Tugas Individu

Dosen : Prof.Dr.Hakim Yassi, Dipl.TESL.MA

Clause as exchange &

Clause as representation

Nurlaela

(P0500213415)

LINGUISTIK

PROGRAM PASCASARJANA

UNIVERSITAS HASANUDDIN

2014
 4
Clause as exchange

4.1 The nature of dialogue

The most fundamental types of speech role, which lie behind all the more specific types
that we may eventually be able to recognize, are just two : (i) giving and (ii) demanding. Either
the speaker is giving something to the listener (a piece of information, for example) or he is
demanding something from him. Even these elementary categories already involve, complex
nations : giving means inviting to receive, and demanding means inviting to give. The speaker
is not only doing something himself ; he is also requiring something of the listener. Typically,
therefore, an act of speaking is something that might more appropriately be called an interact
: it is an exchange, in which giving implies receiving and demanding implies giving in response.
Cutting across this basic distinction between giving and demanding is another
distinction, equally fundamental that relates to the nature of the commodity being exchanged.
This may be either (a) goods-&-services, or (b) information. If you say something to me with the
aim of getting me to do something for you, this is an exchange of good-&-services but if you say
something to me with the aim of getting me to tell you something. This is an exchange of
information. These two variables when taken together, define the four primary speech functions
of OFFER, COMMAND, STATEMENT, and QUESTION. These in turn are matched by a set
Commodity (a) Good and service (b) information
exchange

Role in
exchange
(i) giving ofter statement
Would you like this teapot? Hes giving her the teapot
(ii) demanding command quetions
Give me that teapot What is he giving her?

Figure 4-1 giving or demanding. Good and service or information

Of desired response : accepting and ofter, carrying out a command, acknow ledging a
statement and answering a question. See table 4(1).
Table 4(1) speech functions and responses
initiation Expected response Discreationary
alternative
Give good and service Ofter Acceptance Rejection
Demand Command Undertaking Refusal
Give information Statement Acknowledgment Contradiction
Demand Questions answer Disclaimer
 When language is used to exchange information, the clause takes on the form of a
proposition. The semantic function of a clause in the exchange of information is a proposition
and the semantic function of a clause in the exchange of goods and services is a proposal.
4.2 The mood element
When we come to look closely at statements and questions, and at the various
responses to which these naturally give rise, we find that in English they are typically expressed
by means of a particular kind of grammatical variation; variation which extends over just one
part of the clause, leaving the remainder unaffected.
Consider the traditional rhyme :
He loves me.
He dont.
Hell have me.
He wont.
But he cant, so he dont
Compare this with a typically piece of information-exchanging dialogue :
The dukes given away that teapot, hasnt he?
- Oh, has he?
- Yes, he has.
- No he hasnt!
- I wish he had.
- He hasnt; but he will.
- Will he?
- He might.
The mood consists of two parts: (1) the subject, which is a nominal group, and (2) the
finite element, which is part of a verbal group. The subject when it first appear, may be a
nominal group, and the finite elements is one of a small number of verbal operators expressing
tense (e.g. is, has) or modality (e.g. can, must). However, that in some instance the finite
element and the lexical verb are fused into a single word e.g. loves. This happen when the verb
is in simple past or simple present (tense), active (voice), positive (polarity) and neutral
(contrast). Subject and finite are closely linked together and combine to form one constituent
which we call the Mood. The mood is the element that realizes the selection of mood in the
clause. It has sometimes been called the modal element; but the difficulty with this is that the
term modal is ambiguous since it corresponds both to mood and to modality. The remainder of
the clause we shall call residue.
The presences of the mood element, consisting of subject plus finite, realize the feature
is indicative. Within the indicative, what is significant is order of subject and finite. The order
subject before finite realizes declarative, the order finite before subject realizes yes/no
interrogative; in WH-interrogative the order is subject before finite if the WH-element is the
subject and finite before subject otherwise.
Primary tense mans past, present, or future at the moment of speaking; it is time
relative to now. Modality means the speakers judgment of the probabilities, or the obligations,
involved in what he is saying.
4.3 Structure of the Residue
The residue consists of functional elements of three kinds; predicator, complement and
adjunct. There can be only one predicator, one or two complements, and an indefinite number
of adjuncts up to, in principle, about seven. .
An example is given in figure 4-6
Sister susie s sewing shirts For soldier
Subject finite predicator complement adjunct
Mood residue

Predicator, the predicator is present in all non-elliptical major clauses, apart from
certain clauses wit verbs be and have. The function of predicator is fourfold (i) it specifies time
reference other than reference to the time of the speech event, i.e. secondary tense; past,
present and future relative to the primary tense, (ii) it specifies various other aspects and phases
like seeming, trying, hoping, (iii) it specifies the voice: active or passive, (iv) it specifies the
process (action, event, mental process, relation) that is predicated of the subject.
There are two verbs in English which in simple past and simple present tenses appear as
finite only, without being fused with a distinct element as predicator. These are be and have
(have in the sense of posses, not have in the sense of take).
Complement, a complement is an element within the residue that has the potential of
being subject but is not. It is typically realized by a nominal group.
Adjunct (circumstantial), is an element that has not got the potential of being subject. It
is typically realized by an adverbial group or prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrase has its
own internal structure, containing a complement within it.
Conjunctive adjunct, tend to occur at points in the clause which are significant for
textual organization, which means at some boundary or other: (clause initial, as the part of
textual theme; (ii) clause final as afterthought; (iii) between theme and rheme; (iv) between
mood and residue.
Modal adjunct, from the point of view of their place in the mood structure, modal
adjunct fall into two groups: (i) mood adjunct, these relate specifically to the meaning of the
finite verbal operators, expressing probability, usuality, obligation, inclination or time. They
therefore typically occur next to the finite, either before or after it. (ii)Comment adjunct, as far
as position in the clause is concerned, these are like conjunctive adjunct; they tend to occur
thematically, finally, between theme and rheme, or between mood and residue; and when
medial, they are typically associated with a boundary between information units.

4.4 WH- Interrogative, exclamative, and imperative clauses

(1) WH- interrogative, the WH- element is a distinct element in the interpersonal
structure of the clause. Its function is to specify the entity that the questioner wishes to have
supplied. The WH- element is always conflated with one or another of the three function
subject, complement or adjunct. If it is conflated with the subject, it is the part of the mood
element, and the order within the mood element must therefore be subject. If on other hand
the WH- element is conflated with a complement or adjunct, it is part of residue; and in that
case the typical interrogative ordering within the mood element reassert itself and have finite
preceding subject. Finite, as shown in figure 4-12
Who killed Cock Robin
Subject/WH (past) Kill complement
finite predicator
residue

(2) Exclamatives, these clauses have the WH-element what or how, in nominal or
adverbial group. But since the finite subject sequence became specifically associated with
interrogative mood, the normal order in exclamatives has become subject finite.
(3) Imperatives, it is may have a mood element consisting of finite plus subject; or one
consisting of finite only, or of subject only; or no mood element at all. Whether or not there is a
mood element, and whatever its structure, an imperative clause may also have a mood tag.
4.5 Polarity and modality
Polarity is the choice between positive and negative, as in is/isnt, do/dont. Typically, in
English, polarity is expressed in the finite element; each finite verbal operator has two forms,
one positive is, was, has, can etc. the other negative isnt, wasnt, hasnt, cant, that is this is the
reason why the finite element is thematic in a yes/no interrogative clause: such a clause is
precisely a request for information regarding polarity.
Proposition, in a proposition the meaning of positive and negative poles is asserting and
denying: positive it is so, negative it isnt so.
Proposal, in proposal the meaning of the positive and negative poles is prescribing and
proscribing: positive do it, negative dont do it.
4.6 Absence of elements of the modal structure
For any clause, there is one choice of subject that is unmarked-that is assumed, in the
absence of evidence to the contrary. In a giving clause (offer or statement), the unmarked
subject is I; while in demanding clause (question or command), the unmarked subject is you.
This means that if a clause that on other grounds can be interpreted as offer or statement
occurs without a subject, the listener will understand the subject I- that is, subject equals
speaker. The principle that the subject to be supplied in a case of ellipsis is always the modally
unmarked one, I or you according to the mood, can also be over ridden by the context.
4.7 Clause as subject
Up to this point our discussion of the clauses as exchanges, we have been illustrating the
subject with fairly simple, straightforward nominal group. Depending on the register we will
regularly find examples of clause as subjects; they are nominal group complex (consisting of two
nominal groups in paratactic relation). The post modifier in the nominal group functioning as
subject is called defining relative clause.
 5
Clause as representation

5.1 process, participant and circumstance

The basic semantic framework for the representation of processes is very simple. A
process consist potentially of three components :
(i) The process it self;
(ii) Participants in the process;
(iii) Circumstances associated with the process
These provide the frame of reference for interpreting our experience of what goes on.
In the following sections we shall explore the different types of process that are built in
to the semantics of English, and the particular kinds of participant role that are systematically
associated with each.
5.2 Material process: process of doing
A logical element (in this sense) is a function in transitivity structure. The traditional
view of transitivity in western linguistic is as follows. (1) Every process has an actor. (2) Some
process, but not all also have second participant, which we call a goal. An example is given in
figure 5-2.
(a)
The lion sprang
actor process

(b)
The lion caught The
tourist
actor process goal
Figure 5-2 one participant and two participant clauses

The term goal implies directed at another term that has been used for this function is
patient, meaning one that suffer or undergoes the process. There is a large class of clause in
English which can be interpreted in this way, as consisting of a process with these particular
participants- an obligatory actor and optionally also a goal. This is the class that we shall refer to
as a material process.
Material processes are processes of doing. They express the notion that some entity
does something- which may be done to some other entity. Alternatively, the other entity may
be one that is brought into being by the process, not pre-existing; as in building a house, writing
a letter, or starting an argument. We can thus distinguish between a doing to or DISPODITIVE
type and a bringing about or CERATIVE type of material process. The participant that results
from the creative process is still referred to as goal; such clause also have active and passive
options. Material process are not necessarily concrete, physical event, they may be abstract
doing and happenings.
5.3 Mental processes: process of sensing
Obviously clauses expressing material and mental process are different in meaning, but
that is not enough to make them constitute grammatical categories; there are indefinitely many
ways of drawing lines on purely semantic ground, whereas the question we are concerned with
is which of these have semantic repercussion in the grammar. These are set out in the following
numbered paragraphs. (1) In a clause of mental process, there is always one participant who is
human; this is the one that sense- feels, thinks or perceives, for example Mary in Mary liked
the gift. (2) With regard to the other main element in a clause of mental process, namely that
which is felt, thought or perceived, the position is in a sense reserved. In a material process,
every participant is a thing. There is no way in which a fact can be a participant in clause of
material process. Grammatically speaking, facts, can be sensed- seen, felt or thought; but they
cannot do anything, nor can they have anything done to them. (3) A third distinction between
material and mental processes is that of tense. In a mental process, the unmarked present tense
is the simple present but in material process the unmarked present tense is the present in
present. (4) The point was brought out earlier that mental process are represented in the
language as two-way processes; that is to say, we can say either Mary liked the gift or the gift
pleased Mary. It is not the case that every mental process verb of the like type has an exact
semantic equivalent of the please type; but it is a general feature of mental process that they
can be realized in either direction- either the senser, or phenomenon that is being sensed, can
be the subject, still keeping the clause in the active voice. (5) We also referred above to the fact
that material process are doing process, which can be probed, and substituted, by the verb do.
Mental processes, on the other hand are process of feeling, thinking, and seeing. They are not
kinds of doing, and cannot be probed or substituted by do.
5.4 Relation processes: processes of being
If material processes are those of doing and mental process those of sensing, the other
main category, relational process, are those of being: for example, Sarah is wise, Tom is the
leader. The central meaning of clause of this type is that something is. But every language
accommodates, in grammar, a number of distinct ways of being, expressed as different types of
relational process in the clause. Those of English may be summarized as follows:
(1) Intensive x is a
(2) Circumstantial x is at a
(3) Possessive x has a
Each of these comes in two models:
(i) Attributive a is an attribute of x
(ii) Identifying a is the identity of x
5.5 Other process types; summary of process types
In the last three section we discussed the three principal types of process found in the
English clause: material, mental and relational. In addition to these very large categories we
need to recognize three other, subsidiary types: behavioural, verbal and existential. Each of
these is close to one of the major grouping but distinct from it in certain respects.
1. Behavioural process, these are processes of physiological and psychological behavior, like
breathing, dreaming, smiling, and coughing. Grammatically they are intermediate between
material and mental process. The behaver is typically a conscious being, like the senser; but the
process functions more like one of doing. The usual unmarked present tense for behavioural
processes in contemporary English is the present in present; but until fairly recent times it was
the simple present, and we still find this functioning in its unmarked sense.
2. Verbal process, these are process of saying. But saying has to be interpreted in a rather
broad sense; it covers any kinds of symbolic exchange of meaning. The verbalized clause may be
either a proposition, a proposal. Two other participants function regularly in a verbal process.
One is the receiver, the one to whom the verbalization is addressed. The other is a name for the
verbalization itself.
3. Existential process, these represent that something exists or happens, these clause typically
have the verb be, or some other verb expressing existence, such as exist, arise, followed by a
nominal group functioning as existent. The existent may be a phenomenon of any kind, and is
often, in fact, an event, sometimes other verbs function as process in an existential clause.
Frequently the existential clause contains a circumstantial element.
4. Summary of process types,
Process type Category meaning Participants
Material doing Actor, goal
Action doing
Event happening

Behavioural behaving Behaver

Mental sensing Senser, phenomenon

Perception seeing
Affection feeling
Cognition thinking

Verbal saying Sayer, target

Relational being Token, value

Attribution attributing Carrier, attribute
Identification identifying Identified, identifier

Existential existing existent

5.6 Other participant functions
There are other participant functions in English clause also specific each particular
process type. However, it is possible to group these together in to two general functions
common to all clauses; the beneficiary, and the the range. Beneficiary and range are the
oblique or indirect participants, which in earlier stages of the languages typically required an
oblique case and/or a preposition. Also, unlike the direct participants, they could not conflate
with the subject function in the mood system.
1. Beneficiary is the one to whom or for whom the process is said to take place. It appears in
material and verbal processes, and occasionally in relational.
(a) In a material process the beneficiary is either recipients or clients. The recipient is the
one that goods are given to; the client is one that services are done for. Either may appear
with or without preposition, depending on its position in the clause.
(b) In a verbal process the beneficiary is the one who is being addressed. The receiver is
usually present in verbal process clauses where the sense is that of causative mental process,
e.g. convince make believe, tell make know, explain make understand, show make see.
(c) There are also a few relational (attributive) processes containing a beneficiary, the
beneficiary regularly functions as subject in the clause; in that case the verb is in the passive
voice.
2. Range, the range is the element that specifies the range or scope of the process. Most range
element in English are not cognate to the verb even if they are as close in meaning as. Range
may occur in material, behavioural, mental and verbal process.
a. In a material process, the range either express the domain over which the process take
place or express the process itself, either in general or in specific terms.
b. In mental process the range is not an additional element, but provides a way of
interpreting an element we have already met, so as to explain the existence of two parallel
types of structure, and also the difference between them.
c. In verbal process the range is the element expressing the class, quality or quantity of
what is said. We refer to the range in a verbal process as the verbiage (noting that this is not
in origin a derogatory term).
5.7 Circumstantial elements
The principal types of circumstantial element in English are as follows: extent and
location in time and space, including abstract space; manner (means, quality and comparison);
cause (reason, purpose and behalf); accompaniment; matter, role.
(1) Extent and location. The circumstantial of extent and location form a four-term set as shown
in table.
Spatial Temporal
Extent Distance Duration/frequency
Walk (for) seven miles Stay (for) two hours
Location Place Time
Work in the kitchen Get up
There is not very sharp line separating (circumstantial)expressing of extent from
(participant)expression of range; but there is distinction between them: extent is expressed
terms of some unit of measurement like yard, laps, rounds, years, whereas range is
expressed in terms other than measure unit.
(2) Manner. The circumstantial element of manner comprises three subcategories: means,
quality, comparison. Means refers to the means whereby a process takes place; it is typically
expressed by a prepositional phrase with the preposition by or with. The interrogative forms
are how? And what with?. Quality is typically expressed by an adverbial group, with -ly
adverb as head; the interrogative is how? or how? plus appropriate adverb. Comparison is
 typically expressed by a prepositional phrase with like or unlike, or an adverbial group of
similarity or difference.
(3) Cause. The circumstantial element of cause also comprises three subcategories: reason,
purpose, and behalf. Reason represents the reason for which a process take place- what
cause it. It is typically expressed by a prepositional phrase with through or complex
preposition such as because of, as a result of, thanks to. Purpose represents the purpose for
which an action takes place- the intention behind it. They are typically expressed by
prepositional phrase with for or with a complex preposition such as in the hope of, for the
purpose of. The entity typically a person, on whose behalf or for who sake the action is
undertaken- who it is for. They are expressed by a prepositional phrase with for or with a
complex preposition such as for the sake of, on behalf of.
(4) Accompaniment. This element represents the meanings and, or, not as circumstantial; it
correspondents to interrogatives and who/ what else?, but not who/what?. It expressed by
prepositional phrase with preposition such as with, without, besides, instead of. We can
distinguish who subcategories, comitative and additive; each has a positive and a negative
aspect. The comitative represents the process as a single instance of process, although one
in which two entities are involved. The additive represents the process as two instances;
here both entities clearly share the same participants function, but one of them is presented
circumstantially for purposes of contrast.
(5) Matter. This element corresponds to the interrogative what about? and is expressed by
prepositional phrase with prepositions such as about, concerning, with reference to and
sometimes simply of.
(6) Role. This element corresponds to the interrogative what as? And represents the meaning
of be (attribute or identity) in the term of circumstance. The usual preposition is as; other
complex preposition with this function is by way of, in the role/ shape/ guise/ form of.
5.8 Transitivity and voice: another interpretation
The same tendency away from a purely transitive type of semantic organization can be
seen in the system of voice. In a transitive pattern the participants are obligatory actor and
optional goal; if there is actor only, the verb is intransitive and active in voice, while if both are
present the verb is transitive and may be either active or passive. This is still the basis of the
English system; but there is little trace of transitivity left in the verb, and voice is now more a
feature of the clause.