BATTERY SYSTEMS

ENGINEERING
Christopher D. Rahn and Chao-Yang Wang
The Pennsylvania State University, USA

WI LEY
A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
Contents
Preface xi

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Energy Storage Applications 1
1.2 The Role of Batteries 3
1.3 Battery Systems Engineering 4
1.4 A Model-Based Approach 6
1.5 Electrochemical Fundamentals 7
1.6 Battery Design 8
1.7 Objectives of this Book 9

2 Electrochemistry 11
2.1 LeadAcid 11
2.2 NickelMetal Hydride 14
2.3 Lithium-Ion 16
2.4 Performance Comparison 18
2.4.1 Energy Density and Specific Energy 18
2.4.2 Charge and Discharge 19
2.4.3 Cycle Life 22
2.4.4 Temperature Operating Range 22

3 Governing Equations 23
3.1 Thermodynamics and Faraday's Law 23
3.2 Electrode Kinetics 26
3.2.1 The ButlerVolmer Equation 27
3.2.2 Double-Layer Capacitance 28
3.3 Solid Phase of Porous Electrodes 28
3.3.1 Intercalate Species Transport 30
3.3.2 Conservation of Charge 31
3.4 Electrolyte Phase of Porous Electrodes 33
3.4.I Ion Transport 33
3.4.2 Conservation of Charge 36
3.4.3 Concentrated Solution Theory 38
3.5 Cell Voltage 39
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3.6 Cell Temperature 40

3.6.1 Arrhenius Equation 40
3.6.2 Conservation of Energy 40
3.7 Side Reactions and Aging 41
Problems 44

4 Discretization Methods 49
4.1 Analytical Method 50
4.1.1 Electrolyte Diffusion 50
4.1.2 Coupled ElectrolyteSolid Diffusion in Pb Electrodes 59
4.1.3 Solid-State Diffusion in Li-Ion and NiMH Particles 61
4.2 Pa& Approximation Method 62
4.2.1 Solid-State Diffusion in Li-lon Particles 63
4.3 Integral Method Approximation 64
4.3.1 Electrolyte Diffusion 64
4.3.2 Solid-State Diffusion in Li-Ion and NiMH Particles 67
4.4 Ritz Method 67
4.4.1 Electrolyte Diffusion in a Single Domain 68
4.4.2 Electrolyte Diffusion in Coupled Domains 69
4.4.3 Coupled ElectrolyteSolid Diffusion in Pb Electrodes 72
4.5 Finite-Element Method 74
4.5.1 Electrolyte Diffusion 75
4.5.2 Coupled ElectrolyteSolid Diffusion in Li-lon Electrodes 77
4.6 Finite-Difference Method 78
4.6.1 Electrolyte Diffusion 79
4.6.2 Nonlinear Coupled ElectrolyteSolid Diffusion in Pb Electrodes 79
4.7 System Identification in the Frequency Domain 81
4.7.1 System Model 82
4.7.2 Least-Squares Optimization Problem 82
4.7.3 Optimization Approach 84
4.7.4 Multiple Outputs 85
4.7.5 System Identification Toolbox 85
4.7.6 Experimental Data 86
Problems 86

5 System Response 89
5.1 Time Response 90
5.1.1 Constant Charge/Discharge Current 91
5. I .2 DST Cycle Response of the PbAcid Electrode 98
5.2 Frequency Response 100
5.2.1 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy 101
5.2.2 Discretization Efficiency 103
5.3 Model Order Reduction 108
5.3.1 Truncation Approach 110
5.3.2 Grouping Approach 110
5.3.3 Frequency-Response Curve Fitting 111
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5.3.4
Performance Comparison 111
Problems 115

6 Battery System Models 119

6.1 LeadAcid Battery Model 120
6.1.1 Governing Equations 120
6.1.2 Discretization using the Ritz Method 124
6.1.3 Numerical Convergence 126
6.1.4 Simulation Results 128
6.2 Lithium-Ion Battery Model 132
6.2.1 Conservation of Species 134
6.2.2 Conservation of Charge 135
6.2.3 Reaction Kinetics 136
6.2.4 Cell Voltage 137
6.2.5 Linearization 137
6.2.6 Impedance Solution 138
6.2.7 FEM Electrolyte Diffusion 142
6.2.8 Overall System Transfer Function 143
6.2.9 Time-Domain Model and Simulation Results 144
6.3 Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery Model 146
6.3.1 Solid-Phase Diffusion 148
6.3.2 Conservation of Charge 151
6.3.3 Reaction Kinetics 151
6.3.4 Cell Voltage 152
6.3.5 Simulation Results 153
6.3.6 Linearized Model 155
Problems 157

7 Estimation 161
7.1 State of Charge Estimation 162
7.1.1 SOC Modeling 164
7.1.2 Instantaneous SOC 167
7.1.3 Current Counting Method 168
7.1.4 Voltage Lookup Method 169
7.1.5 State Estimation 170
7.2 Least-Squares Model Tuning 176
7.2.1 Impedance Transfer Function 176
7.2.2 Least-Squares Algorithm 177
7.2.3 NiMH Cell Example 180
7.2.4 Identifiability 181
7.3 SOH Estimation 183
7.3. I Parameterization for Environment and Aging 184
7.3.2 Parameter Estimation 185
7.3.3 NiMH Cell Example 187
Problems 188
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8 Battery Management Systems 191

8.1 BMS Hardware 194
8.2 Charging Protocols 196
8.3 Pulse Power Capability 197
8.4 Dynamic Power Limits 201
8.5 Pack Management 204
8.5.1 Pack Dynamics 204
8.5.2 Cell Balancing in Series Strings 212
8.5.3 Thermal Management 224
Problems 228

References 231
Index 235