Jeulo D.

Madriaga 7/21/17

Western Music History Reference : http://www.essential-

humanities.net/western-art/music/modern/

The Earliest Music

The world's earliest visual art dates to the Upper Paleolithic (ca. 50,000-10,000 BC). This appears to be
true of music as well; at any rate, the oldest discovered musical instruments belong to this period. Little
is known about pre-civilized music, however; only with the development of writing (ca. 3000 BC) do
historical records of musical practices begin. Eventually, music notation systems were invented,
allowing actual works of music to be recorded.

A few fragments of ancient Western notation (mostly Greek) survive. Even these can only be partly
deciphered, however, such that any modern performance is highly speculative.4 Knowledge of ancient
Western music is limited mainly to descriptions found in Greek and Roman literature.

Scales vs. Modes

A scale is a set of "standard notes" from which a song is composed. The C major scale contains seven
notes; a song in the key of C major is comprised mainly of these seven notes. While a mode also
contains a set of standard notes, it often includes additional standard features, such as patterns of rhythm
and melody. Living traditions of mode-based music include Islamic and South Asian art music
(see World Literature and Music).

Main Article

Greek Music

A relatively young civilization, the Greeks drew much from Mesopotamian and Egyptian culture. Indeed,
by the time the Greeks emerged on the stage of history, these elder civilizations had invented all the
major instrument families, including strings (plucked and bowed), flutes, reeds, brass, and drums. From
the dawn of civilization (and probably much earlier), music played two major roles in human
society: ceremony (social, religious, and/or civic) and entertainment.3

Ancient Greek music was based on a set of eight Greek modes; texture was homophonic (see Musical
Texture). The most popular Greek instruments were the lyre (a harp-like instrument) and aulos (an oboe-
like instrument).2,3

Greek philosophers generally viewed music as a reflection of the underlying harmony of the universe;
some even argued that performances could influence human health or behaviour. Philosophers also
analyzed music from a technical standpoint, thus founding Western music theory. The foremost Greek
music theorist was Pythagoras, who discovered that pitches can be described in terms of string length
ratios.2,3
To illustrate this concept, consider a simple plucked string instrument with two identical strings.

SUMMARY OF MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE MUSIC

Dark Ages later Middle Ages Renaissance

ca. 500-1000 ca. 1000-1400 ca. 1400-1600

music Gregorian chant polyphonic vocal music (sacred and secular)

crude notation (approximate indication of staff notation (precise indication of pitch and
notation
pitch) rhythm)

General Features

The medieval and Renaissance periods each witnessed a critical transition in the structure of Western
music. During the Middle Ages, monophony evolved into polyphony(see Musical Texture). During the
Renaissance, the shell harmony of the Middle Ages was succeeded by true harmony.

TRANSITIONS IN THE STRUCTURE OF WESTERN MUSIC

Middle Ages Renaissance Baroque

monophony > polyphony shell harmony > true harmony church modes > major/minor scales

Throughout the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods, Western art music was based on two kinds of
scales: major and minor (see Tonality). Medieval and Renaissance music, on the other hand, was based
on a set of eight scales, known as the church modes.4
The church modes served as excellent aids for writing smooth melodies. They proved ill-suited to
composing harmony, however, which became increasingly problematic as harmony-writing became more
common and complex. Ultimately, the church modes were abandoned (in the Baroque era) in favour
of major and minor scales.5

Main Article

Medieval Music

ca. 500-1400

During the Early Christian period (ca. 200-500), portions of scripture were set to traditional Roman
melodies. In the Dark Ages (ca. 500-1000), these works were organized into an official Church
repertoire, largely under the reign of Pope Gregory I. They are consequently known as Gregorian
chant.2

Gregorian chants are monophonic vocal works, historically performed during various Roman Catholic
ceremonies. The scale of chant performance ranges from a lone soloist to a large choir. In some cases,
chant performance may alternate between groups, or between a group and soloist.

The evolution of polyphony began in the late Dark Ages, when some musicians began to embellish
Gregorian chants with a parallel melody line.I24,

Secular Music
Throughout the Middle Ages, advances in music practice and theory were driven mainly by sacred
music. Over the centuries, these advances diffused to secular music(non-religious music).I61,3

Since ancient times, secular vocal music had been composed for popular entertainment. From antiquity
through the early Middle Ages, these compositions featured monophonic texture (see Musical Texture);
typical subjects were heroic legends, love stories, and satirical observations. In the Dark
Ages, minstrels (a general term for wandering performers) were the principal group of professional
secular musicians.I18,3

In the later medieval period, minstrels were joined by such groups as the troubadours (of southern
France), trouveres (northern France), and minnesingers and meistersingers (Germany). In addition to
composing monophonic works, these groups introduced polyphony to secular music. Like their sacred
counterparts, polyphonic secular works were often built upon an existing melody (rather than being
composed entirely from scratch) up until the Baroque era.

Renaissance Music

ca. 1400-1600

The term "Renaissance" denotes the revival of classical culture (i.e. Greco-Roman culture). In some
cases this revival was quite direct; sculptors, for instance, reawakened the classical statue by studying
ancient originals. With no surviving ancient music to emulate, however, composers took part in the
Renaissance by embracing the general classical principles of simplicity, balance, order, and clarity
(see Western Aesthetics).

Throughout the later medieval period, composers elevated polyphonic music to staggering heights
of complexity. Renaissance composers reigned in this tendency, preferring melodies and harmonies of
greater simplicity and clarity. Renaissance music is also notable for its ample use of imitation (the
repetition or variation of a melody, often at a different pitch), which has remained a key element of
Western music ever since. Imitation expands and amplifies the effect of a melody, and serves as a
unifying force throughout a musical work.I113-17,3

The Renaissance also witnessed the embrace of sweet true harmony in place of dry shell harmony.
"Shell harmony" has two parts: a root note and its fifth. "True harmony"

Generally speaking, leadership of Western culture belonged to France during the later Middle Ages, then
to Italy during the Renaissance. Music is an exception to this general account. While later medieval music
was indeed led by France, Renaissance music was led by three regions, consecutively: Burgundy, then
the Low Countries, then Italy.3

Instrumental Music

Vocal works (sacred and secular) were the predominant form of music throughout the medieval and
Renaissance periods; instrumental music served chiefly as accompaniment for singers or dancers.
Nonetheless, the Renaissance did witness the rise of independent instrumental music. Instrumental
works of the Renaissance period were mainly composed for lute, keyboard (organ, harpsichord, or
clavichord), or small ensembles (strings, woodwinds, and/or brass).I142,3
Addendum

Key Definitions

The Essential Humanities definition of art is a beautiful human creation. Art can be divided into two
basic types: fine art (aka pure art), which is simply experienced (e.g. painting, sculpture, architecture),
and applied art (aka decorative art), which is actually used (e.g. pottery, clothing, furniture).

Fine art (which has always strongly influenced applied art) is the primary concern of Essential Humanities.
Five great fine arts are recognized: painting (flat visual art), sculpture (three-dimensional visual art),
architecture (the visual art of building design; may be considered a special branch of sculpture), music
(sound art), and literature (word art). These five media are "great" in that they (arguably) comprise the
most expressive and universally appreciated forms of art.

Ages of Western Music

Western music can be divided into seven ages. For discussion of the overall course of Western art,
see Core Regions of Western Art and Western Aesthetics. For a collection of sample works from each
period, see the Music Guide.

Baroque Music

UMMARY OF BAROQUE MUSIC (EXCLUDING OPERA)Vivaldiconcertos (The Four Seasons)Handelsacred

vocal works (Messiah), dance suites (Water Music and Fireworks Music)Bachkeyboard music (fugues),
concertos (Brandenburg Concertos), sacred vocal works (St Matthew Passion, Mass in B minor)

General Features

The leading regions of Baroque music were Italy and Germany; the other major contributor was France.
Indeed, these three regions (plus Austria, beginning in the Classical period) remained the heart of
Western composition throughout the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods.

Baroque music is quite distinct from that of the Renaissance; two primary distinguishing features
are major-minor tonality and basso continuo.

Major-minor tonality denotes that a composition is both tonal (centred around a fundamental note) and
based on major and minor scales (see Tonality). Medieval and Renaissance music, though indeed
tonal, was based on the eight church modes (see Medieval and Renaissance Music). Major-minor
tonality dominated Western music throughout the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods (and
continues to flourish in modern popular music, film music, and musical theatre).

Basso continuo, on the other hand, was limited mainly to the Baroque period of Western music. This
term denotes a style of accompaniment comprised of two instruments: one instrument (typically a cello)
provides a bassline, while the other (typically a harpsichord) provides improvised chords.2
Instrumental Music

The Baroque era marks the rise of instrumental music to an equal footing with vocal music in the
Western world. Baroque composers especially favoured the violin, harpsichord, and organ. Indeed,
Baroque-era Germany was the "golden age" of organ composition. I173,I234,I255

Instrumental music can be divided into program music, which the composer intends to evoke specific
events or images; and absolute music, which lacks this intention.

Multi-movement Works

A multi-movement work consists of multiple, self-contained works, each of which is referred to as

a movement. Multi-movement works are common in Western music from the Baroque age onward.
Typically, the movements vary in character (notably tempo) in order to provide contrast throughout the
work.

In a work of absolute music (such as a symphony), each movement is typically named according to
its tempo (e.g. allegro, andante). In a work of program music (such as a symphonic poem), each
movement is typically named according to the imagery associated with the music (e.g. Scene in the
Country, Tortoises).

Sometimes a multi-movement work is called a suite (e.g. piano suite) or cycle (e.g. song cycle).

Rise of the Orchestra

The orchestra emerged in the Baroque era, serving initially as accompaniment for opera. As opera
developed and expanded, so did the orchestra.J49

In addition to its main role (accompaniment of singers), the orchestra came to provide instrumental
passages in the course of an opera. Such passages include the overture (at the
beginning), interludes (between scenes), and accompaniment for dance sequences. Independent
orchestral music was born when these instrumental passages (especially overtures) came to be
performed as standalone works.I252,J50

The symphony was born when standalone orchestral music was extended into multiple movements.
(The term "symphony" did not become standard until the Classical period, however; pre-Classical
symphonies are often called overtures or sinfonias.) The concerto (discussed in greater detail below)
emerged as a specialized form of the symphony, in which the orchestra is divided into two "voices".

The Baroque orchestra consisted primarily of a string section with basso continuo accompaniment.
This core was generally augmented by some combination of woodwinds, trumpets, horns, and/or
timpani. The familiar modern orchestra emerged as the orchestra underwent continuous expansion and
refinement throughout the Classical and Romantic periods.


Diagram Reduced to Typical Instruments of the Baroque Orchestra

Credit: Paris 16 (Essential Humanities)

Primary Genres

From the Baroque age onward, Western music can be divided into three groups according to
scale: solo, small ensemble, and large ensemble.
 PRIMARY GENRES OF BAROQUE MUSIC

solo keyboard (organ, harpsichord, clavichord), violin

small ensemble trio sonata

orchestral concerto

large ensemble

vocal opera, sacred choral (oratorio, mass)

Solo music of the Baroque and Classical periods was composed for many instruments, but
especially keyboard and violin. A common term for "solo instrumental work" is sonata. (Note that "solo
music" for a non-keyboard instrument usually features keyboard accompaniment.) During the Baroque
era, the primary keyboard instruments were the organ, harpsichord, and clavichord.

Works for small ensemble are often named for their number of parts (trio, quartet, quintet, etc). The
leading type of small ensemble during the Baroque age was the trio sonata, which features two melody
instruments (often violins) supported by basso continuo (which is considered a single part of the "trio"). 2

Large ensemble music can be classified as orchestral or vocal.

The leading form of orchestral music during the Baroque age was the concerto, which features two
"voices". One voice is the orchestra; the other is either a small ensemble or a single instrument.
Throughout a concerto, the two voices play both together and separately, imitating and contrasting with
one another.

A concerto that pairs the orchestra with a small ensemble is known as a concerto grosso; with a single
instrument, a solo concerto. While both types flourished in the Baroque era, only the solo concerto
remained popular throughout the Classical and Romantic periods. (In discussion of Classical and
Romantic music, the term "concerto" is synonymous with "solo concerto".)

The two great vocal genres of the Baroque age were opera and sacred choral works.

Opera, which is essentially the fusion of theatre and music, typically features two kinds of vocal
passages: speaking (which advances the story) and songs (which highlight important parts of the story).
Speaking may take the form of recitative ("talk-singing") or plain speech, while singing
includes arias (solo songs), small group songs (duets, trios, etc.) and choruses.
The two great forms of Baroque sacred choral music are the oratorio and mass.

An oratorio may be defined as "an opera with the acting removed". Like opera, an oratorio tells a story
with a cast of characters who speak (with plain speech or recitative) and sing (arias, small group songs,
choruses). The performance is simply directed to the audience, however; the characters do
not interact.I200-01,I224

A brief oratorio is called a cantata. Oratorios and cantatas are usually sacred (as opposed to opera,
which is usually secular).

The core of the Roman Catholic religious service is Mass, a ceremony that commemorates the Last
Supper. In addition to scriptural readings and symbolic consumption of bread and wine, the ceremony
includes recitations (sung or spoken) of certain prayers; a musical setting of these prayers is known as
a mass (e.g. Bach's Mass in B Minor). The standard prayers of the mass are the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo,
Sanctus, Benedictus, and Agnus Dei.

During the medieval and Renaissance periods, the mass thrived as one of the principal forms of
Western art music. (As the Middle Ages drew on, plainchant masses, the original type, were joined
by polyphonic masses.) The mass remained important after the Renaissance, though its prominence
declined.

Main Article

Baroque Music

ca. 1600-1750

The three most renowned figures in Baroque music are Vivaldi, Handel, and Bach.

Antonio Vivaldi, priest and violinist, was the foremost Italian composer of the age, known primarily for
composing hundreds of concertos (chiefly solo concertos). His most famous body of work is The Four
Seasons, a set of four violin concertos.

German-British composer George Frideric Handel excelled primarily in operas and oratorios.12 The
English-language oratorio Messiah (which includes the famous Hallelujah Chorus) is considered his
masterpiece. Handel's best known instrumental works are a number of dance suites, namely Water
Music (a group of three dance suites) and Fireworks Music (a single dance suite).

The foremost composer of the Baroque era is Johann Sebastian Bach, who excelled in all major genres
of the age except opera (which he did not pursue). Bach is particularly renowned for his solo keyboard
works, concertos, and sacred vocal works.I256

In the field of solo keyboard music, Bach is considered the greatest composer of the fugue: a
contrapuntal work in which a theme is constantly passed between different lines in the texture
(see Musical Texture). While some of Bach's fugues are standalone, most are the second component of
a two-part work. The most famous of all fugues is found in Toccata and Fugue in D minor.

When a fugue lies within a two-part work, the first part is typically a composition of
whimsical, improvisatory character (thus contrasting sharply with the formal, structurednature of a
fugue). Common terms for improvisation-style compositions include prelude, fantasia, and toccata.
This style of work emerged naturally from warm-up exercises, which encompass improvised mixtures of
runs, arpeggios, leaps, and ornaments.

Bach's foremost concertos are the six Brandenburg Concertos, which comprise the pinnacle of the
concerto grosso.

In terms of sacred vocal music, Bach was a prolific composer of the mass, oratorio, and cantata. His
most renowned vocal works may be the St Matthew Passion (an oratorio) and the Mass in B Minor.

The Birth of Opera

In the final decades of the Renaissance, various Florentine composers (known collectively as the
"Florentine Camerata") strove to emulate ancient Greek theatre (which had included musical elements;
see Ancient Literature). These composers wrote the first modern plays in which lines are sung rather
than spoken. Indeed, they invented a new kind of singing for this purpose: recitative, in which melody
imitates the rise and fall of natural speech. These works could be described as "sung plays" or "proto-
opera".2,8

Proto-opera drew the attention of many composers across Italy. Opera emerged as these composers
expanded the "sung play" beyond recitative to include songs (arias, small group songs, and choruses),
as well as instrumental accompaniment (which grew from small ensembles into full-fledged
orchestras). Orfeo, by Claudio Monteverdi, is generally considered the first true opera.I189-90,2,3,7,8

Baroque Opera

ca. 1600-1750

THE NINE MOST-PERFORMED OPERA COMPOSERS

Baroque Classical Romantic

(Donizetti,
Rossini) >
Italian Handel
Verdi >
Puccini
Mozart

<="" td="" style="background: rgb(255, Wagner > R

German
255, 255); padding: 3px 9px; vertical-align: Strauss
middle; border-width: 1px; border-style:
 solid; border-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);
text-align: center;">

French Bizet

During the first few decades of the Baroque period, opera was predominantly serious (as opposed to
comic) in character. Thus, serious Italian opera was the very first type of opera. Throughout the Baroque
age, serious Italian opera came to focus primarily on arias, which grew increasingly long and
elaborate.I214-17,3

Radiating from Italy, serious opera was widely embraced by Western Europe. Indeed, the most enduring
composer of serious Italian opera is German-English composer Handel. His greatest operatic work is
often considered to be Giulio Cesare ("Julius Caesar").

Popularity of Baroque Opera Composers (by performance runs, 2007-12)

Credit: Essential Humanities (data source: Operabase)

In time, other regional styles of serious opera developed (using Italian opera as a model), especially in
Germany, England, and France. Serious German opera would eventually (in the Romantic period)
become a primary force in the opera world. The flowering of serious English opera was swifter, but
limited to the Baroque era and to essentially one composer: Henry Purcell, whose work culminated
in Dido and Aeneas. Purcell is the second-most performed of all Baroque opera composers.

Yet during the Baroque and Classical periods, the most active school of serious opera outside Italy
was serious French opera, of which the outstanding figures are Lully and Rameau.

Jean-Baptiste Lully founded the French style of opera by merging Italian opera with the lavish French
tradition of ballet. French opera consequently de-emphasizes the small-scale, individual level (arias)
and emphasizes the large-scale, collective level (scenery, dance sequences, choruses). This emphasis
continued to thrive in the works of Jean-Philippe Rameau, the most-performed Baroque French opera
composer, and one of the leading contenders for the title of "greatest ballet composer" (along with
Tchaikovsky and Stravinsky).I264,3,6,8,9

Comic Opera

Comic opera developed shortly after the maturation and diffusion of serious opera. As in serious opera,
four major regional styles emerged: Italian, French, English, and German. Each style drew much from
the native folk music and theatre of its region.

Yet all comic opera shares certain typical features, including catchy tunes, relatable storylines and
settings, stock characters, and standard comedic genres (e.g. satirical, slapstick, bawdy). While many
comic operas feature purely light-hearted stories, others balance the comedy with a measure
of serious dramatic material.I303,2

Most of today's frequently-performed comic operas date from the Romantic period. A few (all Mozart) are
Classical; none are Baroque.

Addendum

Key Definitions

The Essential Humanities definition of art is a beautiful human creation. Art can be divided into two
basic types: fine art (aka pure art), which is simply experienced (e.g. painting, sculpture, architecture),
and applied art (aka decorative art), which is actually used (e.g. pottery, clothing, furniture).

Fine art (which has always strongly influenced applied art) is the primary concern of Essential Humanities.
Five great fine arts are recognized: painting (flat visual art), sculpture (three-dimensional visual art),
architecture (the visual art of building design; may be considered a special branch of sculpture), music
(sound art), and literature (word art). These five media are "great" in that they (arguably) comprise the
most expressive and universally appreciated forms of art.

Ages of Western Music

Western music can be divided into seven ages. For discussion of the overall course of Western art,
see Core Regions of Western Art and Western Aesthetics. For a collection of sample works from each
period, see the Music Guide.
 SUMMARY OF CLASSICAL MUSIC (EXCLUDING OPERA)

Haydn symphonies (London Symphonies), chamber and solo works (string quartets)

symphonies (nos. 40, 41), concertos (wind, piano), sacred choral works (Requiem Mass),
Mozart
chamber and solo works

Beethoven nine symphonies (nos. 3, 5, 9), chamber and solo works (piano sonatas)

General Features

The aesthetic of classicism is defined by simplicity, clarity, and balance (see Western Aesthetics). In
music, these characteristics are particularly evident in phrasing: whereas Baroque phrases tend to be
relatively long and intricate, Classical phrases are short and simple. Classicism also manifests in
the chord progressions, instrumentation, and overall form of Classical works.1

During the tonal era (ca. 1600-1900), Western art music was produced mainly within the framework
of major-minor tonality (see Tonality). The core regions of Western music during the tonal era
were Italy, Germany, France, and (starting in the Classical age) Austria. The latter nation was the very
heart of the Classical period.

Multi-movement Works

From the Baroque age onward, a common feature of Western music is the multi-movement work, which
consists of multiple self-contained works (each referred to as a "movement"). Movements typically vary in
character (notably tempo), thus providing contrast throughout the work.

STANDARD PROGRESSION OF MULTI-MOVEMENT WORKS

three-movement work fast slow fast

 four-movement work dance

Multi-movement works of the Baroque and Classical periods tend to feature three or four movements.
The standard progression in three-movement works is fast-slow-fast(i.e. two fast movements with a slow
movement in between); in four-movement works, fast-slow-dance-fast. The "dance" movement is
derived from the minuet (a triple-time French dance), and is often called "minuet", "minuet and trio", or
"scherzo".I330

Form

Form denotes the overall structure of a self-contained musical work. The simplest type is strophic form,
in which a single block of music is repeated multiple times. Theme-and-variation form is an
embellishment of strophic form, in which each repetition is a variation upon the original block of music
(rather than a copy).

Form is often represented with letters. Strophic form, for instance, can be represented as (A A
A...). Theme-and-variation form is represented as (A A' A''...): apostrophes indicate that a section is a
variation upon an earlier section.

Binary form consists of two distinct sections of music; its representation is (A B). Ternary form takes
binary form and adds a repetition or variation of the first section; thus, its representation is (A B A) or (A B
A'). Ternary form evolved from binary form. The transitional step in this evolution was rounded
binary form, a special type of binary form in which material from the A section is reused late in the B
section.

The Classical period witnessed the development of sonata form, which features three
sections: exposition (in which the main themes are stated), development (in which the themes are
expanded and explored in various ways), and recapitulation (in which the themes are restated). Sonata
form can be described as a special version of rounded binary form: the A section contains the
exposition, while the B section contains the development and recapitulation. Sonata form, which was
typically used in the first movement of a Classical composition (and often other movements as well),
remained popular throughout the Classical and Romantic periods.4

Works that have no form at all are known as through-composed (or "free-form").

Main Article

Primary Genres

In terms of scale, Western music can be divided into three types: solo, small ensemble (or "chamber"),
and large ensemble.
 PRIMARY GENRES OF CLASSICAL MUSIC

solo piano, violin

small ensemble various combinations of strings, winds, and/or piano

orchestral symphony, concerto

large ensemble

vocal opera, sacred choral

Solo music of the Baroque and Classical periods was composed for many instruments, but
especially keyboard and violin. A common term for "solo instrumental work" is sonata. (Note that "solo
music" for a non-keyboard instrument usually features keyboard accompaniment.) The Classical age
witnessed the rise of the piano as the primary keyboard instrument (and the corresponding decline of the
harpsichord and clavichord).11

The diversity of instrument combinations in small ensemble works expanded markedly during the
Classical period. Ensembles usually featured some combination of strings, woodwinds, and/or piano.

Large ensemble music can be classified as orchestral or vocal. The leading forms of orchestral music
during the Classical era were the symphony and concerto, while large-scale vocal music was dominated
by opera and sacred choral works (e.g. masses, oratorios).

Classical Music

ca. 1750-1820

As noted earlier, the heart of the Classical period was Austria. The composers who worked in Vienna
during this period are sometimes referred to as the "Viennese school". The foremost Classical age
composers are the three leading figures of this school: Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.

Franz Joseph Haydn is remembered primarily for his symphonies and string quartets. In the former,
Haydn's primary body of work is the London Symphonies, a set of twelve symphonies composed during
a visit to that city. His best-known string quartet is the Emperor Quartet, which features a melody that
eventually became the German national anthem.
Classical music peaked in the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who excelled in every major genre
of the age. He penned many famous symphonies (notably his final two symphonies, 40 and 41)
and concertos (notably the Clarinet Concerto and various piano concertos). His foremost vocal
work (outside of opera) is the Requiem Mass.I349

Classical music was succeeded by Romantic music, which is primarily concerned with vivid emotional
expression. Romantic composers freely violated simplicity, clarity, and balance if it suited their
expressive goals. Striking features of Romantic music are extensive chromaticism and unprecedented
variation in dynamics and tempo.1

The great transitional figure between Classical and Romantic music is Ludwig van Beethoven, who
excelled in most genres, especially the symphony and piano sonata. Of his nine symphonies, most
famous are the Third (often cited as the founding work of Romantic music), Fifth, and Ninth (which
includes the Ode to Joy chorus). Beethoven's five most renowned piano
sonatas are Moonlight, Pathtique, Appassionata, Hammerklavier, and Waldstein.

Classical Opera

ca. 1750-1820

THE NINE MOST-PERFORMED OPERA COMPOSERS

Baroque Classical Romantic

(Donizetti,
Rossini) >
Italian Handel
Verdi >
Puccini

Mozart

<="" td="" style="background: rgb(255,

255, 255); padding: 3px 9px; vertical-align:
Wagner > R
German middle; border-width: 1px; border-style:
Strauss
solid; border-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);
text-align: center;">

French Bizet
During the Baroque age, the two main branches of serious opera were Italian and French. Both
approaches sought, in true Baroque fashion, to overwhelm the audience through overt
spectacle (see Western Aesthetics): serious Italian opera focused on long, elaborate arias, while serious
French opera was distinguished by grandiose staging, dance sequences, and choruses.
Unfortunately, story was often neglected in serious Baroque opera, and consequently became shallow
and formulaic.2

By the Classical period, a general weariness of Baroque opulence had developed, leading composers to
infuse opera with the simplicity and directness of classicism. The elaborate features of Baroque opera
were subdued in favour of clear communication of plot and emotion. Renewed attention was given to
story, thus ensuring a more equal balance of drama and music.I310,2

The leading early figure of Classical opera was Christoph Gluck, who worked mainly in serious opera,
composing in both Italian and French. His masterpiece, Orfeo ed Euridice, is considered the founding
work of Classical opera.

The Baroque period, though dominated by serious opera, also witnessed the rise of comic opera. In the
Classical age, comic opera surged ahead in popularity. The light-hearted atmosphere of comic opera is
occasionally tempered with a measure of serious drama.I304

Comic opera of the Classical age was led by Mozart, one of today's three most-performed opera
composers (along with Verdi and Puccini).12 His leading operatic repertoire consists of one German comic
opera (The Magic Flute) and three Italian comic operas (Don Giovanni, Marriage of Figaro, and Cosi
fan tutte). While the latter two works are mostly comic, the former two include major serious elements. 7

Beethoven produced only one opera: Fidelio. Given that Beethoven embodies the transition between
the Classical and Romantic ages, Fidelio stands as the foremost precursor to Romantic opera.

Addendum

Key Definitions

The Essential Humanities definition of art is a beautiful human creation. Art can be divided into two
basic types: fine art (aka pure art), which is simply experienced (e.g. painting, sculpture, architecture),
and applied art (aka decorative art), which is actually used (e.g. pottery, clothing, furniture).

Fine art (which has always strongly influenced applied art) is the primary concern of Essential Humanities.
Five great fine arts are recognized: painting (flat visual art), sculpture (three-dimensional visual art),
architecture (the visual art of building design; may be considered a special branch of sculpture), music
(sound art), and literature (word art). These five media are "great" in that they (arguably) comprise the
most expressive and universally appreciated forms of art.
Romantic

SUMMARY OF ROMANTIC MUSIC (EXCLUDING OPERA)

early Romantic late Romantic

(ca. 1820-60) (ca. 1860-1900)

Berlioz (program symphonies)

full
Liszt (piano works) Richard Strauss (tone poems)
Romantics
Chopin (piano works)

Mendelssohn (orchestral
conservative works)
Brahms (symphonies)
Romantics Schubert (symphonies, lieder)
Schumann (lieder, piano works)

Tchaikovsky (ballets, 1812 Overture)

Russia Mussorgsky (Bald
Mountain, Pictures)

regional
Smetana (My Country)
Romantics Bohemia
Dvorak (New World Symphony)

Grieg (Peer Gynt)

Scandinavia
Sibelius (Finlandia)
General Features

The central aim of Romanticism is unrestrained emotional expression (see Western Aesthetics).
Romantic artists burst free of the limitations imposed by classicism (balance, harmony, clarity,
simplicity), embracing whatever aesthetic techniques proved effective in capturing a particular feeling.
Throughout the Romantic age, composers increasingly embraced abrupt shifts in dynamics and tempo,
and experimented with novel melodies and chord progressions.1

The core period of Romantic music was ca. 1820-1900; like all aesthetic movements, however, the
borders of this period are "soft". The roots of Romantic music lie some two decades earlier (in
Beethoven's mid-career works), while the careers of some late Romantic composers stretched decades
into the twentieth century. Romantic music can be divided into early and late, with a boundary of ca.
1860.

The mainstream world of Romantic music consisted of Germany, Austria, Italy, and France. Romantic
music produced elsewhere is known as regional, as it tends to feature a distinct local flavour (e.g.
Russian, Bohemian). Regional Romantic music flourished mainly during the late Romantic period.

During the Romantic age, the economic basis of Western art music shifted from private patrons (chiefly
nobility and clergy) to public audiences, thanks to the Early Modern expansion of the middle class. Since
patrons could exert a great deal of control over a composer's work (from types of works produced to time
allowed for composition), the patronage system often curbed artistic freedom. Composers writing
for public performance, on the other hand, retained professional autonomy, allowing experimentationto
flourish like never before.

Main Article

Chromaticism

Chromaticism is the use of notes that lie outside the scale on which a passage is based. For instance,
if a passage is written in the key of C major, the use of any note outside the C major scale (e.g. F sharp)
constitutes chromaticism. While Baroque and Classical music typically feature some degree of
chromaticism, Romantic music took the effect to new extremes, thereby opening a new world of
possibilities for both melodies and chords.

Chromaticism can be used to shift between keys (e.g. from C major to G major). Again, while a moderate
amount of key-shifting is common in Baroque and Classical works, Romantic composers used this
technique with increasing frequency. The tendency culminated with Wagner, who wrote the first music in
which the key constantly shiftsabout.12

The Orchestra and the Piano

During the Baroque age, the orchestra was dominated by the string section; the other three sections
(woodwind, brass, and percussion) remained small. Throughout the Classical and early Romantic
ages, the non-string sections grew steadily larger and more independent, culminating in the
mature symphony orchestra of the late Romantic period (which remains the standard modern-day
orchestra). Moreover, a wide range of instrumental combinations and techniques were pioneered
during the Romantic age, thereby unleashing the full potential of orchestral expression. Late Romantic
music is often easily distinguished from early Romantic work by the scale and diversity of its
orchestration.I384
The development of the orchestra was paralleled by that of the piano. An invention of the late Baroque
period, the piano gradually superseded the harpsichord as the primary keyboard instrument throughout
the Classical age. During the Romantic period (the "golden age" of the piano), an unprecedented volume
and diversity of music was produced for the piano, and the instrument's full expressive potential was
achieved.I404

Multi-movement Works

A multi-movement work consists of multiple, self-contained works, each of which is referred to as

a movement. Multi-movement works are common in Western music from the Baroque age onward.
Typically, the movements vary in character (notably tempo) in order to provide contrast throughout the
work.

In a work of absolute music (e.g. a symphony), each movement is typically named according to
its tempo (e.g. allegro, andante). In a work of program music (e.g. a symphonic poem), each movement
is typically named according to the imagery associated with the music (e.g. Scene in the
Country, Tortoises). Sometimes a multi-movement work is called a suite (e.g. piano suite) or cycle (e.g.
song cycle).

Up until the Romantic period, orchestral music was dominated by absolute music, namely the symphony
and concerto. During the Romantic period, orchestral program music came to equal absolute music in
popularity. A single-movement work of orchestral program music is often called a symphonic
poem or tone poem, while a multi-movement work is often called a program symphony.

Romantic Composer Types

Romantic composers can be divided into three groups: full, conservative, and regional. The full
Romantics pursued Romantic freedom unconditionally, while the conservative Romantics retained a
significant degree of classicism (i.e. structure, clarity, simplicity). These two groups comprise the
"mainstream" body of Romantic composers.

Beyond the mainstream lie the regional Romantics, who often infused Western art music with the folk
music of their native lands. Regional Romanticism was a late development, flourishing mainly in the
second half of the Romantic period. The most renowned strains of regional Romantic music
are Russian, Bohemian, and Scandinavian.

SUMMARY OF ROMANTIC MUSIC (EXCLUDING OPERA)

early Romantic late Romantic

(ca. 1820-60) (ca. 1860-1900)
 Berlioz (program symphonies)
full
Liszt (piano works) Richard Strauss (tone poems)
Romantics
Chopin (piano works)

Mendelssohn (orchestral works)

conservative Schubert (orchestral works,
Brahms (symphonies)
Romantics lieder)
Schumann (lieder, piano works)

Tchaikovsky (ballets, 1812

Overture)
Russia
Mussorgsky (Bald
Mountain, Pictures)

regional
Romantics Smetana (My Country)
Bohemia
Dvorak (From the New World)

Grieg (Peer Gynt)

Scandinavia
Sibelius (Finlandia)

The next three sections of this article explore each of the groups described above, with the omission of
composers known primarily for opera.

Full Romantics

ca. 1820-1900

The four most prominent full Romantics are Berlioz, Liszt, Chopin, and Richard Strauss.

French composer Hector Berlioz is known primarily for his three program symphonies. Foremost of
these is Symphonie fantastique (his masterpiece), which relates an artist's doomed struggle with
unrequited love; the others are Harold in Italy and Romeo and Juliet. Berlioz was the leading early
Romantic figure in the expansion of orchestral instrumentation and technique. I391
Franz Liszt, a Hungarian composer, is remembered chiefly for his many piano works. These include
etudes, waltzes, and "Hungarian rhapsodies", the latter of which draw upon the folk music of his native
land. (A "rhapsody" is an emotional, through-composed work.) Sonata in B minor is often considered his
masterpiece.

Another leading Romantic piano composer was Polish-French Frederic Chopin, whose Sonata in B flat
minor is often identified as his greatest work. In addition to sonatas, Chopin worked in such genres as
the mazurka (a traditional Polish dance), etude ("study", a work designed for practising specific technical
skills), nocturne (a meditative, lyrical work), and waltz. Chopin was fond of tempo rubato ("free tempo"),
a common feature of Romantic music, in which the performer freely adjusts the tempo throughout a
performance.I409

Richard Strauss, renowned chiefly as a composer of tone poems, was influenced so strongly by
Wagner that he is known as a Wagnerian. ("Wagnerian" music features the typical qualities of Wagner's
work, including frequent key-shifting, complex chords, and lush orchestration.) Strauss' most famous tone
poem is Thus Spake Zarathustra.

Conservative Romantics

ca. 1820-1900

The foremost conservative Romantics are Mendelssohn, Schubert, Schumann, and Brahms.

Franz Schubert excelled primarily in symphonies and song cycles. His foremost symphonies are
the Great and Unfinished.

A lied ("song", plural "lieder") is a Romantic poem (typically German) arranged for voice and piano. A
set of lieder is known as a song cycle. Schubert, often acknowledged as the greatest lied composer,
wrote many song cycles, foremost of which are Die Winterreise ("Winter Journey") and Die schne
Mllerin ("The Miller's Beautiful Daughter").

Felix Mendelssohn is known mainly for orchestral works, especially the Italian
Symphony and Overture to a Midsummer Night's Dream (which includes the famous Wedding March).

Robert Schumann is remembered chiefly for song cycles and piano cycles. (A "piano cycle" is a series
of solo piano works.) His foremost song cycle is Dichterliebe("Poet's Love"), while his most famous piano
work is Traumerei ("Dreaming"), from the cycle Kinderszenen ("Scenes from Childhood").

Johannes Brahms is often singled out as the greatest conservative Romantic. His most renowned works
are the German Requiem (often considered his masterpiece) and his four symphonies.

Regional Romantics

ca. 1820-1900

Outside the "mainstream core" of Western art music (France/Italy/Germany/Austria), many composers
broke new musical ground by merging native folk traditions with mainstream Romanticism. The result
was regional Romanticism, of which the most renowned branches are Russian, Bohemian,
and Scandinavian. (Bohemia was the pre-modern kingdom of the Czechs; "Bohemian" and "Czech" are
often used interchangeably.) Other notable branches include Iberian and English.
Regional composers often disagreed on the appropriate balance of mainstream and native musical
elements. This issue was especially prominent in Russia, where composers often came to be viewed as
either "mainstream-focused" or "native-focused".

Foremost of the mainstream-focused Russian composers is Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky, often considered
the greatest ballet composer of all time; his three masterpieces are Swan Lake, Sleeping Beauty,
and The Nutcracker. Tchaikovsky's most famous non-ballet work is the 1812 Overture, which celebrates
the Russian defeat of Napoleon's invasion.

Foremost of the native-focused Russian composers is Modest Mussorgsky.I465,I482 His best-known

works are Night on Bald Mountain (a symphonic poem) and Pictures at an Exhibition (a piano cycle).

The foremost Bohemian Romantic composers are Smetana and Dvorak. Bedrich Smetana is known
primarily for My Country, a set of six symphonic poems (of which Moldau is the best-known). The
outstanding masterpiece of Antonin Dvorak is the New World Symphony, composed while working in
the United States.

Scandinavia also features two outstanding Romantic composers. Norway is represented by Edvard
Grieg, whose most famous work is the orchestral suite Peer Gynt. Finland's greatest composer, Jean
Sibelius, is known primarily for the patriotic symphonic poem Finlandia.

Romantic Opera

Introduction

Both serious and comic opera were transformed by Romanticism. The bonds of classical structure and
simplicity were loosened (or cast aside altogether), as composers strove to convey the full range of
human emotion with precision and power.

THE NINE MOST-PERFORMED OPERA COMPOSERS

Baroque Classical Romantic

(Donizetti,
Rossini) >
Italian Handel Mozart
Verdi >
Puccini
 <="" td="" style="background: rgb(255,
255, 255); padding: 3px 9px; vertical-align:
Wagner > R
German middle; border-width: 1px; border-style:
Strauss
solid; border-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);
text-align: center;">

French Bizet

From the Baroque to the early Romantic age, opera was typically neatly divided into narrative (plain
speech or recitative, which advanced the story) and songs (which paused the story to highlight key
elements). In the mid/late Romantic age, opera tended to embrace continuous narrative, in which the
story unfolds constantly (throughout both speech/recitative and songs). Indeed, the distinction between
recitative and songs was often blurred, as recitative became more lyrical and songs came to lack
sharply-defined beginnings and endings.

The history of opera lies primarily in the core region of Western art music
(France/Italy/Germany/Austria). By far the most popular opera composer from outside the core
is Tchaikovsky, whose two most-performed operas are Eugene Onegin and Pikovaya Dama ("The
Queen of Spades").

Italian Romantic Opera

Italian opera experienced a dramatic shift in tone throughout the Romantic period. The early Romantic
was dominated by lively comic opera, the mid/late Romantic by starkly serious opera.

SUMMARY OF ROMANTIC OPERA

early Romantic opera mid/late Romantic opera

(the five most-performed composers) (the eight most-performed composers)

Italian Rossini, Donizetti, Bellini Verdi, Puccini

German Weber Wagner, R Strauss, J Strauss

French Berlioz Bizet, Offenbach

regional Tchaikovsky

The three leading figures of early Romantic Italian opera were Vincenzo Bellini, Gaetano Donizetti,
and Gioachino Rossini.3 The most popular work of each composer is the tragedy Norma (Bellini), the
comedy L'elisir d'amore (Donizetti), and the comedy The Barber of Seville (Rossini).

The mid/late Romantic period contains the four most popular French opera composers.

Leading the pack is Georges Bizet, whose Carmen is by far today's most-performed French opera; his
other masterpiece is Les pcheurs de perles ("The Pearl Fishers"). The most popular works of Jacques
Offenbach are Les contes d'Hoffmann ("The Tales of Hoffman") and Orphe aux enfers ("Orpheus in the
Underworld"); of Charles Gounod, Faust and Romo et Juliette; and of Jules Massenet, Werther.

Operetta

Offenbach was the first great composer of operetta, which can be defined simply as "light opera". The
story and music of an operetta are typically shorter, simpler, and more consistently light-hearted (often
to ridiculous extremes) than those of an opera; operettas thus embody the transition from opera to
musical theatre. Offenbach's most popular operetta is Orphe aux enfers ("Orpheus in the Underworld").

The leading centres of operetta were Paris and Vienna. While French operetta culminated with
Offenbach, the foremost Austrian composer of the form was Johann Strauss II, whose Die
Fledermaus ("The Bat") is the world's most-performed operetta. Strauss is also renowned for composing
orchestral music in various dance forms, including marches, polkas, and (especially) waltzes, of which
the most famous example is the Blue Danube.

Outside France and Austria, the most renowned composers of operetta are British duo Gilbert and
Sullivan, whose foremost works may be H.M.S. Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance, and The Mikado.

German Romantic Opera

In the Romantic period, serious German opera finally attained prominence equal to its Italian and French
counterparts. Romantic German opera typically features supernatural characters and plots drawn from
Germanic mythology; in some cases, ordinary humans are drawn into supernatural matters. The first
great composer of Romantic German opera was Carl Maria von Weber, whose masterpiece is Der
Freischutz ("The Marksman").I438,4

Weber was succeeded by the foremost German opera composer, Richard Wagner, who eventually
abandoned the distinction between recitative and songs in favour of continuous melody. Wagner was
also the first composer to make extensive use of the leitmotif, a musical theme associated with a
particular character or idea. Wagner's four most-performed works are Der fliegende Hollnder ("The
Flying Dutchman"), Die Walkre ("The Valkyrie"), Das Rheingold ("The Rhine Gold"), and Tristan und
Isolde ("Tristan and Isolde").I443-44,2

Wagner had two major successors. One was Richard Strauss, whose most popular operas
are Salome and Der Rosenkavalier ("The Knight of the Rose"). The other was Engelbert
Humperdinck, whose fame rests almost entirely on one opera: Hnsel und Gretel.

Addendum

Key Definitions

The Essential Humanities definition of art is a beautiful human creation. Art can be divided into two
basic types: fine art (aka pure art), which is simply experienced (e.g. painting, sculpture, architecture),
and applied art (aka decorative art), which is actually used (e.g. pottery, clothing, furniture).

Fine art (which has always strongly influenced applied art) is the primary concern of Essential Humanities.
Five great fine arts are recognized: painting (flat visual art), sculpture (three-dimensional visual art),
architecture (the visual art of building design; may be considered a special branch of sculpture), music
(sound art), and literature (word art). These five media are "great" in that they (arguably) comprise the
most expressive and universally appreciated forms of art.

Modern

SUMMARY OF MODERN MUSIC (EXCLUDING OPERA)

early modern late modern

ca. 1850-1900 ca. 1900-60
 impressionism Debussy Ravel

radical modern Schoenberg

moderate modern Stravinsky

Introduction

The defining feature of modern music (and modern art generally) is the breaking-down of all
traditional aesthetic conventions, thereby unleashing complete freedom in all aesthetic dimensions,
including melody, rhythm, and chord progression. The convention of major-minor tonality (already
heavily strained by Wagner and his successors) was completely abandoned by many composers
(see Tonality). Even the very notion of what constitutes "music" was redefined.

The development of audio recording technology, along with the ability to quickly and
cheaply distribute recordings and scores, were central to the revolutions of modern music. The vast
catalogue of Western art music became much more accessible. Moreover, non-Western music was
suddenly open to exploration (via notated and recorded works), thus exposing Western composers to
countless exotic musical ideas.I484-86

Recording technology also provided composers with a new "instrument": recorded sounds, which could
be manipulated in endless ways. Further advances in audio technology gave rise to electronically-
produced sounds. Ultimately, many composers agreed that all sounds, even "noise", can be
considered forms of music.I530,I568

Some modern music features indeterminacy, in which the composer deliberately abstains from clearly
defining certain aspects of a composition (e.g. instrumentation, melody, dynamics), such that they are
realized in different ways for each performance. For instance, a composition might ask a player to
generate a melody by interpreting something (e.g. curving lines that suggest the shape of a melody), or to
choose from a selection of melodies by rolling a die. I516,I538

Main Article

New Music Families

Music (and art generally) of the pre-modern world can be broadly divided into two kinds. Folk
music emerged naturally among cultures throughout the world, while art musicwas deliberately
cultivated by small numbers of professional composers. Folk music generally features
relatively simple structure/theory and has a relaxed, informal quality, whereas art music generally
features relatively complex structure/theory has an elevated, formal quality.
With the development of modern mass media (communication technologies that quickly reach large
numbers of people, e.g. radio, television, audio recordings), a new family of music was born: popular
music, which has the simple structure/theory and informal quality of folk music. Instead of developing
gradually among a given culture, however, popular music develops at a swift pace (due to its rapid
dissemination via mass media) in the hands of professional composers (like art music).

Popular music emerged in the United States from the fusion of two folk traditions. One was American
folk music, which consisted of various traditions descended chiefly from British folk music (which,
naturally, had been imported to colonial America); the other was African music, carried to America by
thousands of slaves. Most genres of popular music can be traced back to the merging of these traditions,
in which Western major-minor tonality was combined with the rhythms of Africa.I541-47

Mass media also gave rise to film music, a special branch of Western art music. Film music generally
employs major-minor tonality, given that this system allows emotion to be conveyed in such a clear,
powerful manner (see Tonality). Film music is the only form of art music in history to be regularly
experienced by a large proportion of society; all other art music (especially that of the modern age,
which is generally quite inaccessible) is enjoyed by a much more limited audience.

Impressionism

The style of Western music known as impressionism is considered to embody the transition from
Romantic to modern music. Romantic music (like Baroque and Classical music before it) tends to feature
a strong sense of forward motion, in which a well-defined melody is supported by chord progressions
that provide tension and release (see Tonality). Impressionist music, on the other hand, tends to
feature static harmony; chords are not arranged to provide tension and release, and thus the sense of
forward motion is mild or absent.I473-77,5

Impressionist composers often select chords for their individual sounds rather than arranging them in
progressions. Impressionist music can thus be described as series of harmonic textures, as opposed to
a melody supported by a harmonic foundation. This makes impressionism superb for
conveying atmosphere (rather than forceful emotion).I473-77,5

TINY SUMMARY OF MODERN MUSIC (EXCLUDING OPERA)

early modern late modern

ca. 1850-1900 ca. 1900-60

impressionism Debussy Ravel

radical modern Schoenberg

 moderate modern Stravinsky

The two foremost impressionist composers are Claude Debussy (who founded the style during the early
modern period of music, ca. 1850-1900) and Maurice Ravel (who led impressionism during the late
modern period, ca. 1900-60). Both excelled in works for piano and orchestra. Debussy's most famous
composition is the piano work Clair de Lune, while Ravel's is the orchestral work Bolero.

Atonality

A revolutionary development of the late modern period (ca. 1900-60) was atonal music, which lacks a
tonal centre. This was an extraordinarily novel concept; all pre-modern musical traditions throughout the
world are tonal. In Western art music, major-minor tonality had prevailed throughout the Baroque,
Classical, and Romantic periods (see Tonality).

Atonality emerged from the abundant chromaticism of late Romantic music. "Chromaticism" denotes the
use of notes that lie outside the scale on which a passage is based. A passage in the key of C major, for
instance, is made up of the seven notes contained in the C major scale; the presence of any notes that lie
outside the C major scale (e.g. F sharp) constitutes chromaticism. While a certain amount of
chromaticism is standard in Baroque and Classical music, it was taken to new extremes in Romantic
music.

When chromaticism becomes very abundant, the sense of a tonal centre weakens. When "total
chromaticism" is reached, all twelve notes of the octave are given equal preference; no trace of a scale
remains. Music that features total chromaticism is known as atonal, since it lacks a tonal centre
altogether.

Branches of Modern Music

Modern Western art music can be divided into three branches.

One is radical modern music, which encompasses all types that depart extremely from traditional
Western music. The primary member of this branch is atonal music; another is music comprised of non-
musical sounds (i.e. noise).

TINY SUMMARY OF MODERN MUSIC (EXCLUDING OPERA)

early modern late modern

ca. 1850-1900 ca. 1900-60
 impressionism Debussy Ravel

radical modern Schoenberg

moderate modern Stravinsky

The most famous and influential atonal composer is the Austrian Arnold Schoenberg. He developed a
widely-used approach to atonal composition, the twelve-tone system, in which a composer arranges the
twelve notes of the octave in any desired order; this sequence is then repeated continuously throughout
the composition. Part of the motivation for this system was to force composers to treat all twelve
notes equally, thus preventing them from unconsciously reverting to tonality.1

The second branch of modern Western music is moderate modern, which departs less severely from
tradition. Moderate modern music features heavy chromaticism, yet retains a sense of tonality, as well
as other traditional conventions.I507 The foremost moderate modern composer is Igor Stravinsky, often
considered the greatest composer of the twentieth century. 6 Stravinsky's most famous work is The Rite
of Spring, a ballet.

The third and final branch of modern Western music is major-minor tonal (i.e. music that features major-
minor tonality). In terms of art music, this branch encompasses most film music and musicals;
additionally, it includes most popular music. Thus, in terms of sheer audience size, major-minor tonality
continues to dominate Western music.

Modern Opera

The age of Romantic opera extended several decades into the twentieth century, led by Puccini and
Richard Strauss. Opera then became the domain of modern composers, the most popular of which
is Benjamin Britten. His most-performed work is The Turn of the Screw.

The story of modern opera goes further, however. Just as the modern age features a new, highly-
accessible branch of instrumental art music (film music), so does it feature an equivalent new branch of
opera: musical theatre. Musical theatre (which has always been centered in New York) evolved from
the operetta, a light form of opera that flourished in the late Romantic period.

There is no widely-accepted criterion for distinguishing musicals from operas. One view, however, is that
opera is primarily music, while musicals are primarily theatre. In other words, an opera is essentially a
vast musical performance with an underlying story, while a musical is essentially a play punctuated by
musical numbers. (Note that by these definitions, some modern works termed "musicals" would actually
be operas.)

The earliest musicals, which date to the early twentieth century, were (like operettas) light comedies
replete with choruses and dancing, in which songs were sprinkled over a lightly-developed (and often
ridiculous) plot.I550 The mature musical, in which songs are seamlessly woven throughout a well-
developed plot, is often traced to the 1940s work Oklahoma!, by Rodgers and Hammerstein.8 Apart
from Rodgers and Hammerstein, the most famous musical composers of the late modern period (ca.
1900-60) may be Irving Berlin and George Gershwin, while those of the postmodern period (ca. 1960-
present) are likely Andrew Lloyd Webber and Stephen Sondheim.

Addendum

Key Definitions

The Essential Humanities definition of art is a beautiful human creation. Art can be divided into two
basic types: fine art (aka pure art), which is simply experienced (e.g. painting, sculpture, architecture),
and applied art (aka decorative art), which is actually used (e.g. pottery, clothing, furniture).

Fine art (which has always strongly influenced applied art) is the primary concern of Essential Humanities.
Five great fine arts are recognized: painting (flat visual art), sculpture (three-dimensional visual art),
architecture (the visual art of building design; may be considered a special branch of sculpture), music
(sound art), and literature (word art). These five media are "great" in that they (arguably) comprise the
most expressive and universally appreciated forms of art.