Mano, Rania I.

ZPY 111-ITFE

Define psychology
Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects
of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is an academic discipline and a social
science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and
researching specific cases.[1][2]
In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as
a social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental
functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and biological processes
that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors.
Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes,
including perception, cognition, attention, emotion (affect), intelligence, phenomenology, motivation (conat
ion), brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as interpersonal
relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse
orientations also consider the unconscious mind.[3] Psychologists employ empirical methods to
infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to
employing empirical and deductive methods, someespecially clinical and counseling psychologistsat
times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology has been described as
a "hub science", with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the social
sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities, and philosophy.
While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental
health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several spheres
of human activity. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society.[5][6] The majority of
psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling,
or school settings. Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and
behavior, and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings (e.g.,
medical schools, hospitals). Some are employed in industrial and organizational settings, or in other
areas[7] such as human development and aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as
in forensic investigation and other aspects of law.

Describe the various fields of psychology

Each field of psychology represents a specific area of study focused on a particular topic. Oftentimes,
psychologists specialize in one of these areas as a career. The following are just some of the major
branches of psychology. For many of these specialty areas, working in that specific area requires additional
graduate study in that particular field is required.

Abnormal psychology is the area that looks at psychopathology and abnormal behavior. Mental health
professionals help assess, diagnose, and treat a wide variety of psychological disorders including anxiety
and depression. Counselors, clinical psychologists, and psychotherapists often work directly in this field.

Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all
behaviors are acquired through conditioning. While this branch of psychology dominated the field during
the first part of the twentieth century, it became less prominent during the 1950s. However, behavioral
techniques remain a mainstay in therapy, education, and many other areas.
Biopsychology is a branch of psychology is focused on how the brain, neurons, and nervous system
influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This field draws on many different disciplines including basic
psychology, experimental psychology, biology, physiology, cognitive psychology, and neuroscience.

Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the assessment and treatment of mental
illness, abnormal behavior, and psychiatric disorders. Clinicians often work in private practices, but many
also work in community centers or at universities and colleges. Others work in hospital settings or mental
health clinics as part of a collaborative team that may include physicians, psychiatrists, and other mental
health professionals.

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal mental states. This area of
psychology has continued to grow since it emerged in the 1960s. This area of psychology is centered on
the science of how people think, learn, and remember.

Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. The
study of animal behavior can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of human psychology. This area
has its roots in the work of researchers such as Charles Darwin and Georges Romanes and has grown into
a highly multidisciplinary subject. Psychologists often contribute to this field, as do biologists,
anthropologists, ecologists, geneticists, and many others.

Counseling psychology is one of the largest individual subfields within psychology. It is centered on treating
clients experiencing mental distress and a wide variety of psychological symptoms. The Society of
Counseling Psychology describes the field as an area that can improve interpersonal functioning throughout
life by improving social and emotional health as well as addressing concerns about health, work, family,
marriage, and more.

Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human
behavior. The International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) was established in 1972,
and this branch of psychology has continued to grow and develop since that time. Today, increasing
numbers of psychologists investigate how behavior differs among various cultures throughout the world.

Developmental psychology focuses on how people change and grow throughout the entire lifespan. The
scientific study of human development seeks to understand and explain how and why people change
throughout life. Developmental psychologists often study things such as physical growth, intellectual
development, emotional changes, social growth, and perceptual changes that occur over the course of the
lifespan.

Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with schools, teaching psychology,
educational issues and student concerns. Educational psychologists often study how students learn or work
directly with students, parents, teachers and administrators to improve student outcomes. They might study
how different variables influence individual student outcomes. They also study topics such as learning
disabilities, giftedness, the instructional process, and individual differences.

Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that utilizes scientific methods to research the brain
and behavior. Many of these techniques are also used by other areas in psychology to conduct research
on everything from childhood development to social issues.

Forensic psychology is a specialty area that deals with issues related to psychology and the law. Those
who work in this field of psychology apply psychological principles to legal issues. This may involve studying
criminal behavior and treatments, or working directly in the court system.

Health psychology is a specialty area that focuses on how biology, psychology, behavior and social factors
influence health and illness. Other terms including medical psychology and behavioral medicine are
sometimes used interchangeably with the term health psychology. The field of health psychology is focused
on promoting health as well as the prevention and treatment of disease and illness.

Industrial-organizational psychology is a branch that applies psychological principles to research on

workplace issues such as productivity and behavior. This field of psychology, often referred to as I/O
psychology, works to improve productivity and efficiency in the workplace while also maximizing the well-
being of employees. Research in I-O psychology is known as applied research because it seeks to solve
real world problems. I-O psychologists study topics such as worker attitudes, employee behaviors,
organizational processes, and leadership.

Personality psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the study of the thought patterns,
feelings, and behaviors that make each individual unique.

School psychology is a field that involves working in schools to help kids deal with academic, emotional,
and social issues. School psychologists also collaborate with teachers, students, and parents to help create
a healthy learning environment.

Social psychology seeks to explain and understand social behavior and looks at diverse topics including
group behavior, social interactions, leadership, nonverbal communication, and social influences on
decision-making.

Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic performance, exercise and
physical activity.

Describe the origins of psychology and identify people who made significant contributions to the
field

Today, psychology is defined as "the scientific study of behavior and mental processes". Philosophical
interest in the mind and behavior dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Persia, Greece, China,
and India. For a condensed overview, see the Timeline of Psychology article The history of psychology as
a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to the Ancient Greeks. There is also evidence of
psychological thought in ancient Egypt. Psychology was a branch of philosophy until the 1870s, when it
developed as an independent scientific discipline in Germany and the United States. Psychology borders
on various other fields including physiology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, sociology, anthropology,
as well as philosophy and other components of the humanities.
Psychology as a self-conscious field of experimental study began in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded
the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt was also
the first person to refer to himself as a psychologist. Other important early contributors to the field
include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in the study of memory), William James (the American father
of pragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (who developed the procedures associated with classical conditioning).
Soon after the development of experimental psychology, various kinds of applied psychology appeared. G.
Stanley Hall brought scientific pedagogy to the United States from Germany in the early 1880s. John
Dewey's educational theory of the 1890s was another example. Also in the 1890s, Hugo
Mnsterberg began writing about the application of psychology to industry, law, and other fields. Lightner
Witmer established the first psychological clinic in the 1890s. James McKeen Cattell adapted Francis
Galton's anthropometric methods to generate the first program of mental testing in the 1890s. In Vienna,
meanwhile, Sigmund Freud developed an independent approach to the study of the mind
called psychoanalysis, which has been widely influential.
The 20th century saw a reaction to Edward Titchener's critique of Wundt's empiricism. This contributed to
the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism
proposed emphasizing the study of overt behavior, because that could be quantified and easily measured.
Early behaviorists considered study of the "mind" too vague for productive scientific study. However,
Skinner and his colleagues did study thinking as a form of covert behavior to which they could apply the
same principles as overt (publicly observable) behavior. The final decades of the 20th century saw the rise
of cognitive science, an interdisciplinary approach to studying the human mind. Cognitive science again
considers the "mind" as a subject for investigation, using the tools of evolutionary
psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, behaviorism, and neurobiology. This form of
investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an
understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.

Identify the theoretical perspectives from which todays psychologists view behavior and mental
processes

Psychology is the scientific study of how we think, feel and behave. Since Wilhelm Wundt opened the first
psychology lab in 1879, psychologists have studied various aspects of human behavior, such as
personality, brain functions and socio-cultural influences. As psychology progressed, it began to tackle the
question of why we do what we do from different angles, including: biological, psychodynamic, behavioral,
cognitive and humanistic perspectives.

Biological Approach
Biopsychologists look at how your nervous system, hormones and genetic makeup affect your behavior.
Biological psychologists explore the connection between your mental states and your brain, nerves and
hormones to explore how your thoughts, moods and actions are shaped.

So what does that mean? It means that for the biological approach, you are the sum of your parts. You
think the way you do because of the way your brain is built and because of your body's needs. All of your
choices are based on your physical body. The biological approach attempts to understand the healthy
brain, but it also examines the mind and body to figure out how disorders like schizophrenia develop from
genetic roots.

Psychodynamic Approach
The psychodynamic approach was promoted by Sigmund Freud, who believed that many of our impulses
are driven by sex. Psychologists in this school of thought believe that unconscious drives and
experiences from early childhood are at the root of your behaviors and that conflict arises when societal
restrictions are placed on these urges.

There are a lot of jokes about Freud and his now mostly outdated theories. But have you ever thought
that something about who you are today comes from your experiences as a child? Say, you blame your
smoking habit on an oral fixation that stems from being weaned from breastfeeding too early as a
baby. Well, that also comes from Freud's theories, and it was an idea that revolutionized how we see
ourselves.

Behavioral Approach
Behavioral psychologists believe that external environmental stimuli influence your behavior and that you
can be trained to act a certain way. Behaviorists like B.F. Skinner don't believe in free will. They believe
that you learn through a system of reinforcements and punishment.

The behavioral approach is really effective when you don't care what someone thinks, as long as you get
the desired behavior. The influence of these theories affects us every day and throughout our lives,
impacting everything from why we follow the rules of the road when driving to how advertising companies
build campaigns to get us to buy their products.

Cognitive Approach
In contrast to behaviorists, cognitive psychologists believe that your behavior is determined by your
expectations and emotions. Cognitive psychologist Jean Piaget would argue that you remember things
based on what you already know. You also solve problems based on your memory of past experiences.

So, with this approach, we turn away from people as machines without free will and delve back into
thoughts and feelings. How you act is based upon internal processes, and there is much more stress
upon individuals. From a cognitive perspective, your expectations of an upcoming party will affect how
you feel and act while you're there and will color your memory of the night after you return home.

Humanistic Approach
Humanistic psychologists believe that you're essentially good and that you're motivated to realize your full
potential. Psychologists from this camp focus on how you can feel good about yourself by fulfilling your
needs and goals. The prominent humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers called his patients 'clients' and
offered a supportive environment in which clients could gain insight into their own feelings.

In contrast to the behavioral approach, the humanistic approach works on individual

empowerment. Whether you are right or not, in a larger sense, you are motivated to be the best person
you can be. All your choices come from trying to improve your life. So, if you're trying to cut back on your
nightly wine consumption, a humanistic therapist would be encouraging and supportive but won't directly
advise you to quit or try to analyze why you drink in the first place.

Explain how psychologists study behavior and mental processes, focusing on critical thinking
research methods and considerations

Critical thinking is the process of assessing claims and making judgments on the basis of well-supported
evidence. Five main questions form the basis of good critical thinking.

What am I being asked to believe or accept?

Is there evidence available to support the claim?

Can that evidence be interpreted another way?

What evidence would help to evaluate the alternatives?

What conclusions are most reasonable?

Psychologists use critical thinking in scientific research.

Questions about behavior and mental processes are phrased in terms of a hypothesis--a specific, testable
statement. Research is done to gather evidence to support or refute this statement.

Operational definitions are descriptions of the exact methods or operations that will be used in a research
study of the hypothesis. For example, an operational definition of height would be inches.

Variables are the specific factors or characteristics that can be altered and measured in research. Height
would be a variable.

Then the quality of the evidence is evaluated.

A. Reliability refers to whether the results are consistent or repeatable.

B. Validity refers to whether the results accurately reflect what they claim.
Research evidence gathered from numerous studies is organized into a theory--an in-depth explanation of
the phenomena studied. The theory forms the basis for further research in the area that may lead to revision
or even abandonment of the theory, if it is not supported.

Research methods in psychology

How do psychologists learn about people?
The scientific method generally consists of four main goals: describe the phenomenon, make
predictions about the phenomenon, control the phenomenon to ask specific questions about it,
and explain the phenomenon.

Naturalistic Observation

In a naturalistic observation, a researcher watches and records phenomena in their natural settings without
interfering with it.

Subjects may act differently if they know that they are being observed.

Observations can be distorted or incomplete if observers are not well trained or are biased about what they
expect to see.

Observation alone cannot lead to conclusions about cause and effect.

Case Studies

A case study intensively examines some phenomenon or event in a particular individual, group, or
situation.

Case studies are useful for new, complex, or rare phenomena, such as those studied by
neuropsychologists.

Case studies must be interpreted cautiously because they may not represent people in general and
may contain only the evidence a particular researcher considered important.

Surveys

Surveys use interviews or questionnaires to ask people about their behavior, attitudes, beliefs,
opinions, or intentions.

The validity of survey data depends partly on the wording of survey questions.

A survey's validity also depends on who is surveyed and who chooses to respond.

People may be reluctant to admit undesirable or embarrassing things about themselves.

Experiments
An experiment is the only research method that gives the control needed to directly test cause-and-effect
relationships between variables, or factors.

While all other variables are held constant, one variable is directly manipulated and its effect on another
variable observed. The variable that the researcher manipulates is the independent variable. The variable
that the researcher observes for an effect is the dependent variable because it depends on the
independent variable
The experimental group receives the experimental "treatment," and the control group receives no
treatment or some other treatment. Control groups provide baselines against which to compare the
performance of the experimental group.

FOCUS ON RESEARCH: STUDYING EMDR

What was the researcher's question?

Hypotheses are stated as clear, precise predictions that can be tested. Dr. Shapiro's hypothesis
was EMDR treatment causes significant reduction in anxiety.

How did the researcher answer the question?

An operational definition describes exact methods or measurements. In Dr. Shapiro's hypothesis, the
independent variable, EDMR treatment, was operationally defined as a certain number of back-and-forth
eye movements per second for a particular period of time. The dependent variable, significant reduction
in anxiety, was defined as a certain amount of reduction in clients' self-reported discomfort.

What did the researcher find?

The researcher found that those receiving EMDR treatment experienced a complete and nearly
immediate reduction in anxiety related to their traumatic memories while the control group showed no
change.

What do the results mean?

The structure or design of the experiment was flawed because the experimental group's session lasted
for 50 minutes, whereas the control group focused on their memories only for 8 minutes.

What do we still need to know?

Experiments that control the treatment situation to evaluate alternative explanations for the EMDR effect
are being conducted. Confirmation bias occurs when people look only for evidence that supports their
hypothesis.

Beware of flaws in experimental control.

Confounding variables are other factors that might have influenced the dependent variable.
These extra differences "confound" or confuse interpretation of experiments because you cannot know
results were caused by the independent variable or by the confounding variable.

Random variables are uncontrolled, sometimes uncontrollable factors like weather, current
events, and so forth. The random assignment of participants to different groups will reduce the impact of
random variables by spreading their effects across groups.

Participants' expectations about the experiment can affect results. For example, if participants
expect a treatment to help them, they may show improvement just because of their expectations. This is
called the placebo effect.

To directly avoid such effects, a control group may receive a placebo, a treatment that appears
to be the same as the experimental treatment, but which lacks the critical "ingredient."
 Unintentional experimenter expectations can also affect results. Experimenter bias occurs when
researchers inadvertently encourage certain results. To guard against this, researchers might use
a double-blind design, in which both the experimenter and the participants are unaware of who is in the
experimental and who is in the control group.

Selecting Human Participants for Research

Sampling is the process of selecting research participants to study from the overall population.

For the study results to apply, or generalize, to the entire population, a random sample should
be selected. Truly random samples (an ideal seldom obtained) allow every member of a population an
equal chance of being selected.

A biased sample occurs if everyone does NOT have an equal chance of being chosen.

A representative sample is a random sample from a population that is typical or representative of

some specific population of interest.