Contact fluid 63 %
60 sec
Sensor in pipe
Output signals
The sensor converts the measured variable into an output signal.
Sensors (measuring devices) are divided on the basis of their output
signals into two main categories:
63
Switching devices
Principles of operation
Switching devices
Thermostats
On/off
Hygrostats
Pressure switches
Changeover
3-position
Multi-stage
Setpoint
Principles of operation
Stepless devices (sensors) produce a continuously variable, or stepless
output signal. A given output value is assigned to each measured variable
(temperature, humidity, pressure etc.) and the output signals are
standardized.
Normally, pressure, current, voltage or resistance signals are used for
this purpose.
Measured variable
65
Temperature
Temperature
Deflection of metals
Metals respond to a change in temperature by a corresponding expansion
(deflection). Sensors can be constructed in various ways to transfer this
response.
Bimetal strips:
A bimetal strip is composed of two strips of metal with different coeffi-
cients of expansion, bonded together. As the temperature changes, one
material (A) expands more than the other, causing the strip to bend.
The curvature can be converted into an output signal.
66
Temperature
Bimetal rod and tube
Material Construction Function System
Tube Deflection
Steel/brass
Invar/brass
The tube (metal A) increases in length as the temperature rises. The Invar
rod (metal B) does not change in length, with the result that the linear ex-
pansion of the tube is transmitted as a change in position. This, in turn,
can be converted into an output signal.
Metal A
Metal B (Invar)
67
Temperature
Gas Force/deflection
e.g. helium
Vapour Force/deflection
For small Non-linear due to
measuring ranges to latent heat in-
volved in a change
change of state
(phase transfor-
mation)
Liquid Force/deflection
averaging
type sensors
The total length
of the capillary is
active.
68
Temperature
Electrical resistance sensors
Metals change their resistance (measure in ohms) with a change in
temperature.
The change in resistance per Kelvin (K) is different for every metal,
and is used directly as an output signal.
69
Temperature
The relationship between the measured variable (temperature) and the re-
sistance value is shown on a graph.
The designation of the various PTC sensor elements is standardized and
comprises:
a) the material of the sensor element
b) its resistance at 0 C
e.g. Ni 1000
Nickel sensor element
1000 resistance at 0 C.
e.g. Pt 100
Platinum sensor element
100 resistance at 0 C.
NTC sensors
The characteristic curve of the NTC sensor
is not linear.
The measuring ranges are defined by the
manufacturer.
70
Temperature
Thermocouples
These consist of two wires of dissimilar metals, welded together at one
end.
Examples:
Copper (Cu)/Constantan, Iron (Fe)/Constantan, Chromium (Cr)/Constantan,
Nickel (Ni)/Constantan etc.
A voltage (mV) is generated as a function of temperature at the welding
point or junction.
71
Measuring humidity
Humidity
% r.h.
Cotton fibre
Salts (such as lithium chloride, LiCl) have hygroscopic properties. Their elec-
trical conductivity changes according to the amount of moisture absorbed
by the salt. A temperature sensor is wrapped with in a woven fabric which
holds the salt. The fabric is wound with two non-touching electrical wires
connected to an alternating current. As the air humidity rises, the moisture
content in the salt increases, so reducing the electrical resistance between
the wires. The smaller the resistance, the higher the electrical current, so
that the two wires act as an electric heating element. The heat produced
causes the water to evaporate. As the moisture content is reduced, so the
resistance increases again, and the heat output is reduced. This alternating
process is repeated until the amount of water evaporated is equal to the
amount of water absorbed. At this point, a state of equilibrium (constant
temperature) is reached. This temperature (the transformation tempera-
ture) is a measure of absolute humidity.
Force/deflection systems
With pressure sensors of this type the pressure is converted into a change
in position or force. This can be used to:
Move a pointer
Operate a switch
Adjust a potentiometer, etc.
74
Pressure
Electronic systems
Output
Piezoelectric elements:
Quartz
The force acting on the quartz crystals
generates an electrical charge. This
charge is converted into an output Quartz
signal corresponding to the pressure.
Important:
Take care to size the differential pressure tube
correctly (see page 47).
75
Measuring air velocity and air flow
Velocity
Velocity
Like air velocity, water velocity can be measured with orifice plates.
Velocity measurements, however, are primarily required in order to deter-
mine heat volume.
There are various commercially available heat meters, based on different
mechanisms for measuring flow velocity.
Example:
Important:
The required steadying zones must be allowed for, upstream and
downstream of the sensor.
Flow velocity
To determine the flow velocity, the differential
pressure at the flow detector (orifice plate,
flow grid etc.) is measured. The same general
mounting instructions apply as for differential
pressure sensors.
Important:
Formula:
The required steadying zones must be allowed
dg = Equivalent diameter
for, upstream and downstream of the sensor.
77
Selecting the right sensor
Selecting the right sensor
78
Selecting the right sensor
Room temperature measurement
Room sensors: In large spaces, it is advisable to use more than
one sensor (for an average value).
With high internal loads and where extractors are
used above lamps, sensors must not be sited in the
exhaust air flow.
Important: Remember to take account of
reheating in the duct
Air quality sensors: Do not install near heat sources.
Measuring humidity
The time constant (lag coefficient, or response time) of the humidity
sensor can vary from 10 s5 mins, depending on the type of sensor.
As a general rule, sensors with a short response time (less than 1 minute)
should be used for measurements in the supply air.
Table of lag coefficients for various sensor elements:
Sensor element: Approx. lag coefficient
Man-made fibres 13 min
Cotton 3 mins
Lithium chloride 110 s
Capacitance 1020 s
Fast humidification systems: supply air, steam humidifiers, spray humidifiers.
Important:
Solvents in laboratories, chlorine in swimming pools, disinfectants in
hospitals etc. will impair the service life and operation of humidity sensors.
Air velocity: The maximum admissible air velocity at the sensing point of a
humidity sensor must not be exceeded.
79
Selecting the right sensor
Measuring pressure and differential pressure
of gases (air) and liquids
The nominal pressure PN of the pressure sensor must correspond to the
safety pressure of the system.
The maximum permissible load on one side must not be exceeded. The
pressure sensor must be approved for use with the medium to be measured
(water, vapour, refrigerant, foods, gases etc.). The measuring range must
be selected so that the set value is not at the start or end of the scale.
Measuring systems:
Spot measurements: Suitable for:
Pressure tube Gases, liquids
Hot-wire anemometer Gases
Vane anemometer Gases, liquids
Calibration
The process is always based on a comparison.
In order to calibrate sensors, a high-quality measuring instrument must
be used.
This type of check is only useful if the measured variable remains constant
throughout the calibration process.
Important:
Avoid external influences (e.g. heat gain from the tester's own body etc.)
The calibration process must be carried out directly on the sensor.
The verification of sensors in conjunction with the electrical installation
must be carried out only by qualified personnel (see regulations).
81
Calibration
Clinical syringe
p filter
Method:
Switch off the system.
Disconnect the differential pressure tubes (+ and ) from the
pressure-tapping points.
Connect the syringe and a manometer (U-tube) to the + side.
Switch on the system.
Gradually increase the pressure with the syringe until the manometer
shows that the switching point has been reached.
The alarm device should trip at this point. (Recalibrate if necessary.)
Switch off the system.
Re-connect the differential pressure tubes.
Switch on the plant again.
82
Practical tips
Practical tips
Frost protection thermostats
Purpose:
Frost protection thermostats are designed to prevent water-filled heat
exchangers from freezing.
Method:
The air-side frost temperature must be monitored with a capillary sensor.
83
Practical tips
Basic circuit:
If the air temperature downstream of the heat exchanger falls below the
preset temperature, then:
the supply/extract fans switch off
the outside air/exhaust air dampers close
the heating coil valve opens
the internal pump switches on
the frost alarm trips.
The frost alarm is self-locking, to prevent the system from being switched
on again automatically by the frost thermostat. The alarm must be acknow-
ledged locally (remote acknowledgement is prohibited).
To prevent overheating inside the unit, the heating coil valve is regulated
by the frost protection thermostat while the frost alarm is active.
To prevent the frost thermostat from tripping in situations where the tem-
perature is adequate, the following basic circuits have proven effective:
Preventive frost protection thermostat
Stabilised start function
Setpoint-regulated start-up control
84
Practical tips
Preventive frost protection thermostat:
The preventive frost protection thermostat operates in two phases.
Open
Temperature
Frost alarm Closed
Valve
Example:
1. If the air temperature around the frost thermostat drops below 6 C, the
thermostat takes over control of the heat exchanger valve to maintain
the air temperature at a value between 2 C and 6 C.
2. If the air temperature is still below the 2 C switch-off point, (e.g. due to
insufficient heating), the frost alarm will trip.
85
Practical tips
A: Selector function
Setpoint
Supply air 1
86
Practical tips
Pressure control in VAV systems
The sensing point must be sited at the most remote point in the duct
system. In duct systems with a large number of branches, the use of several
sensing points is recommended (the lowest pressure is used for control).
If some parts of the ductwork (zones) are shut off by dampers, the relevant
sensors must be disconnected.
87
Practical tips
88