Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Denis Gingras
Contents
Preface 6 A Passion for Berries 140
Conclusion 218
The risk of dying in an airplane crash at some point CANCER BY THE NUMBERS
is relatively slim compared with the level of risk Of all the real dangers we encounter in life, cancer
many people take without a second thought as is an undeniable threat. The disease will affect two
they live their daily lives (see Figure 1, p.14). For out of five people before the age of 75, and one
example, people with obesity have almost a million person in four will die from complications related
times greater risk of dying prematurely than of being to cancer. Every year, 10 million people around the
killed in an airplane crash. Any one of us is at least world develop cancer and 7 million deaths are
fifty thousand times more likely to be struck by caused by the disease, amounting to 12 percent
cancer than by lightning during our lifetime. And if of all deaths recorded worldwide. And the situation
you adopt a risky behavior like smoking, the odds is not getting any better, since it is now estimated
of developing cancer are even greater. that as the population gradually ages, 15 million
14 The Scourge of Cancer
new cancer cases will be diagnosed annually. In problem cancer poses and show the need to
North America alone, for example, 10 million people identify potential new ways to reduce the negative
are currently living with cancer and 600,000 of impacts of this disease on society.
them will die of the disease in the coming year. Figures aside, cancer is first and foremost a
To grasp the full scope of the tragedy, imagine human tragedy. It robs us of the people around us
television news showing four Boeing 747s full of who are precious to us, deprives young children of
passengers crashing every day, or the collapse of their mother or father, and leaves a wound that
the twin towers of the World Trade Center three never heals in parents devastated by the loss of
times a week. This is not to mention the cost their child. Such bereavement gives rise to a sense
associated with treating people with cancer, of injustice and rage, or feelings of being the victim
estimated to be in the region of $180 billion of an unfortunate random attack that we were
annually, which will only climb in coming years. utterly powerless to avoid. Ultimately, losing
These figures illustrate the size of the public health someone we love to cancer raises doubts about
our ability to conquer the disease.
This feeling of powerlessness is clearly reflected
FEAR VS. REALITY in public opinion surveys that ask participants
about their understanding of what causes cancer.
Fear Actual risk Generally speaking, people view cancer as a
disease triggered by uncontrollable factors:
Dying in a shark attack 1 in 252 million 89percent think that cancer is caused by
inheriting faulty genes and more than 80 percent
Being struck by lightning 1 in 1 million believe that environmental factors, like industrial
pollution or pesticide residues on foods, are
Dying from food
1 in 100,000 significant causes. In terms of lifestyle, an
poisoning
overwhelming majority of people (92 percent)
Dying in a car accident 1 in 7,000* associate smoking with cancer, yet fewer than half
of people questioned think their diet can have an
Getting food poisoning 1 in 6 influence on the risk of developing the disease.
Overall, these surveys prove that people are rather
Dying prematurely due
1 in 5 pessimistic about their chances of preventing
to obesity
cancer. According to half of those questioned,
Getting heart disease 1 in 4 prevention is not very likely or even possible.
Getting cancer 1 in 3 These survey results are troubling because, with
the exception of smoking, this prevailing attitude of
Dying from the effects of helpless pessimism runs completely against what
1 in 2
smoking (smokers) research has identified as triggering factors for
cancer. It is clear that we need a thorough review
*For people age 25 to 34
of how health officials and government agencies
inform the general public about how to actively
Adapted from The Book of Odds, 2013. Figure 1
reduce the risk of developing cancer.
The Scourge of Cancer 15
HEREDITY IN PERSPECTIVE
The role of heredity in the development of cancer is Studies of children who were adopted very early in life
much smaller than most people think. While there are have demonstrated the limited influence heredity has
certain defective genes transmitted by heredity that on their chances of developing cancer. When one of
increase the risk of some cancers (BRCA genes and the biological parents died of cancer before the age of
breast and ovarian cancer, for example), such genes 50, the risk of their child also getting the disease was
are very rare and all current studies clearly show that increased by about 20 percent. On the other hand,
they do not play the critical role attributed to them. a 500 percent increase in cancer risk was seen in
Comparing cancer rates in identical and adopted children (see Figure 3, below right) when
nonidentical twins provides a good example of this. one of the adoptive parents died prematurely from
If the risk of cancer were due to inherited genes, cancer. This means that if the adoptive parents ate a
identical twins with the same genes would be much poor diet, lived a sedentary lifestyle, or smoked, the
more likely to get the disease than nonidentical twins. risk that their adopted children would develop cancer
However, this is not what has been observed for most was far greater than the risk these same children
cancers. When one twin developed cancer during the sustained from having inherited defective genes.
study, fewer than 15 percent of identical twins Studies also show that a healthy lifestyle can have
developed the same cancer (see Figure 2, below). an enormous impact on reducing cancer risk even in
Similarly, the simultaneous development of leukemia cases when someone has inherited defective genes. For
in identical twins is relatively rare. In fact, despite the example, women carrying rare defective versions of the
presence of the same genetic anomalies in both BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes have a risk of developing
children, only between 5 and 10 percent of pairs of breast cancer that is 8 to 10 times higher than that of
twins develop the disease at the same time. the general population and 40 times higher for ovarian
cancer. However, the risk of
developing early-onset breast
CANCER RISK IN TWINS INFLUENCE OF PARENTS cancer (before age 50) for women
ON CANCER RISK IN carrying these defective genes has
ADOPTED CHILDREN tripled for those born after 1940. For
women born before 1940, there is
15% increase a 24 percent risk; for women born
600 after 1940, the risk is almost tripled,
at 67 percent. This increase is tied
Increase in cancer risk (%)
500
to the significant changes in lifestyle
Increase in cancer risk (%)
A WORLD MAP OF CANCER and most evenly widespread cancer worldwide, the
Examining the worldwide distribution of cancer most common cancers in Western industrialized
cases dramatically illustrates the influence of countries, like the United States, are completely
lifestyle on cancer development (see Figure 4, below). different from those occurring in Asian countries.
At a glance, it is clear that the burden of cancer is In the United States and Canada, in addition
not evenly distributed around the world. According to lung cancer, the main cancers are, in order,
to the latest statistics published by the World colon, breast, and prostate cancer, while in Asian
Health Organization, industrialized Western regions countries the incidence of these cancers is far
like Australia, North America, and several countries lower than cancer of the stomach, esophagus,
in Europe including the United Kingdom are the and liver.
hardest hit by cancer, with more than 250 cases The size of these differences between East and
for every 100,000 inhabitants. By contrast, Asian West is striking. For example, in some parts of the
countries like India, China, and Thailand have much United States, more than 100 women in 100,000
lower rates of cancer, with approximately 100 get breast cancer, compared with just eight Thai
cases per 100,000 people. women in 100,000. The same is true for colon
Not only is the cancer burden distributed cancer: whereas in some regions in the West, 50
unequally from one region to another, but the types people out of every 100,000 develop this cancer,
of cancer occurring in the populations vary widely, it occurs in just five people out of every 100,000
too. Generally speaking, aside from lung cancer, in India. As for prostate cancer, which is the other
which, because of smoking, is the most common major cancer found in Western countries, the gap
Incidence
(cases/100,000
individuals)
less than 109
less than 146
less than 191
less than 261
less than 406
No data
2000
1000
500
is even wider: it affects 10 times fewer Japanese same among Japanese migrants as it was for
men and as many as 100 times fewer Thai men native-born Hawaiians. The situation was similar
as it does men in Western countries. for Japanese women, whose low rates of breast
The study of migrant populations confirms that and uterine cancer increased considerably when
these extreme variations are not the result of some they emigrated to the West and subsequently
kind of genetic predisposition, but are actually adopted a Western diet and lifestyle.
closely related to differences in lifestyle. Figure 5 These statistics do not represent an isolated
(above) shows a remarkable example of the casefar from it. Similar results have been
variations caused by immigration. obtained by studying various world populations.
In this study, statistics on cancer incidence It is worth mentioning just one other example
among Japanese living in Japan and those who of how lifestyle, and not genetic inheritance,
had emigrated to Hawaii were compared with influences the chances of developing cancer.
figures for the native-born Hawaiian population. The rate of prostate cancer is much higher
At the time of the study, prostate cancer was not in the United States than it is in Africa. In a
very common in Japan. However, the incidence comparison of the incidence of certain types
of this cancer grew by 10 times among Japanese of cancer in the African American population
migrants, to the point where it was almost the and in an African population in Nigeria
18 The Scourge of Cancer
2000
African Americans
1500
Caucasian Americans
1000
500
(see Figure 6, above), the Africans have cancer culinary traditions of the host country. In the two
rates that are dramatically different from those of cases that interest us, these changes are tragic.
African Americans. In every case, the incidence of For example, Japanese migrating to the West
cancers in the African American population studied traded an exemplary diet, high in complex
is almost identical to that of Caucasian Americans, carbohydrates and vegetables and low in fats,
while it is completely different from that of their for a diet high in sugar, protein, and animal fats.
ancestors, the African population. The results Furthermore, quite aside from emigration,
of these studies are compelling. In addition to Japanese dietary habits have undergone major
providing irrefutable proof that most cancers are upheavals during the last 50 years, and this also
not the result of hereditary factors, they highlight illustrates the role of diet in cancer development.
the predominant role lifestyle plays in the For example, barely 40 years ago, meat
development of the disease. consumption was very rare in Japan, but it has
But what change can have had such a negative risen more than seven times in recent years,
influence on the health of these emigrants that their increasing the colon cancer rate five-fold to equal
cancer rate increased so quickly? All studies done that of Western countries. It is alarming to realize
to date point to emigrants rejection of their the degree to which adopting a Western lifestyle
traditional diet and their rapid adaptation to the has increased the incidence of a number of cancers.
The Scourge of Cancer 19
cancer in individuals and, as a result, could inducing agents for cancers of the digestive system
therefore significantly reduce the incidence of and skin, respectively.
cancer throughout society (see Figure 8, opposite). What is less widely known is the degree to which
A crucial aspect, generally well known to most poor dietary habits and excess body weight can
people, is of course to reduce exposure to cancer- also be important factors that increase cancer risk.
causing agents like cigarette smoke, alcohol, and A lack of plant foods, and eating too many foods
ultraviolet rays to an absolute minimum. Tobacco high in sugar and fat, too much red and processed
alone is responsible for one-third of all cancers, meat, and too many foods high in salt, have all
owing to the dramatic increase in risk of lung been associated with a higher risk of cancer, just
cancer and 15 or so other types of cancer in as excess body weight and physical inactivity have
smokers. Drinking too much alcohol and being been. Altogether, scientists now believe that the
exposed too often to UV rays are well-known aspects of lifestyle related to diet and weight are
Sedentary lifestyle 5%
Alcohol 3%
Salt 1%
UV Rays 2%
Poor diet/Obesity
30% Hereditary factors 5%
Professional exposure 5%
Infections 5%
Smoking
30% Perinatal factors 5%
Socioeconomic status 3%
Reproductive factors 3%
Pollution 2%
Medical procedures/Drugs 1%
Adapted from AACR Cancer Progress Report, 2011. Figure 7
The Scourge of Cancer 21
Carcinogenic
agents Smoking Stop smoking.
Diet and
control of Sedentary lifestyle Be physically active at least 30 minutes every day.
body weight
Figure 8
22 The Scourge of Cancer
responsible for roughly one-third of all cancers, a in plants. A diet like this contains the worst possible
percentage as high as that caused by tobacco, the combination of foods for maintaining health and the
most significant cancer-causing agent described to best for encouraging cancer development. On one
date (see Figure 7, p.20). In fact, the proportion of hand, the excess calories lead to an increase in
deaths from cancer directly linked to the modern body weight, and many studies have clearly shown
diet could actually be as high as 70 percent in that carrying too much weight is associated with
the case of gastrointestinal-system cancers increased risk for several types of cancer. On the
(esophagus, stomach, and colon). other, low consumption of plant products deprives
Undeniably, the foods we eat daily have an the body of several thousand anti-inflammatory
enormous influence on our risk of developing and anticancer molecules that can hinder the
cancer, and we must urgently change our current progression of cancer cells and reduce the
dietary habits if we want to reduce the burden incidence of several types of cancer (see Figure
cancer imposes on our society. 9, below).
Furthermore, we are now seeing in real time
THE IMPACT OF THE WESTERN DIET ON CANCER the negative global impact of this kind of diet.
Our daily diet has a profound impact on our Every country that has changed its dietary
chances of developing cancer. To try to understand traditions to incorporate those in fashion in
the extent of this impact, we must first understand North America also sees a rapid increase in its
just how unbalanced the modern diet is, in both its rates of obesity, colon and prostate cancer, and
excesses and its deficiencies. heart diseaseall diseases that for them were
In the West, the act of eating is often viewed until recently relatively rare.
simply as an act of refueling, or a quick way to
supply the body with the energy essential for
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF
survival. This translates into a diet centered mainly PROCESSED FOOD
on calorie consumption, with fruits and vegetables,
which are low in calories, playing only a limited role.
Junk food
We are inundated with readily-available processed
foods. These are overloaded with sugar and fat,
and they are always within reach, making it easy
Lack of Too many
for us to eat too much (sometimes without even calories
plant foods
realizing it) and accumulate an excess of body fat.
The modern Western diet has nothing to do
with what was the very essence of the human
diet barely 10 generations ago. For example,
todays diet contains at least twice the amount Carcinogenic
environment Obesity
of fats, a percentage of saturated fat much higher
in comparison with unsaturated fats, barely one-
third of the fiber intake, a flood of simple sugars
Cancer
to the detriment of complex carbohydrates, and
Figure 9
a decrease in the type of essential elements found
The Scourge of Cancer 23
well as vitamins and minerals. Instead, we hope to Foods that may look strange at first can soon become
a welcome and highly enjoyable part of your daily diet.
introduce you to, or refamiliarize you with, a few
Eating a wide range of fresh foods is key to maximizing
foods that can genuinely help decrease your risk anticancer benefits.
of developing cancer. Our recommendations are
naturally based on the well-established role of plant
foods as a fundamental component of any diet eating the minimum of five servings of fruits and
designed to fight cancer. vegetables every day. We have to deliberately
However, we have also taken into account new choose those foods most able to prevent the
scientific data suggesting that the specific types development of cancer. The evidence is clear: a
of fruits and vegetables consumed might play diet based on an intake of foods high in anticancer
as important a role as the amount, since some compounds is an indispensable weapon for
foods are particularly good sources of anticancer discouraging the processes that lead to the
molecules. It is therefore not just a question of development of cancer.
Lifestyle has been proven to play a predominant role
in the risk of developing cancer.
Approximately one-third of cancers are directly
linked to diet.
Eating a diversified diet, high in fruits and vegetables,
combined with a calorie-controlled intake to avoid
becoming overweight, is a simple and effective way to
significantly reduce the risk of getting cancer.
Know your enemy and know yourself;
if you had a hundred battles to fight, you
would be victorious a hundred times over.
Sun Tzu, The Art of War
Despite decades of painstaking research at a cost To use the people around us as an analogy, it
of billions of dollars, a great many cancers remain is often possible to get to know the broad outlines
impossible to treat. And even when treatments are of the character, motivations, strengths, and
available for some types of cancer, long-term survival weaknesses of an individual without necessarily
often still falls short of expectations. Frequently, new having to learn all the details of his or her life. This
drugs arouse much enthusiasm but prove to be less is really what this chapter is all about: getting to
effective than predicted and even, in some cases, know a cancer cell by looking only at the broad
totally ineffective. So what is it that makes cancer so outlines of its personality. There are several things
difficult to treat? This is a key question we need to we need to understand. For example, what
consider before discussing new methods by which motivates a cancer cell to multiply and then invade
we can hope to fight this disease. surrounding tissues and grow to the point where it
28 What Is Cancer?
becomes life-threatening? What type of conditions To better understand how a cell works, we
set off the chain of events that enable cancer cells can compare it to a city. Imagine that all of the
to do this? And even more importantly, how do we functions essential to the community have been
identify the weaknesses of cancer in order to divided among different locations, so that workers
defend ourselves against it effectively? can have optimal conditions in which to do their
work. In terms of cancer development, four main
THE ROOT OF ALL EVIL: THE CELL components of the cell play an important role (see
The cell is the unit at the base of everything living Figure 10, below).
on Earth, from the most humble bacterium with just
one cell, to complex organisms like human beings, The nucleus
which contain over 37 trillion. This tiny structure This is the cells library, the place where all the legal
measures barely 10100 m (a m, or micrometer, texts governing the citys functioningthe genes
is a thousandth of a millimeter) and is a masterpiece are stored. The cells contain about 25,000 laws
of nature. It is almost incomprehensibly complex, located inside a thick textbook, the DNA, which is
and continues to astonish scientists trying to written in a strange alphabet made up of just four
understand it. The cell is far from having revealed letters: A, T, C, and G. Reading these laws is
all of its secrets, but we already know that it is the important, for these tell the cell how to behave
disruption of some of a cells normal functions that by causing it to produce the proteins it needs to
plays a key role in the development of cancer. This function properly and respond to all of the changes
means that, taken from a scientific point of view, occurring in its environment. For example, a
cancer is first and foremost a cell disease. warning signal telling the cell that it is running out
Gene
Protein
Nucleus
Cell
functioning
Figure 10
What Is Cancer? 29
of sugar will immediately be followed by the reading triphosphate, or ATP). Oxygen is used as fuel for
of a law authorizing the production of new proteins this function, but the process causes toxic waste
specialized for transporting sugar. With its sugar products, called free radicals, to form. These waste
reserves sufficiently replenished, the cell can survive products can act as triggering elements for cancer
and continue to produce proteins normally. When by introducing changes into the legal texts (genes).
errors occur in reading these laws, however, the These changes, known as mutations, can cause
proteins formed are incapable of correctly carrying errors in the way in which the cell produces protein.
out their function, and may thus contribute to the
development of cancer. The plasma membrane
This structure, which surrounds the cell, is made
The proteins up of fats and certain proteins, and acts as a wall
The proteins are the citys workforce. Protein to contain all of the cells activities in one place.
molecules carry out most of the functions The plasma membrane plays a very important role,
necessary to maintain the cells cohesion. These since it acts as a barrier between the interior of the
include, among other things, transporting nutritive cell and the external environment. The membrane
substances from the bloodstream, communicating provides a kind of filter that determines which
messages from outside to inform the cell of substances can enter the cell and which ones
changes in the external world, and transforming can leave. It also contains several proteins, called
nutrients to produce energy. Several proteins are receptors, that detect chemical signals in the
enzymes, the engineers of the cell. Enzymes have bloodstream and transmit to the cell the coded
the ability to transform unusable substances into messages sent by these signals. This way, the
proteins essential for the life of the cell. A number cell is able to react to variations in its environment.
of enzymes also enable the cell to adapt quickly A function that detects and then transmits
to any change in the environment by subtly information to the cell in this way is critical for the
modifying the functioning of other proteins. This proper functioning of the cell because an incorrect
means that the cell must constantly ensure that reading of the genes controlling protein production
the reading of the laws governing the production may have tragic consequences. When a cell can
of these enzymes is correct and remains true to no longer understand what is happening outside,
the original textbook. An incorrect reading causes it loses its points of reference and begins to behave
the production of modified proteins that are no autonomously without regard for the other cells
longer able to accomplish their work correctly or surrounding it. This highly dangerous behavior
whose overzealousness is not compatible with the can lead to cancer.
cells proper balance. Cancer is thus always caused
by errors in protein production, especially enzymes. THE CONSTRAINTS OF COMMUNAL LIVING
What makes a cell become cancerous? Most
The mitochondria people understand that cancer is the result of
This is the citys power station, the place where excessive cell multiplication. Exactly what triggers
energy contained in the structure of molecules this kind of behavior remains mysterious. To borrow
supplied by food (sugars, proteins, and fats) is the language of modern-day psychological analysis,
converted into cellular energy (known as adenosine the answer lies in the cells childhood.
30 What Is Cancer?
baggage, the same legal codebooks. A skin cell of cells is strictly governed by rules that ensure
is different from a kidney cell not because the two that rebel cells will be quickly eliminated in order
kinds of cells do not have the same genes, but to safeguard the maintenance of vital functions.
rather because they do not use the same genes However, the application of these rules is not
to carry out their functions. In other words, each perfect; some cells still manage to find gene
cell in the human body uses only those genes that mutations that allow them to overcome these
correspond to its function; this is known as cell regulations and subsequently cause cancer.
differentiation. Maintaining cell differentiation is In other words, cancer appears when a cell stops
crucial for the bodys proper functioning. If the being resigned to playing the role assigned to it and
neurons that allow us to think suddenly decided no longer agrees to cooperate with the others to
to behave like skin cells and no longer transmit dedicate its resources to the benefit of all the other
any nerve impulses, the entire body would suffer. calls in the organism. This cell becomes an outlaw
The same is true for all of our organs. Each kind isolating itself from its fellows and no longer
of cell must perform the task assigned to it for the responding to orders from the society in which it
well-being of the cells as a whole (the organism). lives. Henceforth, it has only one thing on its mind:
When we consider that the human body contains ensuring its own survival and that of its descendants.
37 trillion cells, each listening to the others, we At this point, anything can happen: the rebel cell has
cannot help but be astonished by the order that rediscovered its ancestral survival instincts.
emerges out of such complexity.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CANCER
CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE It is important to understand that cell transformation
Given that the proper functioning of an organism does not in itself necessarily mean that a cancer
as complex as a human being requires the total will immediately develop in the organism. As we will
repression of cells ancestral survival instincts, see later on, this delinquent behavior in cells occurs
as well as the sharing of all of their resources, regularly during the lifetime of an individual, without
it is easy to see that maintaining these functions necessarily degenerating into cancer. Instead,
is a delicate balancing act, constantly subject to cancer development must be seen as a gradual
attempts at rebellion by cells that want to reclaim process that can occur quietly over several years
their freedom of action. This is exactly what or even several decades, before causing symptoms
happens throughout our lifetime: as soon as a cell to appear. Cancers slowness to develop is
is attacked from the outside, whether by a cancer- extremely important for us, since, as we will
causing substance, a virus, or perhaps a surplus of see throughout this book, it gives us a golden
free radicals, its first reflex is to interpret this attack opportunity to intervene at several stages in its
as a test it must confront as best it can by mutating development and to stop a transformed cell from
its genes in order to fight back. These attacks evolving into a mature cancer cell.
occur frequently during our lifetime, with the result While every cancer has its own triggering
that many damaged cells rebel and in so doing factors, all cancers follow substantially the same
forget their primary function in the organism as a process of development. This process can be
whole. Fortunately, to prevent the damaged cell divided into three main stages: initiation, promotion,
from becoming too autonomous, the good will and progression (see Figure 11, overleaf).
32 What Is Cancer?
EVOLUTION OF CANCER
1 to 40 years
Abnormal
cell division
Carcinogenic
products
Irradiation
Virus
Initiation Promotion Progression Cancer Metastases
Figure 11
of these new properties, cancer cells that have tumors cause DNA mutations and so, by definition,
reached maturity have, in a way, become a new are carcinogenic and can actually increase the risk
life form able to replicate itself autonomously and of cancer in the short or long term.
go on to survive in the face of a whole range of Resistance. While, generally speaking, all
unfavorable conditions. cancers are greatly reduced or even eradicated
by chemotherapy or radiotherapy (we say in these
TREATING CANCER: THE LIMITS OF cases that the tumors respond to treatment),
CURRENT APPROACHES tumors nonetheless often recur after a period of
There is no such thing as a single, universal time. These recurrences are usually a bad sign,
procedure for treating cancer. This is because the because these new tumors have often become
type of cancer, its size and location in the body, resistant to a broad range of treatments. In the
and the kind of cells it contains (commonly called case of chemotherapy, for example, a mechanism
the stage, and numbered from 1 to 4), as well as often used by cancer cells to fight back against
the patients overall state of health, are all important the perceived poisoning is the production of
considerations in the choice of the best treatment specific proteins that pump the drugs out of
strategy. Surgical removal of a cancerous tumor the cell and thus prevent them from inflicting any
is a fairly common procedure, followed by damage on the cancer cell. Another mechanism
radiotherapy or chemotherapy treatment to consists of disposing of genes that would compel
eliminate residual cancer cells. These three them to commit suicide when the drug enters the
interventions can be undertaken either cell. In short, even when a chemotherapy treatment
simultaneously or in sequence. succeeds in killing 99.9 percent of the cancer cells,
Despite the considerable progress made as all it takes is for a single one to have successfully
a result of these therapeutic approaches, cancer acquired a new trait giving it resistance to the
remains a very difficult disease to treat. These drug for the tumor to recur, this time composed
difficulties can be attributed to three major limits of clones of that cancer cell that are even more
of current therapies. dangerous than the cells in the earlier tumor.
Side effects. One of the main problems with As we have said, we should not perhaps be too
using chemotherapy drugs to target cancer cells surprised at the ability of cancer cells to adapt
is that such drugs are also highly toxic to healthy because this adaptation mechanism is at the heart
cells. This toxicity causes a range of unwanted side of life on Earth. Even less-evolved cells are often
effects, which include a decrease in immune cells able to find ways to resist obstacles in their path,
and platelets, anemia, digestive disorders (nausea, as witnessed in the resurgence of a number of
attacks on the digestive mucosa), and hair loss diseases associated with bacteria resistant to
(alopecia), not to mention various cardiac, renal several classes of antibiotics.
(kidney), and other complications. As a result, the Cell diversity within a single tumor (also
length of treatment often has to be curtailed due referred to as cell heterogeneity). There are major
to the severe nature of these side effects, making differences in the composition of a tumor, both
it sometimes impossible to eliminate the cancer among different individuals and within a single
cells completely. Whats more, some of the cancer. Analysis of the various anatomical regions
chemotherapy drugs used for treating certain of a lung cancer, for example, reveals the presence
What Is Cancer? 35
Subclone 1
Subclone 3
Intertumoral Subclone 2
Clonal
Intratumoral
Figure 12
36 What Is Cancer?
of several different genetic defects, which have all but rather the result of a long process occurring
evolved in their own individual way. This means that over many years, in which the cell, awakened
a cancerous mass is not just one cancer, but rather by the appearance of an error in its genetic
a combination of several cancers, each containing material, transforms itself completely to overcome
several million completely degenerated cells (see the many obstacles encountered in the course
Figure 12, p.35). of its development.
Similarly, what we call breast cancer is really The most important aspect of this long process
a generic term referring to a family of at least is that, for many years, even decades, cancer cells
10distinct diseases, each with its own molecular remain extremely vulnerable and only a few of them
imprint and specific characteristics. The existence successfully reach the malignant stage. This
of such a considerable diversity of cancer cells vulnerability means it is possible to interfere at
means that even if a given treatment manages several points in the tumors development and
to neutralize an oncogene (the name for a gene thereby prevent cancer from appearing. We will
that has mutated and now has the capacity to emphasize this point throughout this book,
cause the growth of cancer cells) that promotes because this notion is key to reducing deaths from
cancer growth, the tumor is likely to contain cancer. If we really want to decrease the number
subpopulations of cells that use other means of cases of cancer in our society, it is crucial that
to grow and will be resistant to this treatment. cancerous tumors are attacked while they are
As a result, even new cancer-fighting therapies still vulnerable.
that specifically target certain genetic abnormalities By rediscovering, so to speak, its ancestors
in tumors are often powerless to cure a majority of original instincts, which were adapted in order
patients, despite the often exorbitant costs to ensure its autonomous survival, the tumor cell
associated with these drugs. acquires fearsome power. And this is what makes
All of these factors illustrate what an incredibly cancer so difficult to fight: trying to destroy these
complex disease mature cancer is, and how primitive cells is like trying to eliminate the adaptive
extremely difficult it is to treat successfully. It is force that created us. We are fighting the forces at
important to realize, however, that the appearance the very origins of life.
of a tumor is in no way an instant development,
Cancer is a disease caused by the disruption of
cellular functions, in which the cell gradually
acquires characteristics that allow it to grow
and invade the organisms tissues.
The acquisition of these cancerous properties occurs
over a long time, during a latency (inactive or
dormant) period. This period, however, offers us a
golden opportunity to intervene to prevent cancerous
tumors from reaching a mature, dangerous stage.
The tallest tree was born
of a tiny seed.
Lao Tzu (570490 bce)
In the armor of a tumor cell, is there a chink that could enhance our
chances of defeating it? The answer is yes. A cancer cell, despite its
power, adaptability, and genetic instability, cannot by itself succeed
in invading the tissues in which it lives.
we know that the seed relies on an adequate the development of a cancerous tumor. The first,
supply of sun and water, two factors indispensable which can in some respects be compared to water,
for absorbing nutrients in the soil. The same is true aims to root the seed more solidly in the soil. Once
for cancer. Precancerous cells, whether they are established, it can gain access to a constant
hereditary in origin or acquired during our lifetime, supply of nutrients.
are incapable of taking advantage of the resources To do this, cancer cells produce biochemical
in their environment on their own. In fact, this signals, notably VEGF (vascular endothelial growth
environment (called the stroma) is composed factor), to attract cells from a blood vessel located
of a very large number of noncancerous cells, nearby. By attaching itself to a receptor on the
in particular the cells in the conjunctive tissue, surface of the vessels cells, VEGF enables these
an environment that is not very receptive to cells to migrate toward the tumor by dissolving the
precancerous cells and even has an anticancer surrounding tissue and creating enough new cells
effect that limits their development. The evolution of to produce a new blood vessel. This process is
these precancerous cells therefore depends totally called tumoral angiogenesis (see Figure 14, opposite)
on additional factors that will activate the stroma from the Greek angio (vessel) and genesis
and force it to modify its status quo so the cells (creation). Angiogenesis facilitates the tumors
can obtain the elements they need to progress. growth by providing it with an entirely new network
Two types of procarcinogenic factors in the cells of blood vessels to meet its energy needs in order
immediate environment are especially important for to continue invading surrounding tissues.
Genetic Micro-
predispositions environment
(hereditary and Poor lifestyle habits (stroma)
acquired)
Figure 13
Cancer: A Matter of Cellular Environment 41
Tumoral
angiogenesis
Microtumor sends out signal to attract New blood supply enables tumor to
nearby blood-vessel cells grow and invade surrounding tissues
Figure 14
The growth stimulated by procarcinogenic and over too long a period, it can cause several medical
proangiogenic factors would be much slower, conditions to develop, and can even promote the
however, if the immature tumor could not count on onset of diseases like cancer. A close relationship
another kind of procarcinogenic factor, which, just between inflammation and cancer was recognized
like sunshine in the case of a plant, speeds up the by the first pathologists who took an interest in
process by supplying it with an important source of cancer. In fact, the presence of a large number
powerful stimulators, namely, the inflammatory cells of macrophages (white blood cells) and other
in our immune system. In other words, like water immune cells in tumors is a fundamental
and sunshine for plants, these procarcinogenic characteristic of many cancers. (We should stress
and inflammatory factors act together to enable that, in general, the greater the number of these
precancerous cells to draw on the elements cells, the more advanced and dangerous the
needed for their progression in their immediate tumor has become.)
environment. The importance of inflammation in the
development of cancer is also clearly illustrated
CANCER, AN INFLAMMATORY DISEASE by the close relationship between various diseases
Inflammation caused by our immune system is caused by chronic inflammation and the dramatic
essential to our bodys integrity. Without it, we increase in cancer risk associated with these
would be completely at the mercy of the many inflammatory diseases. It has long been known
pathogens in our environment (see box, p.42). But that chronic inflammation, whether caused by
when inflammation becomes too intense or occurs repeated exposure to toxic products (cigarette
42 Cancer: A Matter of Cellular Environment
The immune system consists of everything that formation of new blood vessels. Normally, this reaction
defends us from attacks, whether pathogenic (bacteria, should not last long, since the continued presence of
viruses), chemical, or traumatic in origin. This system inflammatory molecules becomes extremely irritating
is an armed force composed of elite soldiers divided for the affected tissues. When they linger, a state of
into groups specializing in very specific neutralization chronic inflammation takes hold, which can cause
or attack activities. The inflammatory squad, which intense pain in the inflamed area. As we will see,
is the division responsible for quickly neutralizing chronic inflammation can also be the result of a
intruders, is the first responder. The cells of this number of lifestyle factors, including smoking, obesity,
squad, especially the white blood cells (known as and a deficiency in omega-3 fatty acids. Even though
macrophages), are referred to as inflammatory. They this kind of chronic inflammation does not necessarily
release highly reactive molecules designed to eliminate cause obvious symptoms, it nonetheless creates a
any pathogenic agents that might try to invade our favorable environment for the growth of cells in the
body. This causes irritation, which is easily recognized inflamed area. This is especially dangerous if the tissue
as rashes, swelling, or itching. An inflammatory contains microtumors made up of precancerous cells.
reaction such as this also helps to begin repairing Such cells can make use of the growth factors secreted
damaged tissues, owing to the many growth factors by the inflammatory cells, as well as the new blood
secreted by the inflammatory cells that in turn speed vessel network created near the inflammation, to
up the arrival of healthy cells and encourage the develop into a mature tumor.
Cancer: A Matter of Cellular Environment 43
Pro-inflammatory factors
Immune cell
Tumor (macrophage)
Figure 16
production of inflammatory molecules. The excess When the adipocytes (cells that specialize in
COX-2 leads to an increase in macrophages and storing energy as fat) become overloaded with fat,
immune cells at the inflammation site. This results they behave like magnets attracting inflammatory
in a vicious circle in which growth factors produced cells from the immune system, as well as some
by the macrophages are used by the cancer classes of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell
cells to survive and progress. At the same time, that is found in the lymphatic system). This results
the survival of the cancer cells causes large in low-level chronic inflammation. It is invisible and
amounts of inflammatory molecules to be undetectable, yet it still disrupts the bodys overall
produced, thus creating a favorable climate equilibrium (see Figure 17, opposite).
for recruiting other macrophages. This is In the case of overweight individuals, the marked
why inflammation is a key element in cancer increase in the incidence of cancer and the number
progressionby creating an environment rich of overweight people who die of the disease clearly
in growth factors, the continued presence of demonstrates the contribution obesity-related
inflammatory cells provides precancerous cells inflammation makes to cancer development. Being
with ideal conditions to accelerate their mutation overweight or obese has an even more pronounced
and acquisition of new properties essential to impact on the development of cancers of the
continue their progression. uterus, kidney, esophagus, colon, and breast (see
Figure 18, p.46). On the whole, it is estimated that
OBESITY: INFLAMMATION CARRIES WEIGHT carrying too much weight is responsible for half
The chronic inflammation so essential for cancer a million people developing cancer worldwide.
development is not always caused by attacks Women are especially vulnerable, since being
from outside; lifestyle can also play a major role in overweight is associated with a very large increase
causing inflammation. Without a doubt, the most in cancers of the endometrium, colon, and breast
important contributor to the creation of the kind (after menopause). In men, colon and kidney
of inflammatory environment that encourages the cancers alone represent two-thirds of cancers
development of cancer is as simple as carrying related to being overweight or obese. These
too much body fat by being overweight or obese. statistics are alarming, because being overweight
Cancer: A Matter of Cellular Environment 45
Resistin
Tumor necrosis factor
(TNF)- Inflammatory factors Angiogenic factors
fatty acids
Insulin resistance
Cancer
cell
Insulin production
Tumor
development
Figure 17
46 Cancer: A Matter of Cellular Environment
60
50
Increase in cancer risk (%)
40
30
20
10
or obese has more or less become normalized in extremely dangerous, however. Being overweight
most industrialized Western countries. or obese is not a lifestyle choice. It is a completely
In Canada, for example, two out of every three abnormal physiological state that not only causes
people are overweight and, according to criteria major disruption to the bodys equilibrium but
established by the World Health Organization, imposes huge constraints on the entire human body.
approximately a billion people in the world are The chronic inflammation associated with excess
carrying too much weight (body mass index body fat means therefore that being overweight or
higher than 25), with 312 million of them, of obese must be considered a carcinogenic agent in
whom roughly 30 million are children, being just the same way as tobacco, alcohol, and UV
obese (body mass index higher than 30). This rays are. Carrying too much fat anywhere, especially
is an unprecedented public health crisis that on the abdomen, should be viewed as a warning
risks worsening in the coming years, since being signal because it is a visible manifestation of
overweight affects a growing proportion of children, significant changes in the equilibrium of our
who are at much greater risk of retaining this extra vital functions that increase our risk for several
weight into adulthood. diseases, including cancer.
Strangely, instead of doing everything possible
to contain this crisis, our society seems resigned SHUTTING THE DOOR ON CANCER
to this explosion of people who are overweight or All of these observations indicate that, to prevent
even obese, almost as if it were a new trend we cancer, we need to be taking care of what is
have to come to terms with to avoid stigmatizing going on in our bodies at the cellular level, in
people with weight issues. This fatalistic view is the environment surrounding precancerous cells.
Cancer: A Matter of Cellular Environment 47
We must take measures to keep the cellular however, depends greatly on the lifestyle of the
environment from becoming a place that individual. The rates of kidney and esophageal
encourages elements likely to make it easy cancers, for example, have increased more than
for a cancerous tumor to grow. six times in the last 40 years, regardless of the
It is important to understand that this principle age of those affected. Once again, this is a
applies to all precancerous cells, whether they consequence of eating an unhealthy diet and
stem from heredity, are formed by exposure to a being overweight.
carcinogenic substance, or are simply the result In short, lifestyle remains the factor that wields
of random bad luck (Figure 19, below). For example, the greatest influence over our risk of getting
a person born with a defective gene will have cancer, and that holds true even when there is a
precancerous cells very early in his or her life (the serious genetic predisposition or an accumulation
seed), but these immature tumors will generally of spontaneous genetic errors as we age.
not be able to grow unless they have access to To keep cancer from gaining a foothold,
the kind of soil that encourages this growth. chronic inflammation must first be kept as low
In this way, women carrying a mutation of the as possible. In recent years, several studies
BRCA gene are at higher risk of developing breast have indicated that those who habitually took
and ovarian cancer, but this risk is considerably anti-inflammatory drugs that specifically inhibited
increased by lifestyle factors that create favorable COX-2 activity had a lower risk of getting some
conditions for tumor progression, in particular types of cancer, especially colon cancer. However,
a poor diet and excess body weight. these drugs have significant side effects for the
The same goes for the increase in cancer risk cardiovascular system (which ultimately led to their
that accompanies aging: the accumulation of being taken off the market) and are thus of limited
spontaneous genetic errors during a lifetime preventive use. Nonetheless, the protective effect
significantly increases the number of immature of these anti-inflammatory molecules demonstrates
tumors in the organs. Whether or not they are that reducing inflammation represents a very
encouraged to develop into cancerous tumors, promising approach to cancer prevention.
Mutations: Lifestyle:
Hereditary Obesity
Behavioral Physical inactivity
Random Diet
Figure 19
48 Cancer: A Matter of Cellular Environment
In addition to being overweight or obese, eating around it to flourish. A cancer cell's heavy reliance
too many processed foods loaded with sugars and on a favorable environment is a weakness, a
harmful fats, and not eating enough plant-based chink in its armor that we can exploit in order to
foods, including fruits and vegetables, is likely to protect ourselves.
create inflammatory conditions favorable to cancer. Cancer creates nothing. It is by nature a
Preventing the formation of new blood vessels parasite that remains in a fragile state as long
through angiogenesis is another aspect that must as it finds itself in inhospitable terrain. When
be considered. It is now well established that in the conditions are in its favor, as we have seen,
absence of new blood vessels, tumors cannot it deploys its reserves of ingenuity to make use
grow larger than a cubic millimeter, which is too tiny of its immediate environment for its own benefit,
to cause irreparable damage to the surrounding constantly searching for new mutations that
tissues. Preventing tumors that have not yet begun will enable it to grow. On the other hand, in
to grow completely independently (that is, immature the absence of favorable conditions, cancer is
tumors in a dormant state in the organism) from weakened and cannot develop to its full potential.
developing a set of blood vessels for their own use It is condemned to remain inconspicuous,
might therefore be a highly effective strategy for anonymous, and powerless.
preventing the development of cancer. Furthermore, Preventing cancer by reducing inflammation and
since the vast majority of tumors depend on an inhibiting angiogenesis is not a dreamit already
adequate blood supply, inhibiting the formation of happens. Some of the foods we eat, especially
these new vessels can prevent the development of plants, are prime sources of anti-inflammatory and
some cancers. Even liquid tumors, like leukemias, antiangiogenic compounds which, consumed daily,
need to develop blood vessels in the bone marrow create a climate hostile to cancer progression.
and so are likely to be targeted by these By taking this preventive approach, we can view
treatments. cancer as a chronic disease whose control requires
To sum up, cancer growth must be viewed constant awareness and treatment, rather than a
not as an isolated event, but as a process that sudden, catastrophic illness.
depends directly on a certain set of conditions
Chronic inflammation actively encourages the survival
and growth of precancerous cells, as well as enabling
them to establish a network of blood vessels
(angiogenesis) to supply their own energy needs.
Being overweight or obese encourages the
establishment of this pro-inflammatory environment
and increases the risk of developing several types
of cancer.
Two lifestyle factors are vital to cancer prevention:
eating plant-based foods on a regular basis and
maintaining a normal body weight. These simple
steps are crucial in reducing inflammation and
stopping the process of angiogenesis.
Let food be your
only medicine!
Hippocrates (460377 bce)
The high proportion of cancers attributable to the type of diet we eat in the
West is, as we have seen, a sign of a deterioration in our eating habits. Our
society has abandoned the idea of eating foods that enhance our health,
and instead we choose the fastest, most convenient way to refuel ourselves,
without even considering what the consequences may be for our health.
This kind of mindless diet, based purely and simply humanitys long quest during the course of evolution
on satisfying the need to eat, is most certainly to determine the value and quality of foods located
harmful to health. Today, we normally equate in the immediate environment. What we call fruit
progress with benefit, but it must be said that this or vegetable is precisely the result of a selection
relationship does not hold true in the case of diet. process that took place over a period of 15 million
On the contrary, industrialization is in the process years, during which our hominid ancestors adapted
of destroying the very basis of our dietary culture. to changes in their environment. Their survival
Everything we know today about the nutritional depended on constantly being on the lookout for
or toxic properties of a plant, or about using certain new food sources and new vegetable species that
foods for therapeutic purposes, is founded on could give them a better chance of staying alive.
52 Preventing Cancer through Diet
Industrialization
Homo sapiens Agriculture
Figure 20
Preventing Cancer through Diet 53
Observation of animals
(e.g., sea otters and oysters)
Rejection Immediate EVALUATION
(toxins) Yes toxicity No
Rejection Long-term
(could endanger long-term No benefit Yes
survivalfor example, toxic or Fruits and vegetables
mildly toxic foods)
Figure 21
doing so. Undoubtedly, a great deal of trial and nutrient supply or because of the observation
error was necessary to determine which plants of the additional health benefits provided by
did not cause illness and were safe to eat. This eating them. After all, human beings do not
knowledge was obviously transmitted to the just want to eat to live; they want their life to
immediate family as well as to other members be as pleasant and long as possible. This quest
of the community. Otherwise, all these efforts for longevity led our ancestors to seek benefits
would have been useless. over and above nutrient supply in their diet, for
During the second stage of the selection the simple reason that it was the only resource
process, which could be called the evaluation they had that was likely to have an influence
stage, nontoxic plants chosen initially were on their health and prolong their lives. It is
included in the diet. However, these continued to no wonder, then, that the history of medicine
be under observation. Despite being nontoxic, is inseparable from that of diet, since diet was,
many did not really have any benefits for the for a long time, the only kind of medicine available
organism, either because they contained substances to human beings.
that could endanger survival in the longterm, or
because they did not provide anything nutritious
or positive for health. For example, grass may
WHAT IS A FOOD?
not be toxic to humans, but it is not a useful
food source either. A food is a product eaten regularly by a group that
has recognized its harmlessness and long-term
Finally, the third part of the process, called
benefits for health.
the selection stage, involved choosing foods
that offer real benefits, either because of their
54 Preventing Cancer through Diet
Inhibitors
Physiological
(endogenous)
Pharmacological
(drugs)
Nutraceutical
(foods)
Target enzyme
Figure 22
Estrogen Estrogen
(simplified structure) (simplified structure)
Blood
circulation Genistein
(simplified structure)
Genistein stops
estrogen from binding
to its receptor site
Estrogen by taking its place
receptor
Cell targeted by
Activation of estrogens
Decrease in
tissue growth (breast, uterus, activation of
endometrium) tissue growth
Higher Lower
cancer risk cancer risk
Figure 23
Preventing Cancer through Diet 57
Figure 24
For example, if an enzyme has to interact with prescribed for many years for breast cancer.
a certain substance in order for a disease to This example shows the extent to which some
progress, the drug will often try to imitate the foods contain molecules with structures and
structure of this substance so as to block its mechanisms comparable to those of several
access to the enzyme and thus limit the enzymes synthetic cancer-fighting drugs, and how useful
functioning (see Figure 22, p.55). The molecules these natural molecules can be in preventing
that manage to block the enzymes activity by diseases like cancer.
acting as a decoy do not necessarily have to be The main difference between the molecules
a human-made synthetic. Such molecules may in foods and synthetic molecules is not so much
also occur naturally in foods that are part of our related to their effectiveness as to their source
daily diet. For example, a molecule known as (plant or synthetic), as well as to the way they
genistein and found in large quantities in soy have been selected by humans. As we have
(see Chapter 8) is extremely similar to estradiol, an seen, in the case of foods, this process required a
estrogenic female sex hormone, hence its name very long selection process, whereas for synthetic
phytoestrogen (see Figure 23, opposite). The prefix molecules the time scale is much shorter. This
phyto- indicates that the source of the estrogen- makes evaluating the possible side effects difficult.
like molecules is a plant. The selection of foods by humans that we
Because of this resemblance, genistein described earlier is somewhat comparable
acts as a decoy for the protein, which normally to the way in which the toxicity of synthetic
recognizes estradiol, and can fill the place usually molecules is evaluated. However, in the case of
taken by this hormone. In this way, it reduces the natural foods, the evaluation process took place
impact of estradiols biological effects, notably over several million years, a length of time that
the growth of tissues sensitive to this hormone, made it possible to exclude all forms of toxicity
like cancerous breast tissues. Genisteins mode of potentially associated with a food. This means
action even compares with that of tamoxifen, a drug that natural food-based anticancer molecules do
58 Preventing Cancer through Diet
not have undesirable side effects. Conversely, In fact, molecules originating in food are able to
in spite of all precautions, a synthetic molecule interact with most of the targets of synthetic drugs
is completely foreign to the organism, with the developed by industry, illustrating yet again the
inherent risk of causing undesirable side effects, extent to which foods can have positive impacts
and this is almost always the case. So although on health (see Figure 25, below).
the modes of action of nutritional and synthetic The information given here about the anticancer
molecules have much in common, the basic properties associated with compounds in foods
difference between the two approaches is the of plant origin is not based on wishful thinking or
absence of toxicity associated with the hopeful theories. In fact, molecules able to
consumption of anticancer molecules naturally interfere with the development of cancer are
found in fruits and vegetables (see Figure 24, p.57). widely found in plants, so much so that most
chemotherapy drugs currently in use come from
plant sources. In the same vein, a number of
CANCER-FIGHTING CAPABILITIES OF food-based compounds that contain molecules
PLANT-BASED COMPOUNDS
with the ability to inhibit specific processes in
Invade tumors and inhibit metastasizing cancer development are currently used as models
Inhibit growth-factor receptors for the pharmaceutical industry in order to create
Inhibit inflammatory enzyme (COX-2) analogue molecules for use in treating cancer.
Inhibit transcription factor At the same time as we reexamine our Western
Inhibit chemotherapy-drug resistance
diet and increase our consumption of foods rich
Inhibit platelet aggregation
in anticancer molecules in order to gain protection
Anti-estrogen
from developing cancer, researchers are drawing
Antibacterial action
Modulate the immune system
on new possibilities for cancer-fighting drugs and
Inhibit cellular signal cascade therapies from a bank of compounds developed
Toxic to cancer cells by nature over 3.8 billion years. This type of
Perturb cancer cell cytoskeleton research is being undertaken throughout the
Toxin metabolic action inhibition pharmaceutical industry with the aim of
via Phase I (cytochrome P450) discovering new drugs to successfully treat
Toxin detoxification activation via Phase II various diseases.
PREVENTIVE CHEMOTHERAPY
The use of molecules occurring in our daily diet is
even more important because we are constantly
running the risk of developing tumors. By using
the anticancer molecules in food, however, these
tumors can be maintained in a latent (inactive) state
(see Figure 26, opposite).
Another factor that makes preventive therapy
Figure 25 for cancer through food important is that peoples
genes are very different. All human beings possess
Preventing Cancer through Diet 59
It is important to realize that tumor formation posing no danger to health. A continuous intake of
is a random event that is relatively frequent in an anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic molecules
individuals lifetime. Pathology studies have shown from the diet assists the bodys natural defenses
that a very large proportion of people who have died and helps maintain tumors in a harmless state. Thus,
from causes other than cancer had microtumors that even though we constantly run the risk of developing
had not been clinically detected in their tissues. In one cancer, the use of anticancer molecules in food as
of these studies, 98 percent of people had small a therapeutic weapon is an approach essential for
tumors in the thyroid, 40 percent in the prostate, and keeping these tumors in a latent state and preventing
33 percent in the breast, whereas tumors in these them from progressing to the advanced cancer stage.
organs are only normally detected in a small Cancer must therefore be viewed as a chronic disease
percentage of the population (see Figure 26). that can be controlled in daily life with the help of
Similarly, even though Asian men have in general foods high in anticancer compounds.
a prostate cancer rate several times lower than that Regular consumption of fruits and vegetables
of Western men, the analysis of biopsies carried out is like preventive chemotherapy; it keeps microtumors
on Asian and Western populations shows that the from reaching a stage with pathological consequences
number of cells in the prostate in the process of and it is nontoxic for the physiology of normal
acquiring cancerous properties (precancerous cells) tissues. Diets preventive role is not restricted to
is exactly the same in both populations, indicating stopping cancers appearance (primary prevention);
that lifestyle habits, including diet, are determining it also makes it possible to thwart the growth of
factors in whether or not these microtumors reach residual cancer cells that might have avoided
a clinical stage. chemotherapy treatment and could again develop
Our natural defenses ensure that tumors that form into tumors, once again threatening the life of a
spontaneously inside us usually remain microscopic, person with the disease.
Thyroid 98 0.1
Figure 26
60 Preventing Cancer through Diet
W W
ith ith
20
40
60
80
100
20
40
60
80
100
ou ou
te te
xtr xt
Ro ac
m Eg ract
gp
ain Car t
e rot Bo lan
Gr lett k t
Breast cancer
ch
Bo een uce o
Prostate cancer
sto be Ca y
n an rro
To t
let
tu Ro m
c m E ato Inhibition of tumor growth
at or ttu
n ce
Po o sq
t Pe ua
Ac Egg ato pp C sh
or pl er ele
n an
s t (or ry
a
As qua Ra nge
pa sh dic )
Ra ragu Ja chio
dic s
Preventing Cancer through Diet
lap
Pe c e
pp Sp hio Po o
er ina ta
(or ch to
an
g Be
Sp et
Re C e)
d ele Fid ina
ca ry dl ch
bb As ehe
Ja age
lap p
Re ar ad
d ag
INHIBITION OF GROWTH OF CELLS ISOLATED FROM TUMORS
Fid e
dle o c u
he Gr abb s
Sa a ee ag
vo B d Ye n b e
yc e llo ea
ab et w n
b on
C ag ion
Ye abb e
llo ag
w e Sa B Kale
vo roc
on
As this chart
ion y c co
ab li
Ca K b
shows, even the
flo C
Br au ag b b
Br wer us li e
oc se flo
co ls w
familiar green onion can
li
have a powerful effect on
G Gr spr er
Figure 30
Preventing Cancer through Diet 63
able to modify their genes (mutation) in order to raw vegetable extracts, sterilizing the resulting
form the blood vessel network (vascularization) mixtures, and using this material to determine the
required to supply their energy needs, and to degree to which they inhibit the growth of various
create proteins that will enable them to resist the tumors of human origin using cancer-cell models
action of the anticancer molecules. In other words, cultivated in a laboratory (see Figure 29, p.61). As an
the smaller and more immature the tumor, the example, adding extracts of garlic, beet, and some
better the chances of eliminating it. cabbages, like kale, is seen to stop the growth of
cancer cells taken from breast and prostate tumors
LOOKING FOR ANTICANCER FOODS (see Figure 30, opposite).
Clearly, identifying food with significant amounts of Some foods of plant origin also possess potent
anticancer molecules is of enormous importance anti-inflammatory properties and can help prevent
for maximizing our chances of thwarting cancer. the creation of a climate of chronic inflammation
A well established procedure consists of producing favorable to cancer development (see Chapter 3).
In laboratories, beetroot extract has been seen to stop the growth of breast and prostate cancer cells.
64 Preventing Cancer through Diet
Cranberry
+
Resveratrol
+
1nM TNF-
COX-2
Cranberries inhibit
the growth of
cancer cells, too
(see Chapter 11)
Figure 31
Chronic inflammation actively contributes to cancer
growth by encouraging the survival and growth of
precancerous cells, as well as by allowing them to
acquire a network of blood vessels to supply their
energy needs.
Being overweight or obese helps create this pro-
inflammatory environment and thus increases the
risk of developing several types of cancer.
Regularly eating plant-based foods and maintaining
a normal body weight play a crucial role in reducing
inflammation and angiogenesis, both critical to
cancer prevention.
The best doctor is nature: it cures
three-quarters of illnesses, and never
speaks ill of its colleagues.
Louis Pasteur (18221895)
The terms micronutrients and macronutrients of many popular drinks and spices encountered
give an incomplete description of what fruits in different culinary traditions of many countries.
and vegetables contain. This is because their Raspberries bright red color, garlics typical odor,
composition is not limited to nutrients, and there or the astringent sensation caused by drinking
is in fact another class of molecules found in cocoa or tea are all characteristics directly linked
significant amounts in them. These are the to the various phytochemical compounds in these
phytochemical compounds (from the Greek foods. And these compounds are plentiful: a
phyto, meaning plant). Such compounds are balanced diet including an array of fruits,
the molecules responsible for the color and vegetables, and beverages like tea and red wine
organoleptic properties (those that affect the sense contains roughly 1 to 2 grams of phytochemical
organs) not only of fruits and vegetables, but also compounds, the same as ingesting a cocktail of
68 Phytochemicals and Health
Macronutrients Micronutrients
Lipids
Phytochemicals
Proteins
Fiber
Vitamins
Carbohydrates
Figure 32
pesticides are essential for the survival of plant have antibacterial, antifungal, and insecticidal
species and, in turn, all animals on the planet. This functions that reduce the harm caused by attackers
is not to mention that several of these insecticides and allow the plant to survive in hostile conditions.
(caffeine, nicotine, and morphine, among others) This is actually why these compounds are often
have a major influence on the daily lives of humanity found in large amounts in the parts most likely to
thanks to their potent psychoactive properties. be attacked by aggressors, notably the roots and
The phytochemical compounds produced by plants fruits. For example, as we will see in chapter 15,
Plants are literally held prisoner by their roots and mouth and discourage it from continuing to eat for
cannot flee from attack. However, they have evolved long periods. This stops the kudu from devastating the
ingenious ways to discourage predators and ward off foliage of the acacia population (see Figure 34, below).
injury. One example of a plants amazing ability to Another tactic is used by some plants in response to
defend itself is clearly shown in the strategy used by damage caused by herbivorous insects like the
the acacia. When a kudu (a species of gazelle fond of American cricket (Schistocerca americana). During
the foliage of this tree) attacks an acacia by grazing on their meal, these insects secrete a class of molecules
its leaves, the tree reacts quickly by producing a gas, called caeliferins. The plant recognizes this signal as
ethylene, that disperses in the air and reaches acacias the presence of an enemy and quickly produces a very
located within a 165-foot (50-meter) range. Upon complex mixture of fragrant molecules. These attract
contact with this gas, the other acacia trees produce the crickets natural enemies to the plant under attack,
tannins, astringent molecules that dry out the animals causing the crickets to flee.
Acacia
H H
HO
C C HO OH
Tannin
H H
(phenolic
Ethylene HO compound)
O O O
HO
O OH
O O
O O
HO O
O O OH
Kudu HO
HO
HO OH
HO OH HO
Figure 34
70 Phytochemicals and Health
when grapes on the vine are attacked by certain the bioavailability of anticancer molecules (see
microorganisms, they secrete large quantities of a Figure 35, below).
substance that acts as a fungicide and counteracts Furthermore, plants have very low density of
the negative effect of these parasites. calories, and by eating them regularly, we can lower
However, the protective role of these various our energy intake and thus avoid gaining too much
phytochemical compounds is not limited to their weight, which is also a significant cancer-risk factor.
effects on plants good health. These molecules Nor should we ignore the impact of foods of
also play a front-line role in our defense systems plant origin on the composition of intestinal bacterial
against cancer. Indeed, several studies of the flora. Plant starches and fiber are not well absorbed
compounds isolated from these foods have by the intestine and are mostly fermented in the
shown that a great many of them interfere with colon by resident bacteria, producing beneficial
the various events involved in cancer development, substances with anti-inflammatory effects, such as
and, as a result, could be the most powerful short-chain fatty acids. This impact is important,
weapon at our disposal to fight the development because the composition of the intestinal flora,
of this disease. called the microbiome, is increasingly recognized
For one thing, the tens of thousands of as an essential component in the control of the
phytochemical compounds of plant origin have metabolism and the prevention of chronic diseases
many pharmacological (druglike) effects. These in general. For example, the microbiome of obese
hinder cancer progression, whether by directly people is different from that of slender people, and
attacking cancer cells, positively adjusting the these differences have been associated with an
environment of these cells and keeping them increase in the risk of colon and liver cancers. It
in a dormant and harmless state, or increasing is interesting to note that some phytochemical
Phytochemical
compounds in plants
compounds, especially polyphenols, are likewise composed of the most helpful proportion of
very poorly absorbed by the intestine and so beneficial bacteria essential for preventing cancer.
reach the colon intact and promote the growth of All plants contain a range of phytochemical
beneficial intestinal bacteria. Simply incorporating compounds in varying amounts (see Figure 36, left),
an abundance of plants into your daily diet and these are what give these plants their highly
encourages the establishment of a microbiome distinctive characteristics, such as bitterness,
Anthocyanidins
Flavones
Flavanols
Flavonoids
Flavanones
Isoflavones
Tannins
Hydroxycinnamates
Polyphenols Phenolic acids
Hydroxybenzoates
Stilbenes
Nonflavonoids Coumarins
Lignans
Carotenoids HO
Terpenes
Monoterpenes OH
O
O
Sulfur Diallyl disulfides
O
compounds Isothiocyanates O
HO
Triterpenoids OH
Saponins
Steroids Phytochemical
molecule
Figure 36
Eating citrus fruits reduces cancer incidence (see p.73).
72 Phytochemicals and Health
astringency, or odor. Some peoples lack of Fortunately, these reflexes in our primitive brain
enthusiasm for plants is related in large part to have gradually diminished during evolution, so
these qualities: whereas the taste of fats and that humans have been able to learn to disregard
sugar is immediately recognized by our brain as such warning signals and identify an ever-growing
a synonym for a quick and efficient energy supply, number of plant species that can actively
the bitterness and astringency of plants are instead contribute to maintaining good health.
interpreted as a potentially harmful attack. The main phytochemical compounds in a food
can often be very easily identified simply by color
or odor. For example, most brightly colored fruits
MORE ABOUT POLYPHENOLS are major sources of a class of molecules called
Largest class of natural polyphenols (see Figure 37, left). More than 4,000
phytochemical compounds polyphenols have been identified to date, with
Molecules responsible for these molecules being especially plentiful in
foods astringency and certain beverages like red wine and green
bitterness
tea, as well as in many foods like raisins,
Depending on your diet,
it is possible to consume a
apples, onions, and wild berries. They are
wide variety of polyphenols, also found in a number of herbs and spices,
from 0 to 1 gram per day as well as in vegetables and nuts. Other classes
of phytochemical compounds are characterized
Green tea is a great
Figure 37 source of polyphenols by what they smell like. For example, the odor of
sulfur associated with crushed garlic or cooked
45
Reduction in ER+ breast cancer risk (%)
pe
40
rry
be
35
ue
bl
30
ry
er
wb
25
ra
st
20
15
its
n
elo
fru
it
10
ru
m
ar
l
al
ef
pe
ap
e
le/
na
g
um
5
gr
an
p
na
ap
or
pl
ba
Number of Reduction
Food Type of cancer
participants in risk (%)
Cruciferous
4,309 Lung 30%
vegetables
Green vegetables
11,699 Breast (postmenopause) 44%
(dietary folate)
Breast
Lignans 58,049 28%
(ER+postmenopause)
Figure 39
74 Phytochemicals and Health
O
HO O
O O
HO OH
HO OH O OH
O
OCH HCO
OH
HO
O+ OH
HO
HO
OH
Citrus fruits Limonene
Blueberries Delphinidin
OH
HO
O OH
HO
S
OH O
HO OH
O
HO
OH
O OH
N
O OH H
HO
Soybeans Genistein Cabbage Indole-3-carbinol
OH
H S N
HO C
S
H O
OH
Resveratrol Sulforaphane
Grapes Broccoli
H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
Lycopene
Tomatoes Figure 40
Phytochemicals and Health 75
cabbage is due to the sulfur compounds in these saw their risk of getting hormone-independent
foods, while the fragrance of citrus fruits is related breast cancer decline by one-third, whereas eating
to certain terpenes. other fruits did not have a significant impact on risk
We will describe these various molecules in (see Figure 38, p.72). The same is observed for all
greater detail in the chapters devoted specifically plant foods because each class of foods is only
to them, but we should start by saying that it is the active against certain specific cancers (see Figure
high phytochemical content of some of the foods in 39, p.73). This means that regularly eating a wide
these various classes that allows them to carry out variety of plants with cancer-fighting properties
their cancer-preventing functions. They should also is the only way to take advantage of the foods
be considered as nutraceuticals, that is, nutrients, preventive activities and truly reduce the overall
whether of fruit, vegetable, drink, or fermented risk of developing cancer.
product origin, that contain in large amounts This idea is key when trying to explain the
one or more molecules with anticancer potential. anticancer properties of plants, since, coincidentally,
Being aware of nutraceuticals allows us to many phytochemical compounds that show the
prioritize the choice of the foods we should include greatest cancer-preventive activity are only found
in a diet designed to prevent the development of in certain very specific foods (see Figure 40, opposite).
cancer. For while all fruits and vegetables contain The isoflavones in soy, the resveratrol in grapes,
(by definition) phytochemical compounds, the the curcumin in turmeric, the isothiocyanates and
quantity as well as the nature of these compounds indoles in broccoli, and the catechins in green tea
varies widely from one fruit to another and one are all anticancer molecules with an extremely
vegetable to another. All fruits and vegetables are limited distribution in nature. In other words,
not created equal: potatoes and carrots cannot be while it is true that, generally speaking, fruits and
compared to broccoli and Savoy cabbage in terms vegetables are an integral part of a balanced diet,
of their cancer-fighting phytochemical content, any the phytochemical compounds they contain must
more than bananas can be compared to grapes or be examined more closely in order to create a diet
cranberries. There are significant differences in the aimed directly at reducing cancer risk.
levels of active compounds associated with foods Likewise, the scope of these recommendations
and, in some cases, certain compounds are only must be broadened to include three foods among
found in a single type of food. those with the highest levels of anticancer
These differences obviously have huge compounds found in nature: green tea, soy,
ramifications for cancer prevention. For example, and turmeric. This is because, in addition to the
when researchers examine the impact of total scientific facts that unquestionably highlight the
consumption of fruits and vegetables on cancer anticancer properties of the molecules in these
risk, they generally observe only a very slight foods, which we will discuss in the chapters that
decrease in risk, around 9 percent. On the other follow, we must point out a powerful coincidence.
hand, when the consumption of certain specific In countries with the lowest cancer rates, Asian
plants is taken into account, the reduction in the countries in particular, green tea, soy, and turmeric
risk for some cancers is much greater. A study form the basis of the diet.
done on 76,000 women recently showed that This shows a need to change the diet typical of
those who regularly ate peaches and blueberries Western countries. Combining foods as diverse as
76 Phytochemicals and Health
tomatoes, cabbage, green tea, peppers, turmeric, PHYTOCHEMICALS: MORE THAN ANTIOXIDANTS
soy, garlic, and grapes is, in a way, equivalent to Before describing the ways in which phytochemical
blending centuries of culinary traditions developed compounds can help prevent cancer, we must take
in both Europe and Asia. This is now possible for a step back and make a fundamental point about
the vast majority of people in the West, thanks to phytochemicals. It is impossible today to talk about
easy access to foods from all corners of the globe. the beneficial properties of a food without referring
WHAT IS AN ANTIOXIDANT?
Exposure to free radicals harms the DNA of cells, causing damage in the form
of lesions, which have the potential to set off the growth of cancerous tumors.
Through a type of combustion, the oxygen in the air To simplify things, lets say that an antioxidant is just
that we breathe fuels our cells production of a molecule that changes free radicals into harmless
biochemical energy in the form of an extremely products unable to do damage. Our cells contain
important molecule, adenosine triphosphate, or ATP several antioxidant molecules that protect them
for short (see also p.29). This method of converting against free radicals, but this defense is likely
oxygen into fuel is not perfect, however, and generates insufficient to counter the negative effects of the
large amounts of waste products, commonly called onslaught of toxic dietary and environmental agents
free radicals. These free radicals are harmful to cells around us, like ionizing radiation, ultraviolet rays, and
because they attack the structure of some cell cigarette smoke, to name a few. Adding antioxidants to
components, especially DNA, proteins, and lipids, our diet might seem the sensible way to reinforce our
causing considerable damage. This means that, as it cells natural defense system and protect ourselves
ages, a cell can accumulate more than 50,000 lesions from cancer. Sadly, this is not so. Several studies have
induced by free radicals, and this deterioration of the shown that taking antioxidant supplements, such as
DNA in a cell may contribute to cancer (see Figure beta-carotene and vitamins A and E, has no effect on
11, p.32 and Figure 41, opposite). cancer risk and in fact may even increase it.
Phytochemicals and Health 77
to its antioxidant potential or to its high of free radicals, especially where the oxidation
antioxidant content. But phytochemical molecules of blood vessel walls at the root of several
are not simply antioxidants; they are far more cardiovascular diseases is concerned, we must
than that. The term antioxidant is now so heavily nonetheless stop seeing these foods only as
overused in the mass media that we might think sources of antioxidants. This is why the United
that foods only function is as a source of States Department of Agriculture (USDA), in an
antioxidants (and obviously vitamins, but since attempt to prevent manufacturers from distorting
most of the time vitamins have antioxidant figures to promote the benefits of their products,
properties, the picture becomes even more recently stopped publishing data on the antioxidant
distorted), and that it is this characteristic alone that activity of various foods.
makes a food good or bad for health (see box, left). On the contrary, the advantage of a diet based
It is true that several phytochemical compounds, on a daily intake of nutraceuticals lies in the great
especially polyphenols, have a chemical structure versatility in the mode of action of the compounds
that is ideal for absorbing free radicals, and these in these foods. Far from merely being free-radical
compounds are actually much more powerful neutralizers, phytochemical compounds target a
antioxidants than vitamins are. For example, a large number of distinct events related to cancer
medium apple, which contains relatively little development (see Figure 42, p.78), with some of
vitamin C (about 10mg), has antioxidant activity these molecules acting on several levels. For
equivalent to that of 2,250mg of vitamin C. In example, active compounds like those found
other words, the antioxidant properties of fruits in garlic and cabbage prevent the activation of
and vegetables really stem from phytochemical carcinogenic substances, while others, like some
compounds, such as polyphenols, with their polyphenols (resveratrol, curcumin, catechins, or
vitamin content playing only a fairly minor role. genistein), prevent tumor growth by interfering
On the other hand, other classes of compounds, directly with tumor cells or by halting the formation
the isothiocyanates, whose importance we will see of new blood vessels necessary for cancer
in the next chapter, have very average antioxidant development. In several ways, the processes
activity and are nonetheless among the molecules targeted by compounds of nutritional origin are
with the greatest influence on cancer development. comparable to those of synthetic molecules
So, while antioxidant activity is a property of currently being developed as drugs, illustrating
many molecules, this property is not necessarily
what causes its biological effects. Antioxidant
theory is more or less consistent with certain
ANTIOXIDANTS: A FEW FIGURES
data accumulated over time. Thus, while a baked
An old cell can accumulate up to 67,000 lesions
potato (with its skin) has an antioxidant activity four
(instances of damage) to its DNA.
times higher than broccoli, 12 times higher than
A person weighing 155lb (70kg) produces up to 4lb
cauliflower, and 25 times higher than carrots, it (1.7kg) of free radicals yearly.
shows little potential for preventing cancer. As a Vitamin Cs contribution to antioxidant defenses
result, while antioxidant properties are a common does not exceed 15 percent.
characteristic of many foods of plant origin and
Figure 41
may certainly help counteract the harmful effects
78 Phytochemicals and Health
Cigarettes
Angiogenesis
Dietary
carcinogens
UV rays
Free radicals
Normal Initiated Precancerous Cancer Malignant
cell cell cell cell tumor
Detoxification
Elimination
Blockage of the action Blockage of the promotion and progression of cancer cells
of carcinogens
Figure 42
A Greek story based on the tales in The Iliad claims a terrible drought on the Thracian people. Once
that Dionysus, the god of the grape harvest, was aroused, his anger could only be appeased by
rather badly received on his way through Thrace. having Lycurgus put to death. Tortured and then
The warlike Lycurgus, king of the Edonians, beat dismembered by the Edonians, Lycurgus wept in
back the gods army using his cattle prod, forcing agony before dying. Where his tears fell, there
Dionysus to take refuge in the grotto of Thetis, the sprouted cabbages.
sea nymph. Driven mad by this victory, however, Far from being the only fanciful story associated
Lycurgus began to destroy what he thought were with cabbage, this legend nonetheless reflects the
the gods sacred grape vines, but which were in important role played by this vegetable in the
fact the feet of his own son, Dryas. Dionysus history of European and Mediterranean civilizations.
punished the king for this sacrilege by bringing Cultivated for more than 6,000 years and, as a
84 Cancer Cells Loathe Cabbage!
Brussels sprouts
It could almost be said that the world is divided
in two: those who like Brussels sprouts and those
who cant stand them. It is thought that this species
of cabbage appeared in the 13th century, but it was
only really developed after the beginning of the 18th
century in northern Europe, near Brussels, quite
simply in order to get the maximum benefit from the
arable land needed to supply the citys ever-growing
population. It was a success on all fronts, judging by
the 20 to 40 little cabbages that grow on its robust
single stem. Brussels sprouts are really in a class of
their own in terms of their anticancer phytochemical
compound contents and, provided they are not
Broccoli overcooked, they can play a valuable role in a cancer
Now a star vegetable in any healthy diet, for a long time prevention strategy.
broccoli was little known outside southern Italy and
Greece, its countries of origin. The word broccoli is Leafy cabbage
derived from the Latin bracchium, meaning branch, This cabbage is part of the acephala variety, a
probably since its shape is similar to a small tree. name that literally means headless. Leafy cabbage
Broccoli production was long limited to Italy, and then is characterized by its thick, flat leaves, which are
to the eastern Mediterranean, following the decline of relatively smooth in the case of spring greens or
the Roman Empire. It was not until Catherine de Medici very curly in the case of kale, and never form a head.
married Henry II at the beginning of the 16th century Botanists think these cabbages, and especially kale, are
that it appeared in France, where it was called Italian probably closest in shape to the original wild cabbage,
asparagus. It was brought to England in the 18th and have concluded that these species are certainly
century under the same name. It was only with the among the first cultivated cabbages. Whats more, the
mass arrival of Italian immigrants in the 1920s that Greek Theophrastus (372287 bce), considered the
broccoli made its appearance in North America, where founder of the science of botany, lists in his treatises
it is now one of the most popular green vegetables. the growing of several species of cabbage, including
kale, later confirmed by the Roman historians Pliny
Cauliflower (see p.98) and Cato the Elder (see p.86). Especially
Known as cauli flori to the Romans, Syrian cabbage to popular in northern Europe, these cabbages are worth
the 12th-century Arabs, this variety of cabbage is likely a getting to know better and adding to your diet. They
descendant of broccoli that was spread toward the Middle are exceptional sources of iron, vitamins A and C, folic
East after the fall of the Roman Empire and later brought acid and, as will be explained in this chapter,
back to Europe. Cauliflower is nothing but cabbage with anticancer compounds.
a college education, wrote Mark Twain ironically in The
86 Cancer Cells Loathe Cabbage!
of cabbage now known already existed in the plants, Cato wrote in De agri cultura (his treatise on
Roman era, three centuries bce. agriculture) that eaten raw with vinegar, cooked in
oil or fat, cabbage eliminates everything and cures
THE ANCIENT GREEK AND ROMAN VIEW everything, from a hangover caused by too much
In ancient times, it seems that plants in the wine to a number of serious illnesses. According
crucifer family were mainly grown for their medicinal to Cato, applying a crushed cabbage leaf soothed
properties. Beginning with mustard, cultivated in ulcers on the breasts. While we now have more
China more than 6,000 years ago, and followed effective modern means to treat breast cancer,
by the various forms of cabbage described by the role cabbage performed as a cure for
Greek and Roman botanists, cultivation basically indulgence in too much alcohol seems to have
aimed to produce plants to treat various disorders, come down through the ages, judging by the
from deafness to gout, as well as gastrointestinal recent appearance on the Russian market of a
problems. Cabbage, in particular, was considered salty beverage made from cabbage juice and
to be a very important medicinal food for the Greek designed to alleviate those unpleasant post-
and Roman civilizations, even replacing garlic, at celebration aftereffects.
one point, as the favorite remedy. It was praised
by the scientist Pythagoras (570495 bce) and THE ANTICANCER EFFECTS OF CRUCIFEROUS
called the vegetable of a thousand virtues by VEGETABLES
Hippocrates of Kos (460377 bce), considered the Studies done to date indicate that cruciferous
founder of Western medicine. He recommended it vegetables are among the main sources of the
as a cure for diarrhea and dysentery, among other anticancer properties
things. Diogenes the Cynic (413327 bce), who
lived to the venerable age of 83 and had only a
poor barrel as his dwelling, ate almost nothing but
cabbage. Clearly, this vegetable was seen at the
time as a key food for good health.
Marcus Porcius Cato, or Cato the Elder
(234149 bce), a very powerful Roman statesman
who occupied the honorable yet most feared of
all poststhat of censor, the magistrate notably
responsible for establishing taxation levelswas
the first to use the term Brassica (from the Celtic
bresic, meaning cabbage), still used today to
designate the vegetables in this family. Highly
suspicious of doctors, all of whom were Greeks
at the time, Cato viewed cabbage as a universal
remedy for diseases, and a true fountain of youth
responsible for his good health and virility (he
fathered a son at the age of 80). While he filled his
leisure time by growing more than 100 medicinal
Cancer Cells Loathe Cabbage! 87
)
se
50
au
compared with those who ate none or few. Without
te
Reduction in cancer risk (%)
ng
op
ta
h
Lu
ac
en
os
re t
listing all of the studies suggesting that cruciferous
(p s
m
om
Pr
ea
40
St
Br
vegetables have a real cancer-fighting effect, it
must be pointed out that eating them regularly 30
has also been linked with a lower risk of several
n
lo
other cancers, such as those of the lung, the 20
Co
gastrointestinal system (colon,
stomach, rectum), and the 10
Figure 43
vegetables in the diet definitely plays a key role in of developing several cancers. This evidence
preventing cancer, studies indicate that some kinds suggests that this type of vegetable is a significant
of vegetables, especially crucifers, are particularly source of phytochemical compounds (see chapter 5).
important for halting the development of the disease. In fact, of all the plants eaten by humans, cruciferous
These observations are critical in the context of the vegetables probably contain the greatest variety of
Western diet, and especially in North America, where phytochemical molecules with anticancer properties.
potatoes make up as much as 50 percent of daily In addition to several polyphenols found in other
fruit and vegetable intake and cruciferous vegetables protective foods, discussed later, cruciferous
still play only a very limited role. vegetables also contain a group of compounds
called glucosinolates (see Figure 44, below). These
PHYTOCHEMICALS IN THE CABBAGE FAMILY molecules are especially plentiful in Brussels
As we have shown, regularly eating vegetables in sprouts and leafy cabbages (kale and spring
the cabbage family dramatically decreases the risk greens), but they are also found in significant
amounts in all crucifers.
change glucosinolates into isothiocyanates and Sulforaphane was isolated for the first time in
thus make up for the inactivation of the vegetable 1959 from whitetop, or hoary cress (Cardaria
caused by heat, but such a role still requires draba), where it occurs in very large quantities.
further study. From a nutritional point of view, broccoli is by far
To reduce the loss of myrosinase and the best source of sulforaphane, providing up to
glucosinolate activity caused by immersing 60 milligrams of this molecule per serving. It is
these vegetables in water and boiling them, also worth knowing that broccoli sprouts can
cook cruciferous vegetables as little as possible, contain up to 100 times more sulforaphane than
and in a minimum of water. To maximize the mature broccoli.
number of anticancer molecules supplied by Sulforaphane, and therefore broccoli, deserves
cruciferous vegetables, as well as making them special consideration in any dietary strategy for
more attractive and enjoyable to eat, simply steam preventing cancer. A number of results obtained
them on the stove or in a microwave, or stir-fry through research during the last 20 years indicate
them. In addition, avoid eating frozen cruciferous that sulforaphane considerably speeds up the
vegetables because these are put through a high- bodys elimination of toxic substances with the
temperature blanching stage during processing, potential to cause cancer. Studies in animals
which reduces both their glucosinolate content and have emphasized how extremely important this
their myrosinase activity. The result is that frozen is. Researchers have seen that increasing the
vegetables are definitely inferior to fresh as a source effectiveness of detoxification systems by means
of anticancer molecules. Lastly, to promote the of sulforaphane clearly reduces the occurrence,
release of active molecules, remember to chew number, and size of mammary tumors caused
your vegetables well before swallowing them. by certain carcinogenic substances in rats and
mice. As we have already seen, scientific studies
SULFORAPHANE, STAR OF THE ISOTHIOCYANATES indicate that this anticancer effect applies equally
Isothiocyanates contain in their structure an atom to humans.
of sulfur. This is the main cause of the unmistakable Sulforaphane also seems to be able to act
odor produced by overcooking cabbages and directly on cancer cells and cause their death
their cousins. Since each isothiocyanate is derived by triggering the apoptosis (cell suicide) process
from a different glucosinolate, the nature of the (see Chapter 2, p.33). In a series of studies on the
isothiocyanates associated with cruciferous vegetables ability of substances of nutritional origin to cause
obviously depends on the nature of the glucosinolates the death of cells isolated from an infantile brain
in these vegetables. Some glucosinolates are found tumor, called a medullablastoma, we have
in almost all cruciferous vegetables, while other observed that sulforaphane is the only molecule
members of this family contain very high levels of nutritional origin tested able to cause cell death.
of a specific type of glucosinolate, and therefore The ability of sulforaphane to cause the death
of the corresponding isothiocyanate. These of cancer cells has also been observed for other
differences in composition are important, since kinds of tumors, such as cancers of the colon
some isothiocyanates have more powerful and prostate, as well as in the case of acute
anticancer properties than others. This is especially lymphoblastic leukemia. This suggests that the
the case for the sulforaphane found in broccoli. direct action of the molecule on tumor cells
Cancer Cells Loathe Cabbage! 91
contributes to its anticancer properties. shown that an increased intake of mustard sprouts
Sulforaphane also has bactericidal antibiotic in the diet of a group of smokers (60 grams per
properties, especially against Helicobacter pylori, meal for three days) was linked with a decrease in
the bacterium that causes gastric ulcers. At first the toxic forms of NNK, a carcinogenic nitrosamine
glance, it would seem that this activity is not in tobacco. Given the very strong carcinogenic
directly related to cancer. However, such an activity potential of NNK, these results clearly illustrate
could play a very important role in protecting the degree to which isothiocyanates act as
against stomach cancer. Researchers now believe powerful protective agents against the development
that being infected with H. pylori, with the resulting of tumors caused by carcinogenic substances.
gastric ulcers, increases by three to six times the It seems more and more certain that PEITCs
risk of getting stomach cancer. Eating broccoli puts anticancer mechanism might also involve direct
sulforaphane in direct contact with the bacteria in action on cancer cells. Because of the molecules
the stomach and can stop the development of this ability to force the cells to die through apoptosis,
disease at the source. PEITC is in fact one of the isothiocyanates that
All of these properties make sulforaphane the cancer cells find most toxic, especially leukemia
isothiocyanate with the most powerful anticancer cells and those in colon, breast, and prostate
potential. In turn, this makes broccoli, the source cancers. This property suggests therefore that PEITC
of this molecule, one of the most important foods might not only prevent tumors from developing, but
for preventing the appearance of several cancers. may also play a preventive role even earlier in the
Despite all of the beneficial properties associated process, killing off precancerous cells before they
with sulforaphane, it would be incorrect to think begin to develop into tumors. Recent observations
that eating broccoli regularly can by itself help do indeed indicate that PEITC isable to eliminate
prevent cancer. However, the isothiocyanates and cancer stem cells, a subpopulation of tumor cells
indoles occurring in other members of the crucifer that often resist anticancer treatments and cause
family also have many anticancer properties, which cancer recurrences.
apparently contribute to the protective effects
of these vegetables. Among these
molecules, two deserve special
attention: phenethyl isothiocyanate
(PEITC) and indole-3-carbinol (I3C).
Phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC).
PEITC is a molecule formed from
gluconasturtiin, a glucosinolate found in
large quantities in watercress and Chinese
cabbage. Just like sulforaphane, PEITC
can protect laboratory animals from
cancers caused by exposure to toxic A versatile vegetable,
substances, especially cancers of the bok choy is a good
source of powerful
esophagus, stomach, colon, and lung. anticancer molecules
In the latter case, some studies have known as glucosinolates.
92 Cancer Cells Loathe Cabbage!
These observations indicate that dietary (the main cause of this cancer) and able to develop
sources of PEITC, such as watercress, can into cancer cells after estrogen treatment see their
therefore be an additional barrier against the growth halted by the administration of I3C.
development of certain types of cancer, both In conclusion, the diligent efforts made by
because of their ability to counteract the action our far-off ancestors to produce all of these
of highly carcinogenic substances and due to varieties of cabbage were certainly worth the
their toxic effect on cancer cells. trouble, when we consider the exceptional
Indole-3-carbinol. Even though it is a product of phytochemical content of these cruciferous
the hydrolysis of glucosinolates, like isothiocyanates, vegetables, especially glucosinolates and their
I3C is different from this class of molecules, both active forms, isothiocyanates and indoles.
in its chemical structure (without any sulfur atoms) Including these vegetables in the diet is therefore
and its anticancer mode of action. I3C is derived an easy way to supply the body with generous
from the degradation of glucobrassicin, a amounts of these molecules and, as a result,
glucosinolate found in the vast majority of prevent the development of several cancers,
cruciferous vegetables (although it is slightly especially in the lungs and gastrointestinal tract.
more plentiful in broccoli and Brussels sprouts). Currently available scientific findings are particularly
More recent research into the cancer-preventive encouraging. For example, a diet containing three
role of I3C shows an impact on estrogen metabolism or four servings of broccoli a week, which is far
and its ability to interfere with estrogen-dependent from excessive, has proven to be enough to
cancers like those of the breast, endometrium, protect people from developing colon polyps,
and cervix. In fact, it seems that I3C has the ability a significant stage in the onset of cancer in
to cause changes in the structure of estradiol that this organ. Finally, the inhibiting action of some
reduce this hormones ability to encourage cell components of crucifers on estrogen makes these
growth in these tissues. This effect is clearly vegetables essential players in the fight against
illustrated by results showing that cells in the breast cancer.
cervix containing human papilloma virus (HPV)-16
Cruciferous vegetables contain large quantities of
several anticancer compounds that hinder the
development of cancer by preventing carcinogenic
substances from causing cell damage.
Broccoli and Brussels sprouts are exceptional sources
of these anticancer molecules.
Lightly cooking and then thoroughly chewing the
vegetables are necessary to get the most benefit from
their anticancer potential.
We miss the fish we ate for free in Egypt!
And the cucumbers! And the melons! And
the leeks! And the onions! And the garlic!
Torah, Book of Numbers 11:5
Countless historical references to the use of garlic particular, and to East Asia, where it had already
and its cousins in the genus Allium (onions, leeks, been commonly used in China stretching back
and so on) represent the very best documented more than 2,000 years bce.
examples of plants being used to treat diseases The Egyptians were particularly fond of these
and maintain overall health. The cultivation of garlic plants, and attributed their own strength and
and onions probably originated in Central Asia and endurance to eating garlic and onions. The Greek
the Middle East at least 5,000 years ago. It later historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484425
spread toward the Mediterranean basin, Egypt in bce) wrote about the discovery of inscriptions on
96 Garlic and Onions: Keeping Cancer at Bay
leek is the national emblem of Wales, in honor of a France, including Brittany, became over time the only
memorable battle against the pagan Saxons around country producing this vegetable, hence its nickname
640 ce, during which Saint David seems to have advised of French shallot.
King Cadwallader to distinguish between his warriors Shallots look much more like garlic than onions,
and their adversaries by ordering his men to wear a leek with a head composed of several cloves, each with
in their battle helmets. The Welsh crushed the Saxons, a papery skin. The name shallot is often incorrectly
and so this victory is celebrated every first of March, used in North America for green onions, which are
St. Davids Day, by wearing a leek and eating cawl, a really just immature onions.
traditional dish based on leeks.
Chives
Shallots Chives (Allium schoenoprasum) get their name from
The Latin name for the shallot (Allium ascalonicum) the Latin cepula, meaning little onion. Likely native
refers to the plants place of origin, Ascalon (modern-day to Asia and Europe, chives were particularly popular in
Ashkelon), a city with a seaport dating back to the China at least 2,000 years ago, both to flavor dishes
Neolithic Age on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea. and to treat bleeding and poisoning. On his return from
Crusaders who went to Ascalon in the 12th century his voyage to the East, Marco Polo made Europe aware
probably took the shallot back with them to Europe, of the medicinal and culinary properties of this plant.
where it found its natural home in France. In fact,
98 Garlic and Onions: Keeping Cancer at Bay
suspected that such apparently odorless foods Most people have heard of allicin because all the
could release so powerful an aroma and flavor? manufacturers of garlic supplements boast of the
This characteristic is explained by the chemical benefits of their products largely based on their
changes that occur in the bulbs of the members allicin content. This publicity is not necessarily
of the genus Allium when they are crushed, much fraudulent, but it is still inaccurate, as these
the same as what takes place when a cruciferous supplements do not contain allicin, but alliin. In
vegetable is chewed. The familiar odor and taste truth, it is alliins ability to set off the release of allicin
of the various Allium species are due to their high that gives garlic supplements their potency. Tests
levels of several phytochemical compounds that done in an independent American laboratory have
contain a sulfur atom in their chemical structure. shown that the amount of allicin released by
Garlic can be used as a good example to various garlic supplements ranges from 0.4 to
illustrate the reactions that occur when cloves 6.5milligrams, depending on the manufacturer.
are crushed and added to a dish being prepared. The only safe way to guarantee your allicin intake
Stored in a cool spot, the bulbs will have gradually is to eat fresh garlic.
accumulated alliin, garlics main component. When Very similar reactions occur when you chop
the clove is crushed, the bulbs cells are broken, an onion. In this case, however, the difference
releasing an enzyme called alliinase. This comes in odor is mainly thanks to the slightly different
into contact with the alliin and quickly transforms nature of the molecules found in onions, which,
it into allicin, a highly fragrant molecule directly instead of generating allicin or its derivatives,
responsible for the powerful smell given off by the produce sulfenic acids and thiosulfinates. At
crushed bulb. Allicin is very plentiful in garlic (there the same time, another enzyme (LF synthase)
may be as much as 5 milligrams per gram) but it transforms 1-propenyl sulfenic acid into a volatile
is a highly volatile molecule that almost instantly and highly irritating gas called propanethial oxide.
converts into sulfur products of varying complexity This gas spreads through the air, reaches our eyes,
(see Figure 47, right). and causes the well-known irritation that makes
them water. The formation of propanethial reaches
its peak 30 seconds after the onion has been
sliced and then decreases. With some kinds of
onions, 30 seconds can feel like a very long time!
Some researchers have theorized that allicin could using animal models, in which cancer onset is
be responsible for garlics medicinal properties, but caused by carcinogenic chemical compounds.
its extremely high chemical volatility raises doubts Generally speaking, the results obtained in animals
as to how effectively it is absorbed by the body match the observations carried out in the human
and its action on cells. In fact, as has already been population. That is, the phytochemical compounds
mentioned, it is now well known that allicin is quickly in garlic and onions can prevent the occurrence
changed into a range of compounds such as ajoene, and even the progression of some cancers,
diallyl sulfide (DAS), diallyl disulfide (DADS), and especially cancers of the stomach and esophagus,
several other molecules, and that these derivatives although effects have also been noted for lung,
have very interesting biological activities of their own. breast, and colon cancer.
In total, at least 20 compounds derived from garlic Garlic seems especially effective in preventing
have been studied and have shown anticancer cancers caused by nitrosamines, a class of highly
activity. However, DAS and DADS, both oil soluble, carcinogenic chemical compounds. Our intestinal
are usually thought to be the main molecules in flora forms these chemical compounds whenever
garlic able to play a role in cancer prevention. we consume nitrites, a class of food additives very
In the laboratory, the anticancer properties of widely used in the food industry to preserve ready-
the compounds in garlic have mainly been studied made marinades and meat products like sausages,
45
Chives can be
40 cooked or
used fresh as
35 a garnish.
Reduction in cancer risk (%)
30
25
20
15
10
Compounds found
in green onions slow
5
the growth of a range
of cancers.
bacon, and ham. By preventing the formation of in their effect on the systems responsible for
nitrosamines (powerful carcinogens that bind with helping to get rid of foreign substances with
DNA), garlics phytochemical compounds reduce the carcinogenic potential (see Chapter 6). In fact,
risk that these enemy compounds will cause DNA several compounds, like DAS, inhibit the enzymes
mutations and, as a result, they lower the risk of that activate carcinogens while stimulating the
developing cancer. Garlics protective effect against enzymes that are needed to flush them out. The
nitrosamines seems to be very powerful, since DAS immediate result of these two properties is that
can even neutralize the development of lung cancer cells are less exposed to carcinogenic agents and
caused by NNK, an extremely toxic nitrosamine are less likely to sustain the type of damage to their
formed by the transformation of nicotine when DNA that would lead to the development of cancer.
tobacco is burned. The protective effect of garlic This all means that the compounds in garlic, just
appears to be stronger than that of onions, even like those found in the vegetables of the cabbage
though it has been suggested that eating onions is family, can be considered front-line preventive
also associated with a lower risk of developing agents, capable of blocking cancer at the outset.
stomach cancer. In addition to their direct effects on carcinogenic
Another way that garlic and onion compounds substances, the compounds in garlic directly
might also interfere with cancer development lies attack tumor cells and cause their destruction
Milder in flavor
than onions, shallots
nonetheless earn
their place in the
anticancer diet.
through apoptosis (see Chapter 2, p.33). In fact, it is more and more certain that the compounds
treating cells isolated from cancers of the colon, in garlic and onions can act as powerful inhibitors
breast, lung, and prostate, as well as from of cancer development by targeting at least two
leukemias, using various garlic compounds causes processes involved in tumor development. On
significant changes in the growth of tumor cells and the one hand, these compounds may prevent the
activates the process leading to their death. The activation of carcinogenic substances by reducing
molecule most able to cause cell death seems to their reactivity as well as speeding up their
be DAS, although similar effects have also been elimination: both effects combine to reduce the
observed with other derivatives, like ajoene. Our damage these substances can inflict on DNA (the
laboratory has also observed that DAS might main target of these carcinogens). On the other
contribute to the death of cancer cells by altering hand, these molecules are also able to reduce the
the cells ability to make use of a number of spread of cancerous tumors by interfering with the
proteins that enable them to resist some growth process of cancer cells, leading these cells
chemotherapy drugs. to die by apoptosis.
In summary, the anticancer properties of the Even though further study is needed to gain a
garlic family seem to be mainly linked to the sulfur more precise idea of how molecules derived from
compounds they contain. Nonetheless, especially garlic and onions perform these various activities,
in the case of onions, the significant contribution of there is absolutely no doubt that garlic and its
certain polyphenols must definitely not be ignored. cousins deserve an important place in a strategy
This includes quercetin, a molecule that prevents for preventing cancer through diet. Garlic has the
the growth of a large number of cancer cells and power to rid us of far greater evils than malevolent
interferes with cancer development in animals. In spirits and vampires!
any event, based on knowledge acquired to date,
Garlic and other members of the genus Allium
slow down cancer development, through both
their protective action against damage caused by
carcinogenic substances and their ability to hinder
the growth of cancer cells.
The molecules responsible for these anticancer effects
are released by the mechanical breakdown of these
vegetables. Freshly crushed garlic is therefore by far
the best source of anticancer compounds and should
be chosen over supplements.
The discovery of a new dish
confers more happiness on humanity
than the discovery of a new star.
Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin,
The Physiology of Taste (1829)
Exactly when people began to grow soybeans is unclear, but their cultivation
may have developed significantly about 3,000 years ago in Manchuria, in
northeastern China (now the provinces of Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang),
during the Zhou (Tcheou) Dynasty (1122256 bce). At the time, the
Chinese considered soybeans to be one of the five sacred grains, along
with barley, wheat, millet, and rice.
Modern scientific evidence shows this belief family (beans, peas, and lentils, for example), have
was far from fanciful. In fact, compounds found the ability to absorb nitrogen from the atmosphere
in soybeans and soy products are proving to and then transfer it to the soil. These plants not
be a powerful dietary tool in the fight against only improve the soil they are growing in, but yield
cancer. According to some specialists, the a highly nutritious foodstuff in a relatively short
sacred character that the Chinese bestowed space of time.
upon soybeans was actually related to its use Soybeans seem not to have been actually
as a soil fertilizer, owing to its nitrogen-fixing included in the human diet until after the discovery
properties. Soybeans, like the entire legume of fermentation techniques during the Zhou Dynasty
106 Soy: A Source of Anticancer Phytoestrogens
period. The first foods made from soybeans were While the Japanese, Chinese, and Indonesians,
the result of fermentation, like miso and soy sauce, among other groups, eat soy daily, the West ignores
followed by the discovery of how to make tofu (see it, with only a minority of people including it in their
box, above). It was during this period that soybean daily diet. The average daily soy consumption is
cultivation and soy fermentation methods gradually about 214 ounces (65 grams) per person in Japan
spread across southern China. and roughly 112 ounces (40 grams) in China. In the
In the centuries that followed, soybean West, however, consumption does not exceed .03
cultivation spread to Korea, Japan, and Southeast ounces (1 gram) per day. In the UK, for example,
Asia, where people valued the ease of growing legumes like soybeans are classified in national
soybeans and prized their exceptional nutritional dietary guidelines as beans, pulses, fish, eggs,
properties and medicinal powers. Even now, meat and other proteins, with a recommendation
soybeans and the soy products derived from that this group should make up only 14 percent of
them are integral to Asian diets. the diet. This is slightly unfair to soybeans given
Soy: A Source of Anticancer Phytoestrogens 107
Tofu
The production of tofu likely goes back to the Western itself has a relatively bland taste, it can be greatly
Han period (22022 bce) in China. Tofu-making enhanced by adding other ingredients.
technique relies on the pressurization of soybeans
previously soaked in water, resulting in the extraction Soy milk
of a whitish liquid known as milk. Contrary to popular belief, drinking soy milk
Tofu is traditionally obtained by coagulating this (tonyu) is a recent trend in Asia and, ironically, was
milk using a natural marine compound. Such largely popularized by Harry Miller, an American
compounds include nigari, magnesium chloride doctor and Adventist missionary who established
(extracted from nigari), calcium chloride (a product the first soy milk production plants in China in
made from a mineral extracted from the earth), calcium 1936 and in Japan in 1956. In China and Korea,
sulfate (gypsum), magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts), only 5 percent of soy intake comes from soy milk,
or acids (lemon juice or vinegar). Tofu plays a central and this percentage is even lower in Japan. Many
role in all Asian cuisines, with an annual per-person people find that it has an unpleasant taste caused
consumption of about 9 pounds (4 kilograms) compared by strong-smelling compounds produced by an
with 3 ounces (100 grams) in the West. Tofu absorbs enzyme called lipoxygenase, which is released when
the flavor of foods prepared with it, so even though tofu the beans are pressurized.
their high levels of proteins, essential fatty acids, Chapter 5). Although isoflavones are found in other
vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. This potential vegetables and plants, such as chickpeas, only
of this truly remarkable food still remains largely soy provides the body with appreciable amounts.
untapped in Western society. This is even more As Figure 49 (on p.108) shows, most of the
true, as we will see in this chapter, given that products derived from soybeans contain a large
soybeans are not only a significant source of amount of isoflavones, except for soy sauce, in
nutrients, but are also an extremely important which most of the molecules are broken down
source of anticancer phytochemical molecules. during the lengthy fermentation process, and soy
oil (often sold as vegetable oil in supermarkets),
ISOFLAVONES, A KEY COMPONENT OF SOYS which has none at all. The highest concentrations
HEALTH-PROMOTING PROPERTIES of isoflavones occur in soy flour (kinako), fresh
The main phytochemical compounds in soy are a or roasted soybeans, and in some fermented
group of polyphenols known as isoflavones (see products like miso. Tofu also contains very
108 Soy: A Source of Anticancer Phytoestrogens
significant quantities of isoflavones. While the derived from petroleum, processed at high
consumption of soy-based foods is very low in the temperatures, and washed with alcohol-based
West, most of us eat a lot of soy protein without solutions). The soy proteins obtained using these
being aware of it. In the West, soy-based products methods bear very little resemblance to those
are referred to as second generation. These are found in the original beans. And while replacing
industrial products in which animal proteins are animal proteins with vegetable proteins may offer
replaced or enhanced by adding proteins derived a nutritional advantage (although the increasing use
from soy. So, rather than being considered foods in of genetically modified soy also poses significant
their own right as in the East, soy proteins in the ethical and ecological problems), adding these
West are instead used as minor ingredients in substitutes does not increase their isoflavone
products as varied as hamburgers, sausages, dairy content. This is because the proteins used have
products, breads, pastries, and biscuits. been so heavily processed before being added
These typically Western products contain that any of the anticancer properties associated
very few isoflavones, since they are made with with soy have long since disappeared.
protein concentrates derived from the industrial The isoflavone content of foods derived from soy
processing of soybeans (extracted using solvents is important because these molecules can influence
several events associated with the uncontrolled
growth of cancer cells. The main isoflavones in
ISOFLAVONE CONTENT IN THE MAIN FOODS soy are genistein (see p.57) and daidzein, with
MADE FROM SOYBEANS
glycitein occurring in smaller amounts.
Isoflavones An interesting characteristic of isoflavones is
Foods
(mg/100g) their striking resemblance to a class of female
sex hormones called estrogens. For this reason,
Flour (Kinako) 199
these molecules are often called phytoestrogens
Roasted beans (see Figure 50, opposite), the suffix phyto indicating
128
(Setsubun no mame)
that the compound is found in a plant. Most
Boiled fresh beans
55 scientists interested in the anticancer
(Edamame)
potential of soy isoflavones believe that
Miso 43 genistein is the main molecule
responsible for these effects, owing
Tofu 28
to its ability to block the activity of
Soy milk (Tonyu) 9 several enzymes that trigger the
uncontrolled growth of cancer
Tofu dog 3
cells. This means genistein can
Soy sauce (Shoyu) 1.7 stop the growth of a tumor.
As we have already mentioned,
Soy oil 0 in addition to their effects on the
activity of several proteins involved in
Source: USDA Database for Isoflavone
the growth of tumor cells in breast or
Content of Selected Foods, 2001. Figure 49
prostate cancers, phytoestrogens might
Soy: A Source of Anticancer Phytoestrogens 109
Figure 50
ISOFLAVONES AND BREAST CANCER
A relationship between the incidence of breast
cancer and soy consumption was first suggested
also act as anti-estrogens and decrease cell following a study conducted in Singapore, where
response to these hormones. Genisteins structure premenopausal women eating the most soy (2
is similar to that of estrogen, so it can bind itself to ounces/55 grams per day or more) had half as much
an estrogen-receptor site on a precancerous cell, risk of developing breast cancer as those who ate
blocking off a space where an estrogen molecule less than 34 ounce (20 grams) daily. Other data
might have attached itself. However, the resulting subsequently obtained among Asian populations
110 Soy: A Source of Anticancer Phytoestrogens
seem to confirm soys protective role. For example, important to note that in several studies where soy
a major 10-year study of 21,852 Japanese women consumption is not associated with decreased risk
showed that daily consumption of miso soup and the isoflavone intake is extremely low. For example,
an isoflavone intake of 25 milligrams a day were in a study done in San Francisco of non-Asian
associated with a sharp decrease in the risk of women, soy intake was only 3 milligrams of
developing breast cancer. However, the results of isoflavones per day among those who consumed
studies done among Western populations are less the most, and this intake was mainly linked to
conclusive. For example, a major California study of isoflavones derived from soy protein added to
111,526 female teachers showed no correlation processed products. Barely 10 percent of these
between soy intake and the risk of developing women ate miso or tofu more than once a month,
breast cancer. Similar results were also obtained in compared with three times a day for the Japanese
three other smaller-scale studies. So, how can women at low risk of getting this disease. In fact,
these differences be explained? First of all, it is the isoflavone content of the group with the highest
Breast and prostate cancers are commonly known as example, a massive intake of animal fats and the
hormone-dependent, meaning that their growth ensuing physical overload are a large risk factor in the
largely depends on the levels of sex hormones in the development of some hormone-dependent cancers,
blood. Under normal conditions, the amount of these such as those of the endometrium and breast. Obese
hormones is closely monitored by several control women have high blood levels of insulin, which, by
systems in the body that make sure their level does means of extremely complex mechanisms, completely
not exceed a given limit. These checks are important, changes the estrogen and progesterone levels in their
since some hormones, like estrogens, are powerful bodies. Suffice it to say that estrogen levels increase
tissue-growth stimulators, and too high a level of these significantly, resulting in the overstimulation of
hormones in the blood can cause uncontrolled endometrial or breast cells and excessive growth of
growth and cancer. This is why people with these tissues, resulting in cancer.
breast cancer are commonly seen to have In the case of prostate cancer, the contribution of
higher blood levels of estrogens than androgens to the development of this disease is no
those who are cancer-free. The longer in doubt. Excessive prostate growth seems to be
factors responsible for the inevitable, since roughly 40 percent of 50-year-olds
higher levels of sex hormones have latent (inactive) tumors in the prostate.
in patients with these types Several diet-based factors encourage the
of cancer are still not progression of prostate cancer, including eating animal
understood very well, but may fats and being overweight or obese, so controlling the
include dietary factors. For growth of these latent tumors by compounds derived
from foods like soy takes on even more importance.
Fresh edamame On the other hand, the protection soy offers against
beans make a prostate cancer does not appear to be limited to its
great pop-in-your- effect on androgen receptors, but also involves its
mouth snack. inhibiting activity on growth factor receptors and
angiogenesis (see Chapter 3, p.43).
Soy: A Source of Anticancer Phytoestrogens 111
soy intake in the California study (3 milligrams a soy as adults. The conclusion is that consuming
day) was half that of the group with the lowest soy from an early age, especially during puberty,
level in the Japanese study mentioned above, in might be crucial to gaining the full anticancer
which no protective effect from soy was observed. effect of this food.
It is therefore likely that a certain threshold of soy
consumption is necessary to cause a decline in ISOFLAVONES AND PROSTATE CANCER
breast cancer risk, since, in all the studies that As we have seen earlier, there is no doubt that
suggest this kind of protective role, eating enough the composition of the diet plays a key role in the
soy to generate more than 25 milligrams of alarming number of prostate cancers in Western
isoflavones is associated with a notable drop populations. Just as with breast cancer incidence
in breast cancer risk. in Asian women, Asian men have levels of prostate
Secondly, it appears that a key factor that can cancer several times lower than Western men,
influence the decrease in breast cancer rates is despite having a similar proportion of inactive
the age at which people begin to eat products tumors, which again suggests that the Eastern
containing soy. When studies look at the risk of diet contains elements that prevent the progression
developing breast cancer by examining how much of these dormant tumors to more serious clinical
soy the women ate before puberty and during their stages that can result in death.
adolescence, there is a very strong relationship As opposed to breast cancer, however, relatively
between a decrease in the number of breast few studies have looked at the role of soy isoflavones
cancers and soy intake in childhood. Including soy in the prevention of prostate cancer. One study of
in the diet early in life seems to be very important,
because the breast cancer protection it provides
continues to be seen later in life, even in women Research shows that
consuming enough soy
whose soy consumption actually decreases in
to generate 25mg of
adulthood. For example, while for female Japanese isoflavones is linked
immigrants to the United States the risk of getting with a notable drop
in breast cancer risk.
breast cancer is about the same as for American-
born women, it has been clearly shown that this
risk is much lower when these women emigrate
later in life. In other words, the longer these
women have been eating a diet that includes a
generous quantity of soy, the lower their risk of
developing breast cancer will be later on, even if
their food habits change during adulthood. These
observations are consistent with certain laboratory
results showing that rats fed a diet high in soy
before puberty grow more resistant to a type
of carcinogenic compound causing the formation
of mammary tumors than rats that were only fed
112 Soy: A Source of Anticancer Phytoestrogens
8,000 men of Japanese origin living in Hawaii Eating foods derived from soy moderately but
suggested that eating rice and tofu was associated consistently over a long time period reduces the
with a decrease in the risk of developing prostate likelihood of uncontrolled growth in breast and
cancer. Similarly, a study of 12,395 California prostate tissues, perfectly illustrating how an active
Adventists indicates that eating at least one serving phytochemical compound can maintain tumors in
of soy per day results in a notable reduction (70 the dormant stage, even though such tumors never
percent) of the risk of getting prostate cancer. It stop trying to develop throughout our lives.
is therefore likely that a diet in which soy figures
prominently may play an important role in preventing THE FALSE CONTROVERSY AROUND SOY
this disease, a hypothesis strongly supported by While the vast majority of researchers, doctors,
studies on animals. and nutritionists agree that including soy in the diet
Overall, studies conducted to date demonstrate is good for health, there is still some controversy
quite clearly soys important role in preventing around its consumption in two very specific cases:
breast and prostate cancers, as well as a possible menopausal women and women who have had
reduction in risk for cancers of the uterus and breast cancer. This controversy is based on the
lung (see Figure 51, below). These protective effects mildly estrogenic nature of isoflavones, as well
show the extent to which including soy in the diet, as on conflicting results obtained in laboratory
especially during childhood and adolescence, can animals that have undergone mammary tumor
have extraordinary repercussions for cancer risk. grafts. Despite the contradictory data reported
on this subject, recent results clearly show
that this controversy is baseless as far as
EFFECT OF SOY IN REDUCING CANCER RISK natural soy-based foods are concerned.
OBSERVED IN PROSPECTIVE STUDIES
Soy and menopause
50 Menopause is set off by the dramatic
drop in the blood levels of the female sex
40 hormones, estrogen and progesterone,
causing the halt in reproductive functions
Reduction in cancer risk (%)
Japanese women report episodes of hot flashes, age 30 to 58 caused an increase in blood
whereas 70 to 80 percent of Western women have markers associated with the risk of developing
to cope with these symptoms (see Figure 52, below). breast cancer, including, among others, the
As with breast cancer, the pronounced appearance of rapidly multiplying cells and an
difference in soy consumption by women in increase in blood estrogen levels. Overall, this
these two cultures could be considered a possible data has led many people to suggest that
factor responsible for such variations in symptoms. menopausal women, as well as those who have
This has inevitably resulted in the appearance had breast cancer, should refrain from eating soy.
of products enriched with isoflavones from soy In the specific case of menopause, the
extracts or red clover (another abundant source controversy is absurd and has no basis in reality.
of isoflavones). These products cause a degree of There is no doubt that soy is not harmful to
concern, since formulations high in isoflavones womens health, whether they are pre- or post-
have accelerated the development of breast menopausal, as attested to by the low cancer
cancers in laboratory mice with low estrogen rates in countries where this food is consumed.
levels, like those of menopausal women, which The harmful effect in question here is actually
naturally brings to mind the results of the study that of formulations artificially enriched with
mentioned above. These products are all the more isoflavones, which bear little resemblance to
worrisome in light of another study showing that whole soy-based foods.
administering a mixture of soy proteins to women Instead of slowly adding soy to the daily diet to
reach the amounts of isoflavones on
a par with those consumed by Asians,
INCIDENCE OF NEGATIVE SIDE EFFECTS OF our reflex in Western societies is to
MENOPAUSE
isolate the active compounds in a food
and market them as supplements,
100
ideally with the highest possible
amount of isoflavones to boost
80 sales. This is the heart of the
current issue concerning the
Percentage of women (%)
risk of getting the disease had a daily intake SOY AND BREAST CANCER
of 25 milligrams of isoflavones. In comparison, The main controversy around soy concerns women
some supplements currently sold over the who have breast cancer or who have battled
counter may contain up to 100 milligrams per cancer and are now in remission. More than
tablet. Like any other hormone, pure isoflavones 75 percent of breast cancers are diagnosed in
can cause an overly strong reaction in target women over 50 and, in the vast majority of cases,
tissues when taken in highly concentrated doses. these cancers are estrogen-dependent. Since
The consequences of taking such high levels of the estrogen-progesterone combination increases
isoflavones is not yet known. breast cancer risk, some researchers have put
forward the hypothesis that
the ability of soy isoflavones
to interact with estrogen
receptors might encourage
the development of breast
tumors in women with low
estrogen levels and residual or
existing tumors. The hypothesis
is strengthened by observing
the fact that administering
isoflavone-enriched formulations
to mice with mammary tumors,
whose growth depends on
estrogens, caused increased
tumor growth.
Obviously, a large part of this
controversy stems once again
from the use of sources enriched
with isoflavones, and in light of
what we have just described
for menopause, it is clear that
women with breast cancer must
absolutely avoid all supplements
based on phytochemical
compounds. Furthermore, one
study showed that while sources
of purified isoflavones caused an
increase in the growth of
mammary tumors already
Miso paste, one of the most important ingredients in present in a laboratory animal,
traditional Japanese cuisine. the whole food containing an
Soy: A Source of Anticancer Phytoestrogens 115
A typical sushi meal contains a wide range of foods containing compounds that fight cancer.
equivalent amount of isoflavones had no effect having their cancer recur. It is also important to
whatsoever on this growth. The harmlessness of note that, despite the similarity of isoflavones to
dietary soy for people with breast cancer is also estrogens, studies indicate that soy in no way
suggested by epidemiological studies showing that interferes with the effectiveness of tamoxifen or
Asian women are not only less affected by this anastrozole, two drugs frequently used to treat
cancer, but that those who do get this disease in hormone-dependent cancers. For people who
spite of everything also have higher survival rates. have had breast cancer, there is therefore no
Many studies done recently clearly show that downside to bringing soy into the daily diet.
it is completely safe for survivors of breast cancer We have to keep in mind that the best study on
to eat soy on a regular basis and that doing so is the benefits of soy has been carried out by Asians
actually linked to a significant decrease in the risk themselves over the past several thousand years,
of recurrence and mortality associated with this and with impressive results. Eating soybeans and
disease. For example, a study of 10,000 women soy-based foods during childhood and adolescence
with breast cancer established that survivors who or during menopause has never posed any risk for
regularly consumed soy (more than 10 milligrams these peoplein fact, quite the opposite. As a
of isoflavones a day) had a 25 percent lower risk of result, moderate soy consumption (approximately
116 Soy: A Source of Anticancer Phytoestrogens
Phytoestrogens
Intestinal
bacteria
Enterolactone
Enterodiol
Figure 53
Soy: A Source of Anticancer Phytoestrogens 117
134312 ounces/50100 grams per day), so as to particularly true for premenopausal women,
absorb about 2540 milligrams of isoflavones daily, whose estrogen levels are higher.
can have only positive effects on health by These results agree with those of several
considerably reducing the risk of breast and research studies on laboratory animals that were
prostate cancerwhich, remember, are the main given mammary tumor grafts. It was observed
cancers affecting people in Western societies. that adding lignans to the diet prevented the
Furthermore, the main active element in these development of the tumors implanted in these
foods, genistein, is not only a phytoestrogen but animals. It is also interesting to note that these
also a molecule with the power to thwart the
growth of several types of tumors, notably by
blocking new blood vessel formation. SECOISOLARICIRESINOL (SEC) AND
MATAIRESINOL (MAT) CONTAINED IN FOODS
LIGNANS, ANTICANCER PHYTOESTROGENS HIGH IN LIGNANS
Although soy isoflavones are definitely the
phytoestrogens that have received the most SEC MAT
Food
(g/100g) (g/100g)
attention from the scientific and medical
communities to date, there are other classes of Flaxseed 369,900 1,087
natural phytoestrogens that can also contribute to
preventing breast cancer (see Figure 53, opposite). Sunflower seeds 610 0
This is notably the case for lignans.
Lignans are complex compounds occurring Peanuts 298 -
in many plants, with flaxseed being by far the
best food source of these molecules (see Figure Soybeans 273 -
54, right). In fact, flaxseed contains very high
levels of secoisolariciresinol and its close relative Cashews 257 4
matairesinol. These compounds are important
for preventing cancers whose growth depends Walnuts 163 5
on estrogens, because intestinal bacteria
can change them into enterolactone and Red beans 153 -
enterodiol, two molecules that interfere with
Rye bread 47 65
the bonding of estrogens to breast cells (see
Figure 55, p.118).
Several epidemiological studies have
examined a possible role for lignans in breast
cancer prevention, and these have produced
very encouraging results. In most cases, an
increase in levels of enterolactone (produced
Flaxseed must be ground just before eating
by the transformation of secoisolariciresinol) to gain the maximum benefit
in blood levels is associated with a decreased Figure 54
risk of breast cancer. This was found to be
118 Soy: A Source of Anticancer Phytoestrogens
OMe
OH
Matairesinol
HO
OH
OH
OH
Enterodiol
HO
O
OH
Enterolactone
Figure 55
The major differences in the incidence of hormone-
dependent cancers (breast and prostate) between
East and West could be partly attributable to the
consumption of soy-based foods, especially if this
consumption begins before puberty.
The key to getting the most from soys anticancer
effects is to eat about 1 ounces (50 grams) of whole
foods, like fresh soybeans (edamame) or tofu, daily.
Isoflavone supplements, however, must be avoided.
In addition to soy, eating flaxseed is a simple,
economical way to increase phytoestrogen intake. It
must, however, be ground before eating to change the
lignans into active phytoestrogens.
God made food;
the devil the cooks.
James Joyce, Ulysses (1922)
At one time, spices were rare and as costly as gold or oil. Today,
the anticancer potential of certain common spices, which could
reduce the incidence of several cancers seen in industrialized
countries today, makes them precious to us once again.
For more than 2,000 years, the discovery of new The reasons why people craved new spices
spices ignited European minds. The search for remain unclear. For some, it is likely that they
undiscovered sources stirred the greed of were used to mask the bland or unpleasant taste
monarchs, who financed dangerous expeditions of foods, particularly meats preserved with large
to discover routes leading to new spices and the amounts of salt. For the very wealthy, spices were
wealth and prestige they brought with them. This an exclusive luxury that allowed them to flaunt
quest changed the course of history, because their fortune and social status. Whether it was
without this desire for power, Vasco da Gama the saffron sprinkled on Neros path as he entered
would not have set sail around the Cape of Good Rome or the pepper, ginger root, cardamom, or
Hope, nor would Christopher Columbus or Jacques sugar used to pay lawyers for their work, spices
Cartier have reached and explored the Americas. symbolized wealth and power.
122 S p i c e s a n d H e r b s : A Ta s t y W a y t o P r e v e n t C a n c e r
A REASON TO SEASON
Biological activity
Turmeric Curcumin
Ginger Gingerol
Clove Eugenol
Lamiaceae Family
Ursolic acid
Perillic alcohol
Carnosol
Luteolin
Apiaceae Family
Figure 56
S p i c e s a n d H e r b s : A Ta s t y W a y t o P r e v e n t C a n c e r 123
spice is widespread. Turmeric is one of the main same color, and yet it is not saffron. Turmeric was
components of traditional Indian medicine, known also formerly called terra merita, likely referring to
as Ayurvedic medicine (ayur: life, and vedic: its distant origins or its value. While terra merita
knowledge). Probably humanitys oldest medical is no longer used in French, this expression is
tradition (the first school was founded around the root of the English name turmeric.
800 bce), Ayurvedic medicine is the cornerstone Turmeric and curry must not be confused.
of the main schools of traditional Asian medicine The word curry comes from the Tamil kari, a
(Chinese, Tibetan, and Islamic) and is still practiced term denoting a dish cooked in a spicy sauce.
in India, where it is considered a viable alternative This word was misinterpreted by the British
to Western medicine. In Ayurvedic tradition, turmeric colonizers, who associated it instead with the
is considered to have the property of purifying the spices used in preparing dishes. Curry powder
body and is used to treat a very wide variety of is not therefore a spice but rather a mixture of
physical disorders, such as digestive problems, spices, which nonetheless contains large amounts
fever, infections, arthritis, and dysentery, as well of turmeric (2030 percent), usually mixed with
as jaundice and other problems related to the liver. coriander seed, cumin, cardamom, fenugreek,
Indians are not alone in attributing health benefits and various peppers (cayenne, red, and black).
to turmeric. Traditional Chinese medicine uses it There are many kinds of curry and they vary in
mainly to treat liver disorders, congestion, and pepper content, which can sometimes cause hot
bleeding. Turmeric was especially popular in the flashes in adventurous diners. And you wont forget
Okinawa region, located near the Ryukyu Islands, the experience, if observations showing that Indians
south of Japan. Here it was used under the name have the lowest rates of Alzheimers disease in
ucchin throughout the Ryukyuan Kingdom period the worldfive times lower than in Western
in the 12th to 17th centuries, as both medicine populationscan be relied on.
and spice, and as a coloring agent for takuan, a
marinated radish. After the islands were invaded by TURMERICS ANTICANCER EFFECTS: CURCUMIN
the Satsuma clan in 1609, turmeric fell into disuse, There is some consensus in the scientific
but it has recently resurfaced and has once again community to suggest that turmeric could be
become very popular, especially as a tea. Famous responsible for the huge differences in the rates of
for their longevity (86 for women and 77 for men) certain cancers in India and in Western countries
and their abnormally high number of centenarians the United States, for example (see Figure 57, right).
(40 per 100,000 inhabitants as compared to 15 per A sudden drop in the quantity of turmeric in the diet
100,000 in the rest of Japan), the inhabitants of also might explain the dramatic increase in the
Okinawa consider eating ucchin to be one of the incidence of cancers following the migration of
reasons for their exceptional health. Indians to Western countries (see Figure 58, p.126).
The French word for turmeric, curcuma, is This hypothesis is based on the fact that turmeric
derived from the Arab word kourkoum, meaning is almost exclusively consumed in India, and in
saffron. In fact, turmeric is also called saffron of very large quantities, as well as on an impressive
the Indies in French. Marco Polo mentioned in his number of laboratory results on the anticancer
tales in 1280 the discovery of a plant with all the effect of turmerics main component, curcumin.
properties of real saffron, the same aroma, and the Curcuminoids are the main compounds in turmeric
S p i c e s a n d H e r b s : A Ta s t y W a y t o P r e v e n t C a n c e r 125
70
60
Rate per 100,000 people
50
40
30
20
10
are inhibitors of this enzyme). This property with advanced forms of breast cancer. During a
might have a beneficial effect on colon cancer, study carried out on patients with cancer of the
as studies carried out to date indicate that these pancreas in the terminal phase, administering
anti-inflammatories reduce its incidence. curcumin led to a dramatic reduction (73 percent)
Administering curcumin orally causes a dramatic in tumor size in a patient and stabilized the disease.
reduction in the inflammatory molecules formed by These remarkable responses illustrate the powerful
COX-2 in the blood. This effect is very interesting, anticancer action of this molecule in terms of
especially in light of the latest results showing that cancer prevention.
synthetic anti-inflammatories can have considerable One aspect that might appear to reduce
side effects that could limit their future use in curcumins effectiveness is its low bioavailability,
preventing colon cancer. and the difficulty the body has in absorbing it.
More than 20 clinical trials are currently underway It is important to note, however, that a molecule
to measure the effectiveness of turmeric and in pepper, piperine, increases the absorption of
curcumin in treating various cancers (colon, breast, curcumin by more than 1,000 times, a property that
pancreas, and melanoma). Preliminary results are could no doubt be used to maximize the molecules
encouraging, as turmeric and curcumin do not benefits. Greater absorption of curcumin has also
produce side effects (or very few), even in relatively been observed in the presence of ginger root and
high doses, and some patients respond favorably cumin. Popular wisdom has perhaps once again
to treatment. Here are some results. Curcumin beaten science to the punch, since pepper, ginger
improves the response to chemotherapy in women root, and cumin have always been essential
S p i c e s a n d H e r b s : A Ta s t y W a y t o P r e v e n t C a n c e r 127
elements of curry. This increase in the bioavailability of essential oils. These oils aromatic molecules
of curcumin has also been observed for other come from the terpene family. Terpenes also have
phytochemical compounds. For example, the the important characteristic of interfering with cancer
simultaneous administration of curcumin and development by blocking the function of several
quercetin, a polyphenol found in many fruits and oncogenes (see p.36) involved in cancer-cell growth.
vegetables, caused a 60 percent reduction in the For example, adding terpenes (carvacrol, thymol,
growth of precancerous polyps in patients at high and perillic alcohol) to cancer cells taken from a
risk of colorectal cancer owing to a genetic wide variety of tumors considerably reduces their
mutation passed on through heredity, known as proliferation and, in some cases, causes their death.
familial rectocolic polyposis. All of these examples Adding carnosol (a terpene especially plentiful in
clearly illustrate the concept of culinary synergy, rosemary) to the diet of mice genetically predisposed
the way in which one food increases the impact to get colon cancer prevents the development of
of another when eaten at the same meal. cancer by correcting the defects in intestinal cells
that cause the disease in the mice. It should also
ANTICANCER HERBS be noted that the herbs in this family contain ursolic
Most of the herbs now used in cooking are from acid, a multipurpose anticancer molecule with
the Lamiaceae (mint, thyme, marjoram, oregano, the ability to attack cancer cells directly, prevent
basil, rosemary) and Apiaceae families (parsley, angiogenesis (the process whereby a tumor
cilantro, cumin, chervil, fennel). Most of these establishes its own blood-vessel system), and block
plants come from the Mediterranean basin, COX-2 production, which reduces inflammation.
where they have played a fundamental role in This anticancer activity is not limited to the
the development of the regions culinary traditions. terpenes in these herbs. Luteolin (Figure 60, below)
The Lamiaceae and Apiaceae families of herbs all and apigenin, two polyphenols that are particularly
have very fragrant leaves, owing to their high levels plentiful in thyme, mint, and parsley, also display
CURCUMIN LUTEOLIN
O O
HO OH
OCH HCO
Culinary thyme
OH
HO
O OH
Cell migration
in many ways similar; apigenin has a direct impact 15
on both cancer cells and angiogenesis. Luteolin
and apigenin prevent PDGF (platelet-derived growth 10
in
tin
in
c
need to grow. This inhibiting effect is even more
ol
en
va
ice
te
ig
ee
yr
Lu
Ap
interesting in that it occurs in relatively weak
Gl
M
concentrations, similar to those of Gleevac, a Flavonoids (5 M)
Much more than a simple beverage, green tea has cancer rates among Asians and Westerners.
become over the centuries an essential part of the Green tea is an outstanding source of very powerful
social customs of Asian countries, not only from a anticancer molecules, making it one of the key
gastronomic point of view, but also for preventing elements of any diet designed to prevent the
and treating diseases. Sadly, as with the other occurrence of cancer. And, even better, this
foods of Asian origin discussed in this book, green medicine tastes delicious.
tea remains less well-known in the West than in The discovery of tea was likely the result of
the East and, according to some, this difference human beings many attempts to identify plants
contributes to accentuating the gap between with properties beneficial to health. According to
132 G r e e n Te a : A C a n c e r- F i g h t i n g B a l m f o r t h e S o u l
a Chinese legend, this discovery dates back to as well as those written during the Han period
5000 bce, when Emperor Shen Nong, while boiling (206bce220 ce), mention it several times, but at
water to purify it, saw a few leaves blown by the the time its use was limited to medicinal treatments.
wind fall into the simmering water. Intrigued by the Only later did tea gradually become part of
color and the exquisite fragrance that arose, he everyday life. This was particularly true under the
decided to taste it and was surprised to discover Tang Dynasty (618907), when it became a daily
a flavorful beverage with many fine qualities. beverage, to be enjoyed in its own right as well
In fact, many specialists think the discovery of as for its restorative properties. At the same time,
tea probably took place just a few centuries before growing and processing tea became a noble art,
our era. The works of Confucius (551479 bce), just like calligraphy, painting, and poetry. Tea
consumption had become so widespread by the (or C.sinensis assamica in India), but their
end of the 8th century that it (inevitably) became characteristics vary depending on the method
subject to taxation, the Chinese thereby setting up used to dry them.
a precedent that would be taken up by the British Tea is, after water, the worlds most popular
a few centuries later, with serious consequences for beverage: 15,000 cups of tea are consumed every
the stability of their empire. To bail out their treasury, second on the planet, which equals 500 billion
the English committed the error of excessively cups of tea a year, an average of 100 cups per
taxing some of the commodities destined for their person. Black tea is currently the most popular,
colonies, including tea. This aroused the anger of with 78 percent of worldwide consumption, while
their American colony, and resulted in 1773 in the green tea is preferred by 20 percent of tea drinkers.
plundering of 342 chests of tea from English ships Black tea is especially popular in the West, where
anchored in Boston. The Boston Tea Party is today it represents approximately 95 percent of all tea
still considered to be the event that marked the consumed. Conversely, it is extremely rare in Asia,
first step in the process that would lead to the which is very loyal to the original green tea. In
independence of the United States. Asia, 95 percent of black tea is consumed in India,
Japan contributed greatly to the boom in tea where it is a relatively recent custom and strongly
production, and it is there that some of the best influenced by the countrys British colonial past.
green teas are processed today. Although it was Despite their common origin, green and black
introduced into Japan in the 8th century, tea teas have a completely different chemical
growing only began to take permanent hold composition. In fact, during the fermentation
and gradually became an essential part of the stage in the processing of black tea, dramatic
Japanese soul in the 12th century. changes take place in the nature of the
The importance of tea in Japanese culture is polyphenols initially found in the tea leaves,
magnificently illustrated by the chanoyu, a very causing them to oxidize and produce black
elaborate tea ceremony based on the teaching of pigments, called theaflavins. This transformation
harmony, respect, purity, and tranquility. Although has very important consequences for cancer
this ceremony is less common today, the spirit prevention, because the polyphenols in fresh
of chanoyu still strongly imbues the very close tea leaves have anticancer properties and their
relationship between the Japanese and green tea. oxidation eliminates nearly all of this potential. In
terms of cancer prevention, green tea has a huge
THE GREEN AND THE BLACK advantage over black tea, which is oxidized. Given
Tea is produced from the young shoots of the major differences in properties, it is logical to
Camellia sinensis, a tropical plant that likely think that a simple change in tea consumption
originated in India and was taken to China via the habits could influence the reduction of the number
Silk Road. In its wild state, this plant grows into of cancers in the West.
a large tree, but under cultivation it is pruned into Actually, drinking green tea was at one time
a bush for ease of harvest and to increase leaf a Western custom, too; the factors that caused
shoots. As the box (opposite) indicates, the three people to adopt black tea were mainly political
main types of tea, green, black, and oolong, are and economic, and not related to any particular
all obtained from the leaves of C. sinensis Western aversion to green tea. When it was
134 G r e e n Te a : A C a n c e r- F i g h t i n g B a l m f o r t h e S o u l
introduced into Europe in the 1600s, likely by black tea. However, when Chinese producers
Portuguese merchants, most tea was definitely realized that the look of green tea could boost
green, since the fermentation techniques required sales, they made a peculiar decision and tried to
to produce black tea (which the Chinese called enhance the color of the leaves by adding chemical
hong cha, or red tea) had just begun to appear compounds (likely copper salts) during processing.
in China under the Ming Dynasty (13681644) and Once discovered, this caused a scandal, and the
were not yet very widespread. However, the long English gave up drinking green tea permanently.
sea voyages to the importing countries would no It is still largely absent from the market in Great
doubt have a negative effect on green teas fragile Britain today, even though the British are the worlds
taste properties (for example, the first delivery of largest tea consumers. Subsequently, the British
tea to Canada, in 1716, took more than a year to colonization of India led to the development of tea
arrive at its destination). Black tea, on the other growing on a large scale in that country, which
hand, could easily cover long distances without definitively established black tea as Europes
any noticeable change of taste. This was bound to exclusive source of tea. Even today, India remains
encourage people to drink more black tea. the main producer of black tea, with 38 percent of
In spite of everything, green tea remained worldwide production.
extremely popular in England up to the middle of Less monoteaist than the British, North
the 19th century and, because of its more attractive Americans, until the early 1930s, drank as much
appearance, could be sold for a higher price than green tea as black tea, actually showing a clear
Chlorophyll
Unpicked tea
leaves are bright
green in color
Polyphenols
2535%
Proteins
Organic acids
Other Lignin
substances
Amino acids
Caffeine
Figure 62
G r e e n Te a : A C a n c e r- F i g h t i n g B a l m f o r t h e S o u l 135
OH OH OH
HO HO HO
O OH O OH O OH
HO HO
HO O HO
OH HO OH OH
O
(-) -Catechin ( C ) (-) -Epigallocatechin
HO (EGC)
OH
(-) -Gallocatechin-3-gallate
(GCG)
OH OH OH
HO HO HO
O OH O OH O OH
HO
HO O OH O
OH HO OH HO OH
O O
(-) -Epicatechin (EC)
HO HO
OH
(-) -Epigallocatechin-3-gallate
(-) -Epicatechin-3-gallate (EGCG)
(ECG)
Figure 63
preference for green tea at one time. For example, tea with green tea could have a considerable
Canadian archives indicate that in 1806, 90,000 impact on cancer rates in Western countries.
pounds (40 metric tons) of green tea were imported
into Canada, compared with just 1,500 pounds THE ANTICANCER PROPERTIES OF GREEN TEA
(680 kilograms) of black tea. It was not until the Tea is a complex beverage, made up of several
beginning of the war between China and Japan hundred different molecules that give it its
over the control of Manchuria in 1931 that green characteristic aroma, taste, and astringency (see
tea exports to North America plummeted and tea Figure 62, opposite). One-third of the weight of tea
consumers had to fall back on black tea. leaves consists of a class of polyphenols called
Reviving the tradition of drinking green tea would flavanols, or more commonly catechins, and these
be a good idea, since it is in a class by itself in molecules are the main source of green teas
terms of its anticancer properties. Replacing black anticancer potential.
136 G r e e n Te a : A C a n c e r- F i g h t i n g B a l m f o r t h e S o u l
Like all of the other polyphenols, catechins are Japanese green teas contain more EGCG than
complex molecules that play an extremely Chinese green teas. It is worth mentioning as well
important role in the plants physiology, since they that the length of time the leaves are steeped is
possess antifungal and antibacterial properties also an extremely important factor in the teas
useful for resisting the invasion of a large number polyphenol content, and that a long infusion (from
of pathogenic agents. Green tea contains several 8 to 10 minutes) allows more polyphenols to be
catechins, including EGCG (epigallocatechin extracted. A tea of mediocre quality, steeped for
gallate), the main catechin in green tea, with the a short time, may contain almost 60 times fewer
highest anticancer potential (see Figure 63, p.135). polyphenols than a tea of excellent quality properly
It is important to note that the catechin profile of brewed (see Figure 65, opposite). It goes without
green tea varies greatly depending on where it is saying that these enormous variations can greatly
grown, the diversity of plants used, harvesting influence the potential for preventing cancer
season, and processing methods. Just because associated with drinking green tea.
the label on a product says it is a green tea, it The very wide variability in the composition of
does not necessarily contain large quantities of the green tea that individuals consume also makes
anticancer molecules. it hard to analyze its cancer protection effect by
The analysis of several types of green tea means of epidemiological studies. In spite of all this,
shows that there are very significant variations in several studies done in recent years suggest that
the EGCG content released by infusing the leaves green tea has a beneficial action for cancer
(see Figure 64, below) and that, generally speaking, prevention (see Figure 66, p.138), with this effect
Japanese tea
6
Chinese tea
5
1
.1
.1
or
.3
en n
ng
Ba ing
Gu g
ru 2
.4
an
Do ng
n
a
Ba zan
ch
Da
on
m
Yi
.
o.
er
No
No
No
No
No
nn
Di
Ji
D
ya
Yu
at
N
Zh
an
p
ng
Yu
ng
Em
hi
M
u
ha
u
ha
iM
o
ur
ur
ur
Uc
Lo
u
nc
nc
M
ok
ok
un
ok
ok
Tie
ha
Se
Se
Gy
Gy
Gy
Ch
Gy
nc
Lo
Se
Figure 64
Bi
G r e e n Te a : A C a n c e r- F i g h t i n g B a l m f o r t h e S o u l 137
mg of polyphenols
Teas
in one cup
Tie Guan Yin tea
9
brewed for 2 minutes
Gyokuru tea brewed
540
for 10 minutes
Figure 65
Heres a case of something that tastes good but is also good for you.
If you love berries, youll be pleased to learn that these delicious
fruits contain an arsenal of phytochemical compounds with the
potential to combat cancer. Not only that, unlike certain cancer-
fighting food that must be eaten fresh, freezing berries does not
reduce their anticancer capabilities.
Vividly colored, delicately scented, and naturally wine, or the Old French raspe, also meaning
sweet, berries belong to an exclusive class of foods raspberry) has long been a highly prized fruit.
that have won a place in our diet thanks to their According to Greek mythology, even the gods of
evocative fragrance and wonderful flavor. The high Olympus enjoyed this extraordinarily exquisite berry.
nutritional value and cancer-fighting properties of As one story relates, the young Zeus was suffering
berries come almost as an unexpected bonus. from dreadful fits punctuated by furious cries while
in hiding on a Cretan mountainside from the
RASPBERRIES murderous instincts of his terrible father, Cronus.
It seems that the raspberry (from the earlier raspis In an attempt to calm Zeus down, his nursemaid,
berry, possibly from raspis, a sweet rose-colored the nymph Ida, tried to pick a raspberry for him
142 A Passion for Berries
For Westerners, the strawberrys red color, tender of strawberries to her warm bath water to in order to
flesh, sweet juice, and resemblance to the heart have preserve her skins legendary fresh, firm texture. This
made it a synonym for temptation and indulgence, as unthinkable waste of fruit gave her the confidence to
well as love and sensuality. And while the origin display herself at the opera wearing only a sleeveless
of the strawberry may be less poetic than that of the white silk tunic and no underwear.
raspberry, several symbols, myths, and legends are The only dark side of the strawberry is that this
associated with this berry. For example, some native fruit, like a number of foods (such as chocolate,
peoples of North America recount the legend that the bananas, and tomatoes), often causes false food
souls of the dead can only forget the world of the allergies. This is because of its propensity to stimulate
living after having found and eaten a giant strawberry. the release of histamine by the immune system,
Eating the berry is said to sate the souls appetite and which can result in a number of unpleasant
enable it to rest in peace for all eternity. symptoms, such as asthma or an outbreak of hives.
Strawberries were also used long ago for beauty These pseudo-allergies do not involve the formation
treatments, including fighting wrinkles and toning the of specific antibodies, however, and are not as serious
skin. Madame Thrsa Tallien (17731835), a Parisian as a true strawberry allergy. Remaining relatively rare
fashion icon who survived the French Revolution, in adults, a true allergy to strawberries account for
allegedly added the juice of 20 pounds (9 kilograms) less than 1 percent of all food allergies.
A Passion for Berries 143
It appears that strawberry cultivation began in France, and while they did not bear fruit, their
France around the middle of the 14th century, blooms made it possible to pollinate other species,
following the efforts of gardeners to transplant especially F. virginiana. This cross-breeding gave
wild strawberry plants into the royal gardens. birth to the ancestor of the strawberry now grown
Considerable efforts were made, which is a certain on every continent, Fragaria ananassa.
indication of a royal infatuation with the fruit. The use of strawberries and of the strawberry
In fact, a close relationship between royalty plant itself for therapeutic purposes appears to be
and strawberries appeared several times in very ancient. The Ojibwa, native North Americans
Frances history. In 1368, Jean Dudoy, at the time from southeastern Ontario, prepared infusions
gardener to King Charles V, transplanted no fewer using strawberry leaves to treat stomach upsets, as
than 1,200 strawberry plants into the royal gardens well as gastrointestinal disorders like diarrhea. But
at the Louvre in Paris. And when Louis XIII went to strawberries were not only well known for their
Aquitaine in 1622 to quell the regions Protestant purgative properties. The renowned Swedish
rebellion, his daily meal included strawberries in botanist Carolus Linnaeus (170778) was
wine and sugar, along with a strawberry cream tart. convinced that an intensive course of treatment
At the beginning of the 17th century, French using strawberries was responsible for his
explorers who went to North America brought back miraculous recovery from an attack of gout. In
from their travels an interesting variety, the scarlet another case, the French philosopher Bernard le
strawberry (Fragaria virginiana). This strawberry was Bovier de Fontenelle, who lived to the age of 100
cultivated on a large scale in the greenhouses at (16571757), attributed the secret of his longevity
Versailles under Louis XIII and Louis XIV. In fact, to annual treatments based on strawberry cures.
Louis XIV was so fond of strawberries he could eat While we may find these anecdotes amusing, they
them to the point of indigestion. do not contradict recent scientific data that tends
The strawberry we know nowadays is very to indicate that strawberries might actually be an
different from the one consumed at that time and important food for cancer prevention.
results from selections made from two varieties of
strawberry plants that differ from those in Europe. BLUEBERRIES AND BILBERRIES
We owe the variety of strawberry eaten today all A close relative of the European bilberry (Vaccinium
over the world to Amde-Franois Frzier, whose myrtillus), the blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) is
name (similar to the French word for strawberry a species native to northeastern North America,
plant, fraisier) may have preordained him to play a where it has long been a part of the diet. Native
major role in the history of strawberries. North Americans revered this fruit, which they
Frzier was an officer and cartographer in the believed had been sent to them by the gods to
French military assigned in 1712 to observe the help them survive a famine. Europeans newly
Spanish ports and plans for the fortification of the arrived in North America quickly adopted the
western coast of South America. While on the blueberry into their own diet.
Chilean coast, Frzier noticed a variety of Native North Americans prized the blueberry not
strawberry plant with large white fruits, the Chilean only for food, but also for its medicinal properties.
white strawberry (Fragaria chiloensis). He Among other things, they made an infusion from
successfully took five plants of this variety back to the plants roots to relieve stress during pregnancy,
144 A Passion for Berries
as well as an infusion of the leaves to tone the Thanksgiving turkey, the latter use stemming from
body and reduce colic in children. The Algonquin a tradition established in 1621 when the Pilgrims
firmly believed in the blueberrys properties as a celebrated their first harvest in Massachusetts.
relaxant, and served the plants flowers to treat Native North Americans, on the other hand,
madness. had always prized this fruit.They ate it in every
In Europe as well, the bilberry was used to form imaginable, but mainly dried. The cranberry
cure several common ailments, such as diarrhea, is an ingredient in a preserved dish called
dysentery, and scurvy. It has long been thought pemmican, which consists of dried meat and
that this fruit has the ability to treat blood circulation fat prepared and then stored to be eaten during
disorders, as well as some eye diseases like the long months of winter. Without a scientific
diabetic retinopathies, glaucoma, and cataracts; understanding, native peoples were making use
some physicians still use it as part of such of the cranberries high benzoic acid content,
treatments. This use becomes all the more a natural agent that allows food to be preserved
interesting because we now know that diabetic longer. Nowadays, cranberries are often consumed
retinopathies, for example, are diseases caused as juice. This is a shame, since commercial juice
by the uncontrolled angiogenesis of retinal vessels, contains large quantities of sugar and far fewer of
a process similar to that which supports tumor the phytochemical molecules that give cranberries
growth by means of the formation of a new blood beneficial properties.
vessel network (see Chapter 3, p.41). One of the best-known reasons to consume
As we will explain later, findings from recent cranberries, in popular tradition, is to combat urinary
scientific studies suggest that the anthocyanidins, infections. By observing native North Americans
a class of molecules particularly plentiful in using it to treat bladder and kidney disorders,
blueberries and bilberries, may be responsible European settlers realized that this little fruit had
for the antiangiogenic effects of these fruits and powerful therapeutic properties. Once again, a
could be put to use to limit tumor growth. traditional medical cure has been shown to have
a scientific basis; it was later observed that some
CRANBERRIES compounds in cranberries prevent bacteria from
Despite their bright red color and characteristic adhering to the cells of the urinary tract, and thus
tangy flavor, cranberries are members of the genus reduce the risk of an infection developing in the
Vaccinium and are closely related to blueberries tissue. As we will see later on, such molecules in
and bilberries. Just like the blueberry, the cranberry cranberries, which are also found in blueberries,
has a European cousin (Vaccinium vitis-idaea), but might also play a role in cancer prevention.
the best known varieties are those that come from
North America, Vaccinium oxycoccus (little fruits) THE ANTICANCER POTENTIAL OF BERRIES
and Vaccinium acrocarpon (large fruits), with the Berries are seasonal fruits and usually make up only
large fruits being the variety now cultivated for a relatively limited part in the diet. It has only been
commercial purposes. recently, therefore, that researchers have begun to
As a general rule, cranberries play a relatively examine their potential impact on cancer prevention,
limited role in the modern Western diet, except, of and the results obtained to date are very interesting.
course, as an accompaniment to the Christmas or Studies have shown that eating blueberries and
A Passion for Berries 145
in concentrations close to those that can be other berries discussed in this chapter contain
attained though food. It is interesting to note that much less, although strawberries proanthocyanidin
this activity is without doubt linked to delphinidins content makes them stand out favorably in
antioxidant nature, since a very similar molecule comparison with several other foods. In the case
found in large quantity in bilberries, malvidin, has an of cranberries, it is important to note that cranberry
antioxidant activity identical to that of delphinidin, juice contains far fewer proanthocyanidins than
but shows no ability whatsoever to interfere with the fruit in its natural state, and cannot therefore be
the receptor. considered a significant source of these molecules.
The anticancer potential of the anthocyanidins in Proanthocyanidins are particularly known for
blueberries and the ellagic acid in strawberries and having exceptional antioxidant power. This was
raspberries suggests that including these fruits in demonstrated during the second voyage of French
the diet might have extraordinary repercussions explorer Jacques Cartier (14911557) to Canada.
for cancer prevention. All berries contain large He set sail in May of 1535, but Cartier and his
amounts of ellagic acid or anthocyanidins, but only crew were compelled to spend the winter in what
black raspberries and blackberries contain both, is now Qubec. The crew suffered terribly with
so it is likely that these fruits may also prove to be scurvy, and as Cartier wrote in 1535 in his logbook,
valuable allies. Along the same lines, recent studies The mouth became so disgusting and rotten
show that black raspberry extracts hinder the because of the gums that almost all of the flesh
progression of esophageal cancer in animals and fell off, right to the roots of the teeth, most of
cause adenomatous polyps (a common type of which fell out. Domagaya (an Iroquois who had
polyp) to regress in individuals at high risk for colon accompanied Cartier to France when he returned
cancer (also known as familial rectocolic polyposis). there after his first voyage to Canada) showed
Cartier how to make an herbal tea from the bark
Proanthocyanidins and needles of a Canadian conifer believed to be
Proanthocyanidins are complex polyphenols Thuja occidentalis (Canadian white cedar). The
consisting of several units of the same molecule, sailors drank the tea and were quickly cured.
catechins, forming a chain of variable length
(see Figure 70, right). These polymers can form
PROANTHOCYANIDINS
complexes with proteins, especially the proteins
in saliva, a property responsible for the astringency
HO
of foods containing these molecules. OH
Proanthocyanidins are plentiful in the seeds,
HO OH
flowers, and bark of many plants but only a O
HO H
limited number are found in edible foods (see
OH O
Figure 71, p.148). If we exclude cinnamon and OH
cocoa, which are very significant sources but HO O
cannot be consumed daily in large amounts
OH
(though some might choose to disagree in the
case of cocoa!), cranberries and blueberries are Figure 70
the best food sources of these molecules. The
148 A Passion for Berries
In recent years, fats have gained a very bad reputation. While some fats,
like trans fats and certain animal fats, definitely deserve this negative
publicity, there are some very good fats that actually have essential roles to
play in the bodys proper functioning. Its all about quality, not quantity!
Familiarizing ourselves with the varying properties of body cannot produce them on its own, so we must
the fats we consume in our daily diet (see Figure 72, acquire them through food. Meeting our omega-6
p.152) is an important concept. Indeed, despite the fatty acid requirements is not a problem, however,
great importance attached to eating the correct since these fats occur in large amounts in the main
kinds of fat in the Western diet, the largest nutritional components of the modern Western diet, in meat,
deficiency among Westerners is paradoxically that of eggs, vegetables, and various vegetable oils. Such
essential fatty acids known as omega-3s. foods provide a sufficient supply of linoleic acid
(LA), the most important fat in this category.
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS The situation with regard to omega-3 fatty acids
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 and omega- is more complex, since these fats are much less
6) are said to be essential because the human widely distributed in nature. In addition, omega-3s
152 O m e g a - 3 s : F i n a l l y , F a t s T h a t A r e G o o d f o r Yo u !
DIETARY FATS
Pro-inflammatory Anti-inflammatory
Procarcinogenic Anticarcinogenic
Raw almonds
Linolenic acid
Plant sources content (LNA)
(g/serving)*
Fresh walnuts 2.6
Flaxseed 2.2
Walnut oil 1.4
Canola oil 1.3
Soybeans 0.44
Tofu 0.26
EPA and DHA
Animal sources
content (g/serving)*
Sardines 2.0
Herring 2.0
Mackerel 1.8
Salmon (Atlantic) 1.6
Rainbow trout 1.0
Figure 73
Fresh walnuts are an excellent source of linolenic acid.
154 O m e g a - 3 s : F i n a l l y , F a t s T h a t A r e G o o d f o r Yo u !
The terminology of fats is admittedly not easy to in these fats, is liquid at room temperature but
grasp. Here are a few definitions that should help you solidifies in the refrigerator.
better understand what terms like saturated fat, The properties of fatty acids can be modified,
polyunsaturated fat, trans fats, and omega-3 fatty acids however. If polyunsaturated fatty acids are
actually mean. hydrogenated using industrial methods, their rigid
Fatty acids can be compared to chains of varying points are destroyed and their chains lose their
lengths whose rigidity fluctuates depending on structure. They then become solid at room
various parameters (see Figure 74, right). temperature, as in the case of margarine.
Saturated fats have straight chains in which molecules Unfortunately, this reaction causes modifications in
are pressed tightly together and are therefore more the fatty-acid structure, changing the layout of the
stable. This is why butter and animal fats, sources chain. This is what we mean by trans fats, fats that
high in saturated fats, are solid at room temperature very rarely occur naturally and can damage cells.
and when stored in the refrigerator. The term omega, more and more fashionable in
Polyunsaturated fatty acids have a different recent years, comes from the way scientists identify the
structure. Their chains have bends that are rigid in location of the first rigid point on the fatty-acid chain.
places, which means the molecules cannot be bound These locations are numbered beginning at the end of
together as tightly and are thus more flexiblea the chain. Thus, a polyunsaturated omega-3 or omega-
property that makes vegetable oils liquid, for example. 6 fatty acid is a fat whose first rigid point is at position
Monounsaturated fatty acids fall somewhere 3 or 6. For the same reason, monounsaturated fatty
between the two because their chains have only a acids are sometimes called omega-9, because the only
single rigid point. This is why olive oil, a source high rigid point in their chain occurs at position 9.
acids are overrepresented in the diet, as is the case One good way to lower omega-6 fatty acid
today. In fact, when we consider that the proportion intake is to use olive oil as your main fat source
of omega-6/omega-3 fatty acids provided by the diet (canola is also an option owing to its better
of the first human beings was roughly equal, likely in omega-6/omega-3 ratio). Making this change to
the neighborhood of 1:1, this ratio is now estimated your diet brings even more health benefits. Several
to be 20:1, and even higher in people who regularly recent studies have shown that olive oil has an
consume industrially processed food products. anticancer action because it contains a number of
This imbalance in favor of omega-6s may polyphenols that are able to reduce inflammation,
have negative repercussions and encourage the kill cancer cells, and hinder the formation of a
development of chronic illnesses such as heart blood vessel network through the process of
disease and cancer, since the omega-6s are used angiogenesis (see box on p.156). The good news
by the body to produce molecules that promote is that increasing omega-3 intake is simply a
inflammation, while omega-3s are essential for matter of incorporating as many plant-based
the production of anti-inflammatory molecules sources as possible (like linseeds or nuts) into
(see Figure 75, far right). Increasing omega-3 intake the diet and regularly eating fatty fish, such as
and decreasing the amount of omega-6 could sardines, mackerel, or salmon, which contain high
thus significantly reduce risk for all inflammatory levels of DHA and EPA already present and ready
diseases and heart disease as well as cancer. for cells to use.
O m e g a - 3 s : F i n a l l y , F a t s T h a t A r e G o o d f o r Yo u ! 155
Desaturase Anti-inflammatory
H
Unshelled sunflower seeds
H
Omega-6
HO H Linoleic acid
O H
Linoleic acid (LA)
(polyunsaturated, omega-6) Western industrialized diet
v6 / v3 = 25
Omega-3
Linolenic acid
H
H
Fresh mackerel H
Pro-inflammatory
Desaturase
H
HO H
O H
Linolenic acid (LNA) Omega-6 Leukotrienes
(polyunsaturated, omega-3) Linoleic acid
Figure 74 Figure 75
156 O m e g a - 3 s : F i n a l l y , F a t s T h a t A r e G o o d f o r Yo u !
People who follow a Mediterranean-style diet that It is important to choose virgin or extra-virgin olive
includes olive oil have roughly 15 percent less risk of oil. These oils are cold-pressed at temperatures below
getting cancer, possibly even as high as 60 percent for 80F (27C) and still contain the polyphenols from
specific cancers, like uterine or breast cancer. Among the olives. It is actually quite easy to check for these
the factors that contribute to this protective effect, phenolic compounds: oleocanthal, for example, has
several recent studies have emphasized the leading the odd property of interacting with a receptor located
role played by the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory almost exclusively in the throat, which causes a
phenolic compounds in olive oil. For example, this oil tingling sensation typical of high-quality olive oils.
contains significant quantities (0.2mg/ml) of a Try swallowing a little. The more you find it tingles,
molecule called oleocanthal, which has an anti- the higher the oleocanthal content is and the better
inflammatory activity similar to ibuprofen and might the olive oils anticancer action will be.
thus have effects similar to this molecule in preventing
colon cancer. Oleocanthal can also kill a wide range of
cancer cells very rapidly (in less than 30 minutes), a
property that derives from its ability to force cells to
digest themselves.
Work in our laboratory has also shown that other
phenolic compounds in olive oil (hydroxytyrosol,
taxifolin) block the activity of a receptor (VEGFR2)
essential to the formation of new blood vessels in
tumors and thus could hinder the occurrence and
growth of a large number of cancers. The presence
of all of these molecules means that olive oil can be
considered the most important oil with
anticancer activity.
O m e g a - 3 s : F i n a l l y , F a t s T h a t A r e G o o d f o r Yo u ! 157
from animal sources (DHA and EPA) are natural Omega-3 and cancer
anti-inflammatory molecules that prevent the The health benefits of omega-3s are not limited
immune system from overreacting and damaging to heart disease, however. More and more
tissues. These properties mean that a diet experimental results suggest that fatty acids may
containing large quantities of these molecules also play a role in cancer prevention. For example,
prevents the creation of a state of chronic a number of studies designed to examine the
inflammation in the body and reduces the relationship between cancer and the consumption
development of diseases that depend on this of fish high in omega-3 have shown a reduction in
inflammation to progress. the risk of developing breast, colon, and prostate
The first evidence of the benefits of a diet high cancer (the form of the disease that has spread to
in omega-3 fatty acids comes from studies that other organs; see Figure 76, below), as well as a high
have shown that, despite a diet exclusively based on survival rate for these cancers. A reduction in the
an intake of very fatty meats in the form of blubber risk of developing uterine or liver cancer has also
from seal or whale meat, and lacking in fruits and been suggested, but this requires further study.
vegetables, the Inuit of Greenland are largely free The positive impact of omega-3s on prostate
of cardiovascular diseases. This protection is not cancer seems to be particularly linked to the
genetic, because when they emigrate, the Inuit inhibition of the progression of tumor microfoci
become subject to these diseases. However, it is in advanced cancer, with a 63 percent reduction
apparently related to the exceptional content of the in mortality associated with this disease in
omega-3 fatty acid of the seafood they consume. some studies.
Several subsequent studies have confirmed that
eating fish high in omega-3 does in fact help
prevent heart disease by lowering the risk of cardiac
EFFECT OF OMEGA-3 FATS IN
REDUCING CANCER RISK OBSERVED
arrhythmia, the main cause of sudden death. As a IN PROSPECTIVE STUDIES
result, organizations fighting heart disease, like the
American Heart Association, recommend eating at
60
least two meals a week of fatty fish to lower the risk
of these diseases. 50
Reduction in cancer risk (%)
It is interesting to note that plant sources of In short, there is absolutely no doubt that changing
omega-3, such as nuts, also seem to have our diet by consuming significantly more omega-3
anticancer effects. One study done on 75,680 fatty acids and fewer omega-6 fatty acids can
women showed that those who ate 1 ounce have a preventive effect against cancer. Adding a
(28grams) of raw nuts twice a week had a tablespoon of freshly ground flaxseed to your cereal
35percent lower risk of getting pancreatic cancer every morning is a simple and effective way to
than those who never ate nuts. increase omega-3 intake. However, do not use
The role of omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention seeds that have already been ground, since they
of some types of cancer is borne out by results are not as potent. Instead, buy whole seeds and
obtained using animal models and isolated tumor grind them yourself at home to retain all the
cells. For example, while omega-6 fatty acids are goodness of their essential fats.
known to be factors that trigger cancer, introducing Since the best source of these fats is fish,
omega-3s into the food of laboratory rats causes everything points to incorporating two or three
the opposite effect; they reduce the development of servings of fatty fish into your weekly diet, for both
breast, colon, prostate, and pancreatic cancers, and their omega-3 content and their exemplary protein,
increase the effectiveness of chemotherapy drugs. vitamin, and mineral content. It is, of course, a
The mechanism involved in these protective shame that some fish contain tiny amounts of
effects could be linked to a drop in the production various toxic substances, but remember that in
of inflammatory molecules that damage the such small quantities, the benefits fish provides
immune system and promote cancer development, are far greater than the negative effects of these
as well as to a direct effect on cancer cells, by substances. Those fish that are good sources of
modifying their ability to avoid death by apoptosis omega-3 (salmon, sardines, and mackerel) contain
and by preventing the development of new blood only trace amounts of toxic substances.
vessels required for their growth. So increasing
your consumption of foods high in omega-3s, like
fatty fish, especially in place of eating red meats,
which are high in saturated animal fats, can only be
good for health and help significantly reduce the
risk of developing cancer.
Currently, the biggest nutritional deficiency in
Western industrialized countries is the low intake
of omega-3 fatty acids.
Eating fatty fish once or twice a week is a simple
way to increase the amount of omega-3s in the
diet. Store flaxseed in a sealed container in the
refrigerator and grind only as much as you need
to sprinkle on your breakfast cereal every day.
The tomato is not the fruit people say it is, nor the
vegetable theyd like us to think it is. The bewitching charm
of its buccaneering flavor stems entirely from the
disturbing ambivalence of acidic salt and sweet bitterness
that explodes in your mouth when you bite into it.
Pierre Desproges (193988)
The invitingly bright red color of a ripe tomato derives from its
content of the phytochemical lycopene, a potent weapon in the
fight against cancer.
Tomatoes originated in South America, most likely The Spanish came across tomatoes during the
in Peru, where they are still found growing in the conquest of Mexico early in the 16th century and
wild today. Yellow in color, the first tomatoes were took some back to Spain. From there, they were
the size of a modern cherry tomato. The Inca taken to Italy, and by 1544, the Italians had
simply ignored them, but the Aztecs of Central noticed the resemblance of the tomato, which
America began to cultivate what they called they called pomo doro, to belladonna and the
tomalt, the plump fruit, which they were fearsome mandrake, two plants with very potent
already combining with chili peppers to make psychotropic effects. This was enough to make
what was doubtless the ancestor of salsa. people regard tomatoes as poisonous. For a long
162 To m a t o e s : Tu r n i n g C a n c e r R e d w i t h S h a m e
35
show that lycopene blocks the proliferation of these
30 cells, possibly by interfering with the action of sex
25 hormones and certain growth factors.
It is also interesting to note that lycopene
20
accumulates in the skin, where it can neutralize free
15 radicals produced by the action of UV rays, thus
10 helping to slow down skin aging and lower the risk of
melanoma. The effect is long-lasting, as biopsies taken
Kidney Prostate Breast from the lumbar region have shown that lycopene was
Figure 78 still detectable four days after being ingested, remained
in high concentrations in the skin for at least a week,
tomato sauce, a decrease in risk of about 35percent and was still there 42 days later! These observations
can be observed. This association appears to be agree with some studies indicating that daily
stronger for men age 65 and over, which indicates consumption of tomato paste is associated with a
that lycopene is better at counteracting prostate higher degree of skin protection against the sun, as
cancer development associated with aging than that well as a significant increase in collagen levels, two
occurring earlier, around age 50, which seems to be factors crucial for maintaining the skins integrity.
genetic in origin. So it seems we can assume that lycopene is a multi-
The mechanisms by which lycopene reduces purpose anticancer molecule able to interfere with the
the growth of prostate cancer are still unknown. Just growth of several different types of cancer. Tomatoes
like its close relative beta-carotene, lycopene is an must therefore be considered a food that is part of a
excellent antioxidant, but it is still not clear how this broader strategy for preventing cancer through diet.
property contributes to its anticancer effect. In fact, Eating tomato-based products is a good way to
according to results obtained to date, lycopene might lower the risk of getting prostate cancer, but current
impede the growth of prostate cancer more by its research results indicate that the amount of lycopene
direct action on some of the enzymes responsible for required to see a significant decrease in risk is quite
tissue growth, notably by interfering with signals from high, so it is important to choose products not
androgens, the hormones often involved in the excess only high in lycopene, but also the one most easily
growth of prostatic tissue, as well as by disturbing the absorbed by the body. Given this, tomato sauce is
growth of tissue cells. The lycopene that the body the ideal food, since it contains a high concentration
absorbs tends to accumulate in the prostate, so the of this molecule that is easily absorbed because the
molecule would be ideally located to prevent the tomatoes are cooked for a long time in olive oil.
possible excessive growth of cancer cells there. Simply eating two meals a week based on these
Although most research to date into the anticancer sauces can reduce your risk of developing prostate
effect of tomatoes has mainly concentrated on the cancer by one-third. And dont forget the garlic!
Lycopene, the pigment that gives tomatoes their red
color, is the essential compound behind tomatoes
anticancer potential.
Lycopene is better absorbed by the body, and its
anticancer action is maximized, when the tomatoes
are cooked in olive oil, such as in a tomato sauce.
So, when you hold the hemisphere
of a cut lemon above your plate,
you spill a universe of gold, a yellow goblet
of miracles the minute fire of a planet.
Pablo Neruda, Ode to a Lemon, in Elemental Odes (1954)
Originally from Asia, and first cultivated 3,000 years ago, citrus
fruits have long been known as a rich source of vitamins. We can
now add cancer-fighter to the list.
Citrus fruits belong to the genus Citrus, and include the evening. Today, however, the name hesperidia is
such sour-tasting and acidic fruits as lemons, mainly used in the perfume industry to designate
oranges, grapefruit, and mandarins (see box, p.194). the essential oils obtained from citrus plants.
They are also known botanically as hesperidia, All citrus fruits come originally from AsiaIndia
in reference to Hercules eleventh labor, which and China in particular, where they have been grown
required him to pluck three golden apples from the for at least three millennia. Europeans knew nothing
garden guarded by the Hesperides, the nymphs of of citrus fruits until explorers who visited the Asian
168 Citrus Fruit: Anticancer Molecules with Zest
There is a wide
range of citrus
fruits from which
to choose.
Citrus Fruit: Anticancer Molecules with Zest 169
continent brought them back to the West. Citron THE ANTICANCER PROPERTIES OF CITRUS FRUIT
(Citrus medica) was imported by Alexander the Studies done in different parts of the world have
Great in the 4th century bce, and the bitter orange highlighted a link between eating citrus fruit and
(Citrus aurantium) was introduced by the Arabs in decreasing the risk of getting certain cancers.
the 1st century ce. Much later, in the 12th century, This relationship is particularly convincing in the
the Spanish began planting lemon trees, and in the case of cancers of the digestive tract, including
15th century the Portuguese did the same in their mouth, esophageal, and stomach cancers. Here,
country, only with orange trees. More recently, in reductions of 40 to 50 percent have been observed
the 19th century, mandarin trees were planted in (see Figure 79, below). It is likely, however, that citrus
Provence and in North Africa. fruit may also target other cancers. An analysis of
Long considered exotic, citrus fruits are now part the eating habits of 42,470 Japanese people age
of the diet in the vast majority of countries. In fact, 40 to 79 shows that those who consume citrus fruit
it is estimated that a billion citrus trees are now daily have a 38 percent lower risk of getting cancers
cultivated worldwide, yielding nearly 100 million of the pancreas and prostate. Some studies also
metric tons of fruit each year. indicate that children who drink orange juice
regularly in the first two years of their lives have
THE PHYTOCHEMICAL COMPOUNDS IN CITRUS FRUIT a lower risk of developing leukemia in later years.
Much more than a plentiful source of vitamin C, These encouraging results remain to be confirmed,
citrus fruits contain many of the phytochemical but they bear witness once again to the impact that
compounds known to have anticancer properties. diet can have on the development of certain kinds
For example, one orange contains almost as many of cancers, even in childhood.
as 200 different compounds, including about 60
polyphenols and several members of a class of
very fragrant molecules called terpenes.
EFFECT OF CITRUS FRUIT IN
REDUCING CANCER RISK OBSERVED
Citrus fruits are the only plants that contain IN PROSPECTIVE STUDIES
large quantities of a group of polyphenols called
flavanones, which are the molecules that give 70
these fruits their power to cure scurvy. One of 60
these molecules, hesperidin, was once even
Reduction in cancer risk (%)
In many respects, these observations are this book are transformed and flushed out of
consistent with laboratory experiments in which the body through the same enzyme systems
the main components of citrus fruits, polyphenols and as those involved in metabolizing drugs. In other
terpenes, have often been identified as molecules words, inhibiting these systems by means of the
able to interfere with processes responsible for phytochemical compounds in citrus fruit has the
cancer development. The mechanisms involved still immediate consequence of slowing down this
remain largely unknown, but some findings suggest metabolism and considerably increasing the
that the phytochemical compounds in citrus fruits concentrations of anticancer compounds in
block tumor growth by acting directly on cancer the blood, which makes them more potent.
cells, reducing their ability to reproduce. It is likely, Citrus fruits are not just an excellent source
however, that one of the main anticancer effects of of vitamin C, but can also provide the body with
citrus fruit is linked to the way they affect the numerous anticancer phytochemical compounds.
systems the body uses to detoxify carcinogenic Such compounds may act not only directly on
substances. The interaction of citrus fruit with these cancer cells to halt their progress, but also play a
systems is clearly illustrated by the surprising effect beneficial role by acting as anti-inflammatories and
that grapefruit juice can have on the way the body modifying the absorption and elimination of many
metabolizes certain prescription drugs. In a study substances. Eating citrus fruit daily, preferably in
attempting to determine the impact of alcohol on the form of whole fruit, is a simple and effective
the effectiveness of a drug commonly used to way to freshen up your diet, especially in the
control cardiac arrhythmias, researchers discovered winter months, while keeping cancer at bay.
by accident that the grapefruit juice (used to mask
the taste of alcohol) doubled the amount of the It is always preferable healthwise to eat fresh fruits
drug in the blood, in turn increasing the drugs whole. However, if you do drink grapefruit juice,
remember that it can change the way you metabolize
side effects. certain prescription drugs. Always check the labels
A similar effect has been observed in the on your prescriptions for contraindications.
case of statins (cholesterol-reducing drugs). These
observations show the degree to which citrus fruit
can have an impact on the systems involved in
the metabolism of foreign substances in the body.
We now know that these effects are due in large
part to molecules belonging to the coumarin class
(bergamottin and 6,7-dihydroxybergamottin),
which block an enzyme in the liver responsible
for metabolizing drugs (cytochrome P4503A4).
The fact that molecules associated with
citrus fruit behave in this way is significant
and may even prove crucial for maximizing
the anticancer potential of other fruits and
vegetables. This is because all the anticancer
molecules in food that we have described in
Citrus fruits are essential for cancer prevention,
because of both their direct action on cancer cells and
their ability to enhance the anticancer potential of
other phytochemical compounds in the diet.
Consuming citrus fruit guarantees an incomparable
source of these anticancer molecules, while at the
same time providing the required daily amounts of
several vitamins and minerals.
To avoid consuming excess calories, eat whole foods,
and avoid drinking citrus juice. The high sugar
content of some citrus juices, along with a lack of
fiber, can cause sudden fluctuations in blood sugar
levels and contribute to excess calories.
A little wine is an antidote to death;
in large amounts it is the poison of life.
Persian proverb
Grapes are one of the oldest and most widespread fruits in the world.
With the possible exception of tea, no drink is as closely linked with
civilization as wine made from grapes. While a glass of wine lifts the
mood of celebrations and festivities, research is now uncovering the
far-reaching cancer-fighting benefits that come with drinking
moderate levels of wine.
Fossil analysis indicates that wild vines existed Grapes were very sweet and tended to ferment
more than 65 million years ago and, aided by quickly, so it is likely that the proximity of human
climate change, had spread all over the surface beings to these wild vines rapidly brought about
of the globe by 25 million years ago, even to such the discovery and production of the first fermented
unexpected places as Alaska and Greenland. drinks made from grapes. No one knows whether
However, their distribution became much more the undoubtedly unusual taste of these first wines
restricted during the glacial eras that followed. is what inspired later efforts to cultivate vines.
By about 10,000 years ago, wild vines grew mainly However, according to the analysis of the oldest
around the Caspian Sea, in a region that now seeds from cultivated grapevines found to date,
corresponds to Georgia and Armenia. this domestication dates from 7000 to 5000 bce.
174 I n V i n o Ve r i t a s
It appears to have begun in the Caucasus, from continuing to extol wines virtues, but in spite
and then to have occurred farther south in of this, these beliefs took on greater importance
Mesopotamia. It is here that wine-stained in the Middle Ages, when wine played an integral
amphorae dating from 3500 bce have been found. part in medical practice. The medical treatises of
This primitive viticulture was later developed the first medical school in Europe, founded in the
considerably by the Egyptians. They believed wine 10th century in Salerno, near Naples, mention that
was a gift from Osiris, god of the dead. The high pure wine has many beneficial effects and gives
status they gave wine is demonstrated in the many robust health in life drink some, but make sure it
frescos adorning funeral chambers dating from is good. These excellent recommendations were
Egypts Third Dynasty (26862613 bce) onward. still widely accepted a few centuries later at the
Its use was restricted to dignitaries in Egypt and University of Montpellier, which by 1221 was the
so wine production did not spread in any significant largest medical school in Europe. At that time, half of
way around the Mediterranean until the coming of the medicinal recipes in its books contained wine.
the Greek Empire. We might think that these ancient beliefs and
With the Greeks, wine truly became a uses, rooted much more in intuition than in actual
part of broader human culture, an importance scientific fact, would have disappeared with time.
symbolized by the cult of Dionysus, the Greek god On the contrary, far from running out of steam,
of wine and drunkenness. Dionysus was renamed the role of wine in European medicine continued to
Bacchus after Romes conquest of Greece. The grow right into the 19th century. The microbiologist
successors of the Greeks put even greater efforts Louis Pasteur, who had also confirmed the
into developing the growing grapes and selling antibacterial powers of garlic (see p.98), considered
wine, not only in Italy but also on the Mediterranean wine to be the healthiest and most hygienic of
coasts of France and Spain. More than 2,000 beverages.
years later, these countries are still the main It was not until the end of the 20th century that
wine exporters worldwide. concrete evidence of the ways in which wine can
be beneficial to health was gathered. A study of the
THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF WINE ON HEALTH factors responsible for the mortality associated with
Wine has always been thought to be a drink with heart disease demonstrated that the French,
beneficial health effects. Hippocrates of Kos (see despite a way of life including several known risk
p.86) wrote of wine that it is wonderfully suited factors for cardiovascular diseases (high cholesterol
to man if, in health as in sickness, it is taken levels, high blood pressure, smoking), have an
appropriately and in correct amounts, according to unusually low mortality associated with these
the individual constitution. And he never hesitated diseases, compared with other countries having
to recommend wine to treat a number of diseases. the same risk factor levels. For example, in spite
During the Roman Empire, this therapeutic view of a fat intake similar to that of residents of the
of wine was still fashionable, and Pliny the Elder United States or the United Kingdom, the French
(see p.98) also thought that wine in itself is a have almost half the number of heart attacks or
remedy; it nourishes mans blood, delights the other coronary events causing premature deaths.
stomach, and softens grief and worry. The sudden The main difference between the French and Anglo-
eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 ce prevented Pliny Saxon diets was the relatively high consumption
I n V i n o Ve r i t a s 175
of wine in France. Scientists named this the French positive effect of ethanol (the type of alcohol found
Paradox, and linked the effects not just to the in red wine) seems mainly due to an increase in the
consumption of wine but of red wine in particular. blood of HDL (good cholesterol), considered to
be a key factor in protection against heart disease,
RED WINE AND MORTALITY as well as to a decrease in blood clot formation by
Many studies have shown that people who drink inhibiting blood platelet aggregation (the clumping
a little red wine daily have a lower risk of premature together of platelets). Conversely, high doses of
death than those who abstain or who drink too alcohol cause considerable cell damage and
much. The analysis of hundreds of epidemiological definitely increase cancer risk, hence the rising
studies on alcohol effects on mortality in Western arrow for risk of death seen in Figure 80. Alcohol
populations very clearly show a so-called J-curve is therefore the perfect example of a double-edged
response (see Figure 80, below). Moderate amounts sword that must be used intelligently if we want to
of alcohol (two glasses of about 4 fluid ounces/120 make the most of its beneficial effects.
milliliters) per day for men and half that amount per Several studies indicate that regular, moderate
day for women significantly decrease the risk of consumption of red wine might offer greater
death (by 25 to 30 percent), all causes combined. benefits than consuming other kinds of alcohol.
If this level of intake is exceeded, the risk of death People who drink moderate levels of red wine are
increases very rapidly, especially in women. This subject to one-third the risk of dying prematurely
of those who prefer beer or liquor (34 percent
compared with 10 percent), which suggests that
EFFECT OF ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION wines unique phytochemical compound content,
ON THE RISK OF FATAL DISEASE
especially polyphenols, could have positive effects
1.6 that greatly exceed those attributable to alcohol.
In addition, it is interesting to note that red wine,
1.4 even dealcoholized, improves blood vessel
se elasticity, increases the bloods antioxidant
1.2 rea capacity, and reduces the oxidation of LDL
Relative mortality risk
Inc
cholesterol, all parameters associated with
1.0 a decrease in the risk of heart disease. It is
e
r eas therefore likely that the large amounts of phenolic
Dec
0.8 compounds in red wine play an important role in
reducing the mortality risk associated with the
0.6 moderate consumption of this drink.
its leaves thinned out by pruning, for example, or 4 fluid ounces (120 milliliters), depending on the
against attacks by microorganisms, such as the grape variety and, of course, the wines place
microscopic fungus Botrytis cinerea, which causes of origin. The high amount of resveratrol in red
noble rot on grapes. In general, grape varieties wine can be explained not only by the lengthy
grown in regions with a more temperate, rainy fermentation of the must, making it possible to
climate are more likely to be attacked by extract this molecule from the grape seeds and
microorganisms and as a result have higher skins, but also by the absence of oxygen in the
resveratrol levels than those grown in less hostile bottle, which prevents the molecule from oxidizing.
climates. For example, a Pinot Noir from Burgundy Raisins, while actually being high in polyphenols,
or the Niagara Peninsula has high concentrations do not contain resveratrol, and this is because
of resveratrol (10 milligrams per liter and more), exposure to air and sunlight degrade it.
because the very thin skin of grapes of this variety, Resveratrol is obviously also found in large
as well as their very compact clusters, makes amounts in grapes on the vine, but since it is
them especially vulnerable to attack from found in the skin and seeds of the fruit, it is not well
microscopic fungi in these humid regions. The absorbed by the body. Peanuts may at first glance
resveratrol produced by the plant in reaction to appear to be an adequate source of the molecule,
attack by microorganisms is found mostly in the but the amount that must be consumed in order
skin and seeds of the fruit. This explains its to reach a high level of resveratrol risks doing
presence in red wine and near absence in more harm than good. Grape juice also contains
white wine. some, as does cranberry juice, but roughly
10times less than red wine. This difference can
WHERE TO FIND RESVERATROL be attributed to the long process of macerating
As we have already mentioned, there are relatively the grape skins during the fermentation into wine,
few food sources that possess a significant which makes it possible to extract a large amount
resveratrol content. The best source is without of resveratrol from the skins. In addition, much
doubt red wine (see Figure 83, below), in which its more resveratrol is extracted in solutions containing
concentration can be as high as 1 milligram per alcohol, which contributes to its increased
Resveratrol Resveratrol
Food Beverage
(g/100g) (g/100g)
Grapes 1,500 Red wine 625
Peanuts 150 White wine 38
Peanut butter 50 Grape juice 65
Blueberries 3 Cranberry juice 65
Raisins 0.01
Figure 83
178 I n V i n o Ve r i t a s
concentration in red wine. Heat pressing the grapes habit of drinking wine in Mediterranean and
during the production of grape juice can extract a European cultures, it is somewhat ironic that the
relatively large amount as well. As a beverage, first evidence of the beneficial effect of resveratrol
grape juice can be a useful source of the molecule on diseases comes once again from the East.
for children who, because of their lower blood It should be kept in mind, however, that
volume, need a smaller intake to reach significant cultures in which wine is practically absent have
blood concentrations of resveratrol. Grape juice is nonetheless managed to identify preparations
also good for pregnant women and anyone who high in resveratrol for treating heart and circulatory
does not want to, or cannot, drink alcohol. disorders. In our opinion, this example admirably
It is also important to note that, despite the illustrates the concept that we presented earlier,
lower amount of resveratrol contained in grape juice, which is that we must never underestimate the
this beverage is still very healthy. Grape juice has power of human curiosity and ingenuity in the
quite high levels of anthocyanidins, phenolic search for remedies to treat ailments, and that
acids, and other polyphenols with a great many the detailed analysis of culinary traditions and age-
chemopreventive and antioxidant properties. old medicines using modern science can lead to
Grape juice (as well as red and white wines) also identifying molecules with beneficial health effects.
contains high levels of piceid, a resveratrol derivative
with glucose in its structure, and it is very possible RESVERATROLS ANTICANCER EFFECTS
that the degradation of this glucose by enzymes The negative effects associated with consuming
in the intestinal flora allows large amounts of high amounts of alcohol are mainly due to an
resveratrol to be released. increase in risk for some types of cancer,
Although it is not always clearly established especially those of the mouth, larynx, esophagus,
that resveratrol alone is responsible for the colon, liver, and breast. These increases in risk
beneficial effects of red wine on the incidence are not usually the fault of alcohol per se, but
of cardiovascular diseases, some evidence does rather of the acetaldehyde produced when it
lead us to believe that this molecule plays a major is metabolized. Acetaldehyde is in fact a highly
role. Resveratrol has been identified as the active reactive molecule that can cause enormous
principle in ko-jo-kon, a traditional Asian medicine damage to cells genetic material, especially
obtained by crushing the roots of the Japanese in people who smoke as well as drink. Heavy
knotweed, also known as false bamboo drinkers (six glasses or more per day) who smoke
(Polygonum cuspidatum), which has been used in more than a pack of cigarettes daily have up to
Asia for thousands of years to treat heart, liver, and 40 times more risk of developing cancer of the
blood vessel diseases (the resveratrol sold in the mouth, larynx, or esophagus. This is owing to the
West in the form of supplements is often an extract extraordinary increase (700 percent) in the amount
of these roots). Chinese medicine uses the roots of acetaldehyde that these organs are exposed to.
of certain varieties of Veratrum to treat high blood It seems, however, that this increased cancer
pressure as well. In India, the ayurvedic tradition risk is much less pronounced in red wine drinkers
has also for thousands of years used a medicine, and that this beverage might even play a role
darakchasava, made mainly from vine extracts, to in preventing some types of cancer. A Danish
enhance cardiac strength. Given the widespread study showed that the moderate consumption of
I n V i n o Ve r i t a s 179
red wine not only brought about a 40 percent cancer by 31 percent, these increases disappear
reduction in the risk of death linked to heart almost completely when consumption is in the form
disease, but also a reduction in the mortality of red wine (see Figure 84, below). Red wines
associated with cancer (22 percent), with these superiority is also noted in the case of colon
effects being by far superior to those of moderate cancer, with a decrease in risk of roughly
consumption of other kinds of alcohol, such as 10percent, compared with a slight increase
beer and liquor. In the same way, the moderate associated with moderate alcohol consumption
consumption of red wine is associated in general. The situation with regard to breast
with a significant reduction in lung cancer risk, cancer is more complex, however, and it is
whereas the risk of this cancer increases in beer essential to limit consumption to one glass
and liquor drinkers. A reduction in risk for some daily to minimize any increased risk (see p.175).
cancers (colon, pancreas, esophagus) has also Nonetheless, the greatest decrease in mortality
been seen in red wine drinkers, whereas these associated with drinking red wine, which has been
cancers actually increase in people who drink observed in several studies, is likely related not
other kinds of alcoholic beverages. More recently, only to a more marked protective effect with regard
a study done on one million women clearly showed to heart disease risk, but also to a less harmful
that while drinking alcohol other than wine effect on cancer risk than other kinds of alcoholic
increases the risk of several types of cancer, drinks. Red wine really is an alcoholic beverage
this increase is much lower for women who are unlike any other!
moderate wine drinkers. So, while just one drink Although red wines anticancer potential
daily of any alcoholic beverage increases the risk of remains to be clearly established, there is no
mouth cancer by 38 percent and that of liver doubt about the fact that this anticancer activity is
in large part due to its resveratrol content. In fact,
of all the naturally occurring molecules studied to
RED WINE AND CANCER: STUDY OF date that show anticancer activity, resveratrol is
1 MILLION WOMEN
unquestionably one of those that arouses the
40 greatest enthusiasm. In 1996, resveratrol was
Alcohol identified as the first molecule of nutritional origin
30 able to interfere with tumor progression because
Variation in cancer risk (%)
20
and progression (see Chapter 2).
It goes without saying that these results have
10
greatly stimulated research into the ways in which
Colon
resveratrol acts on all of these processes. So
Mouth Liver Breast far, the results are meeting expectations, since
Decrease
powerful anticancer molecule, whose mode of Even more interesting from a nutritional point of
action compares favorably with several synthetic view, results in recent years indicate that some
drugs designed to limit the growth of cancer cells. molecules in the diet, like quercetin and especially
Studies done to date indicate that resveratrol resveratrol, are very powerful activators of these
is well absorbed by the body, which means the proteins and that this activation might increase
molecule enters the bloodstream and can act on cell longevity.
cells. Resveratrol is, however, metabolized very For example, adding resveratrol to the growth
quickly and blood concentrations of the original environment of simple single-celled organisms,
molecule are relatively low, but recent data suggest such as yeast, prolongs the cells lifespan by
that this does not interfere with its anticancer 80percent. Yeasts normally live for 19 generations,
properties. In fact, one of the molecules produced but adding resveratrol increases this lifespan to
by modifications in the structure of resveratrol, 34generations. The trend is the same for more
piceatannol, appears to be even better at causing complex organisms like worms or fruit flies:
the death of cancer cells like those of leukemia resveratrol added to the diet of these organisms
and melanoma, at blood concentrations that are causes an increase in lifespan of 15 percent for the
easily obtainable by absorbing red wine. worms and 29 percent for the flies. It seems that by
Furthermore, in preclinical studies where mimicking, in a way, the effect of caloric restriction,
resveratrol has shown its effectiveness in preventing resveratrol activates the cell-repair mechanisms that
the development of breast, colon, and esophageal can increase an organisms longevity.
cancer, the molecule was administered in low It is possible, however, that other mechanisms
doses by mouth, where its concentration in the contribute to resveratrols effect on longevity, since
blood fluctuated from 0.1 to 2 micromoles per liter, it has recently been discovered that the molecule
an amount likely to be reached by moderate red has the ability to prolong cell life following the
wine drinking. We can therefore be optimistic about activation of several genes whose role is to protect
the potential for absorbing resveratrol effectively cells by repairing DNA, for example. This effect of
through diet. resveratrol is observed in very small doses easily
obtained through moderate red wine consumption
LONG LIVE RESVERATROL! and might therefore contribute to the increase in
One of the fields of research on resveratrol that is life expectancy observed in several organisms
currently causing the most enthusiasm concerns after they were treated with resveratrol.
the molecules ability to increase longevity. It has Could the decrease in mortality observed in
long been known that reducing calorie intake is populations who drink red wine in moderation be
the best way to increase the longevity of living linked to an increase in the lifespan of cells caused
organisms. For example, laboratory rats on a diet by resveratrol? No one can yet say so. One thing is
have a 30 percent longer lifespan than their fellow certain, however. Given its beneficial effects on the
rats who eat as much as they want. This effect cardiovascular system and its protection against
appears to be related to the activation of a family of cancer development, as well as its ability to prolong
proteins called sirtuins. These seem to increase the cell life, resveratrol is likely one of the nutritionally
lifespan of cells by giving them the time needed derived molecules with the most beneficial impact
to repair DNA damage that occurs as they age. on human health.
I n V i n o Ve r i t a s 181
Eating tomatoes cooked in olive oil while enjoying a glass of red wine is a pleasant way to ward off cancer.
By encouraging you to drink red wine to prevent studies, however, corroborate the range of
cancer prevention, our intention is by no means to benefits associated with moderate red wine
trivialize any form of alcohol consumption. Drinking consumption. And while resveratrol is doubtless
too much alcohol, whether or not in the form of not the only factor responsible for all the positive
red wine, is harmful in terms of the risk of both cardiovascular aspects associated with red wine,
coronary disease and cancer development, not there is little doubt that drinking red wine in
to mention that it brings in its wake a whole array moderation is the best way to consume the
of serious social problems, ranging from traffic resveratrol molecule.We must keep in mind
accidents to violent behavior. Many scientific that the vast majority of people who drink
182 I n V i n o Ve r i t a s
The resveratrol produced by grapes is found mostly in the skin and seeds.
alcoholic beverages do so in moderation are greatest when red wine consumption is part of
and can, as a result, experience red wines this kind of diet.
considerable benefits for preventing chronic In other words, drinking red wine, even
illnesses like cancer and cardiovascular disease. moderately, does not guarantee a protective effect
This is not even to mention that red wine against cancer if this consumption is not part of
drinking is often associated with a better quality a global prevention strategy based on a generous
of food, usually shared in a relaxed atmosphere intake of other protective foods, like fruits and
that reduces the stress that is everywhere in vegetables, along with a low proportion of bad
our lives. foods containing large amounts of saturated fat
Remember, however, that in countries where and sweet foods with low nutritional density. In this
red wine consumption has been associated with kind of diet, including one or two glasses containing
a lower level of mortality, especially the countries 4 fluid ounces (120 milliliters) of wine for men and
of the Mediterranean, people typically consume one glass for women daily, as recommended by
a diet high in fruits, vegetables, legumes, and nuts, the World Cancer Research Fund, and a number
use olive oil as a major source of fat, and have a of government agencies worldwide, is the amount
moderate meat intake. It is thus possible, and even of wine most likely to prevent cancer and
highly likely, that the beneficial effects of red wine cardiovascular disease from occurring.
Red wine is an alcoholic beverage unlike any other,
containing a great many phytochemical compounds
beneficial to health.
The resveratrol in red wine has a powerful
anticancer action that appears to be responsible
for the beneficial effects of wine on preventing the
development of certain cancers.
The treasure of life and
humanity is diversity.
Edgar Morin, Dialogue on Human Nature, 2000
Yet despite this consensus, barely one-quarter negative impact is accentuated by the loss
of the population follows this recommendation. of a valuable source of antioxidant and anti-
In fact, fruit and vegetable consumption is actually inflammatory molecules resulting from the lack
dropping in some parts of the world. A deficiency of plants in the diet. There can be no doubt that
of plants in the diet is especially damaging when eating more fruits and vegetables of all types is
accompanied by the overconsumption of an essential prerequisite for any approach to
processed foods, which is often the case. preventing chronic diseases, cancer included.
The metabolic imbalances caused by caloric While the foods discussed in the preceding
overload promote the creation of an inflammatory chapters have outstanding anticancer properties
environment conducive to the development of and must as a result be given priority in the daily
chronic diseases. To make things worse, this diet so as to prevent cancer, it does not mean that
186 Anticancer Biodiversity
they are the only plants with positive effects. Fibers anticancer potential was first suggested
Research in recent years has identified several in 1971 by British scientist David Burkitt, following
phytochemical compounds with the potential his observation that the inhabitants of rural parts of
to interfere in the processes involved in cancer Africa, who ate large amounts of fiber, had an
development, and eating foods containing these abnormally low incidence of colon cancer, several
molecules really can help reduce cancer risk. times lower than that of Westerners, who ate very
little fiber. The protective effect of dietary fiber has
FIBER, TO NOURISH THE 100,000 BILLION been confirmed by numerous studies, and recent
BACTERIA LIVING INSIDE US analyses indicate that every 10 grams of fiber in
Dietary fiber is unquestionably the best example of food is associated with a reduction of roughly
the importance of increasing our total consumption 15percent in colorectal cancer risk. This positive
of plant-based foods to prevent cancer. This fiber, effect does not, however, seem to be limited to
mainly found in legumes, cereal grains (whole intestinal cancers, since the regular consumption
grains), nuts, fruits, and vegetables, consists of of dietary fiber has also been associated with a
complex carbohydrates that resist digestion by decrease in liver and breast cancer risk (Figure 85).
the enzymes in the human body and are not The beneficial impact of dietary fiber on cancer
absorbed by the intestines. While this lack of risk is in large part a result of the way our intestinal
nutritional value may seem disadvantageous at bacteria transform it. This huge bacterial
first, fiber is on the contrary absolutely essential community, called the microbiome, can itself be
for maintaining good health and is even among considered an organ, both because of the
the first components in food to have been astronomical number of cells it contains (100trillion
associated with lower cancer risk. bacteria, or 10 times the number of cells in the
entire human body) and because of its activities,
which are absolutely essential to our bodys
EFFECT OF FIBER IN REDUCING CANCER harmonious functioning. Breaking down plant
RISK OBSERVED IN PROSPECTIVE STUDIES
fiber by the fermentation activity of the microbiome
40 results in the production of several short-chain fatty
acids (butyrate, acetate, propionate). These have a
powerful anti-inflammatory effect on the immune
Reduction in cancer risk (%)
30
system, which, as we have seen throughout this
book, is an important factor in preventing cancer
cells from growing. At the same time, the
20
fermentation of fiber creates lactic acid. This
slightly acidifies the intestine and slows down the
10 proliferation of many pathogenic microorganisms,
which prefer more hospitable conditions in which
to grow. This too reduces inflammation and the
production of certain carcinogenic compounds.
Liver Colon Breast
In short, regular fiber consumption results in a
Figure 85
diversified microbiome, composed mainly of
Anticancer Biodiversity 187
beneficial bacteria that create an anti-inflammatory and occurring everywhere in our food, disrupt
environment resistant to cancer development. the balance of the microbiome and also lead to
Several observations suggest that an imbalance the development of inflammatory conditions. The
in microbiome composition is associated with an almost total absence of fiber, combined with the
increase in cancer risk. For example, the study of negative impact of these synthetic molecules,
intestinal bacteria in patients with colon cancer creates optimal conditions for the progression
shows a decrease in bacteria that produce anti- of colorectal cancer.
inflammatory fatty acids (butyrate), while the All the same, there is reason to be optimistic
bacteria whose metabolism produces inflammatory because these negative changes in the bacterial
molecules are significantly increased. Colorectal flora can be reversed. Simply eating an abundance
adenomas (benign tumors) and carcinomas (a of plant-based foods, especially those high in fiber
cancer of the lining of the internal organs) also (see Figure 86, p.188), quickly reestablishes the levels
contain high levels of certain pathogenic bacteria of good bacteria and decreases inflammation.
(Fusobacterium spp.) that produce an inflammatory However, be wary of processed products
microenvironment conducive to cancer progression. enriched with fiber because these foods usually
These differences could also contribute to the contain just one kind of fiber. They cannot match
onset of liver cancer in overweight people, since the diversity and complexity of the soluble and
these individuals harbor larger amounts of bacteria insoluble dietary fiber naturally found in plant-
that produce desoxycholic acid, a bile derivative based foods, which are all absolutely essential to
that attacks the DNA in hepatocytes (liver cells) establishing and maintaining a balanced microbiome.
and causes genetic mutations. Lastly, we should
mention that a huge number of recent studies also MUSHROOM MAGIC
show that a disruption of this bacterial community Mushrooms are an extremely diverse biological
is linked with numerous metabolic (obesity, kingdom, composed of approximately 100,000
diabetes), immunological (allergies), and even species, of which at least 2,000 are edible and 500
neurological (anxiety, autism) problems, which are recognized as having, in various degrees, an
shows just how crucial it is to take good care of influence on the functions of the human body. The
the microbiome in order to maintain good health. current body of knowledge about the nutritional,
At 15 grams per day instead of the toxic, or hallucinogenic properties of mushrooms
recommended 3040 grams, the Western diet is the result of much trial and error on the part
is very low in fiber, and this deficiency contributes of human beings, for whom the abundance of
to the high incidence of colorectal cancer in our mushrooms in their immediate surroundings must
society. Studies show that after just two weeks have been a major source of nutrition.
on a Western diet (high in fat, meat, and simple Mushrooms have always held a special place
sugars, but low in fiber), a change in the in most culinary traditions, often even rising to the
microbiome and an increase in inflammation are status of being a superior food, a symbol of
already seen in the colon, two advance warning luxury and refinement, and therefore especially
signs for cancer. It also seems that sweeteners prized by the wealthy and powerful. Fortunately,
(aspartame, sucralose) and some emulsifiers eating mushrooms is no longer the exclusive right
(polysorbate 80), widely used in the food industry of kings and aristocrats, and the widespread
188 Anticancer Biodiversity
Adapted from the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, 2012. Figure 86
domestication of several species has helped and a reduction in the risk of developing cancer are
make them available year round. It doesnt matter encouraging. For example, research done in Japan
if you choose to eat white or chestnut mushrooms, in the Nagano prefecture highlighted the fact that
Portobello mushrooms or oyster mushrooms, or farmers whose main occupation was cultivating
any of the various Asian mushrooms, such as enokitake (and who ate them regularly) had a
shiitake, enokitake, maitake, and shimeji. They all cancer-related mortality rate 40 percent below that
taste good, possess a high nutritional value, and of the population in general. Another Japanese
have been shown to have the ability to prevent study showed that the regular consumption of
chronic diseases. Hypsizygus marmoreus (shimeji) and Pholiota
nameko (nameko), two mushrooms popular in
The anticancer properties of mushrooms the country, was associated with a decrease of
In addition to their culinary uses, mushrooms have approximately 50 percent in stomach cancer risk,
always been an important component of traditional with these preventive effects also being observed
medicines in many countries, especially those in laboratory animals treated with a powerful
in Asia. With regard to preventing cancer, the carcinogenic substance, known as methylcholanthene.
results of epidemiological studies examining In the same way, an analysis of several studies done
the relationship between eating mushrooms on the impact of mushrooms on breast cancer has
Anticancer Biodiversity 189
Whether you choose chestnut, white, or Asian, eating mushrooms reduces the risk of developing cancer.
190 Anticancer Biodiversity
shown that eating .35 ounces (10 grams) of regression in tumors and prolongs survival when
mushrooms daily is associated with a risk reduction compared with chemotherapy alone, suggesting
of about 20 percent. In line with these results, we that this polysaccharide has anticancer activity.
have recently observed that adding mushroom Furthermore, the administration of a polysaccharide
extracts to cancer cells isolated from a mammary preparation similar to lentinan, PSK, is currently
tumor halted the growth of these cells. The used in Japan in combination with chemotherapy
inhibiting effect that we observed was especially to treat several types of cancer, especially those of
dramatic for enokitake and oyster mushrooms. the stomach, colon, and lung. Adding this extract
Several studies indicate that a large number of to cytotoxic treatments improves survival rates for
polysaccharides (complex polymers made up of patients in remission.
many units of certain sugars) are responsible for The mechanisms responsible for the anticancer
the anticancer effects associated with several action of the polysaccharides in mushrooms
kinds of mushrooms. These polymers, of varying are complex, but it is now agreed that these
composition and structure, are found in large compounds stimulate the activity of the immune
amounts in many Asian mushrooms, especially system. For example, many studies have shown
shiitake, enokitake, and maitake. that the lentinan in shiitake and a polysaccharide
Lentinan (see Figure 87, below), a compound isolated from maitake both cause a major increase
found in shiitake, is a polysaccharide whose anti- in the number of white blood cells and in the
tumor activity is relatively well documented. In activity of these key cells in the immune system,
patients with stomach or colon cancer, adding thereby enhancing the effectiveness of
lentinan to chemotherapy causes a significant chemotherapy. It seems that the way in which
the mushrooms active compounds stimulate
immune-system activity increases the chances
LENTINAN of controlling emerging tumors and stop them
OH
from reaching a mature stage.
HO OH The anticancer and immunostimulant activity
OH of edible mushrooms is not restricted to Asian
O O
HO OH species. Oyster and white mushrooms, for
example, also contain molecules that seem to be
O O
HO OH O O
effective in slowing down the development of some
OH
cancers, notably colon cancer, by directly attacking
O O HO OH
the cancer cells and forcing them to die by
HO OH OH OH
apoptosis (cell suicide). Similarly, white mushrooms
O O also contain molecules able to prevent the growth
HO OH OH
of some cancer cells, especially breast cancer cells.
O OH This property is attributable to mushrooms ability
O O
HO to block the action of aromatase, an enzyme that
HO OH plays a key role in the production of estrogens
HO (female sex hormones). Since most breast cancers
Figure 87
are hormone-dependent (that is to say, their
Anticancer Biodiversity 191
these populations, of which seaweed is one of the colorectal cancer has also been observed in some
most striking. Almost unknown in the West (with studies, suggesting that algae could be multi-
the exception of the Scots and Irish, who eat dulse), purpose anticancer foods, active against several
seaweed may make up as much as 10percent of types of tumors.
a Japanese daily diet, which amounts to almost 412 According to recent studies, algae can also
pounds (nearly 2 kilograms) of algae consumed interfere with the development of cancer by acting
per person per year! It is no surprise then that the directly on cancer cells. In fact, adding seaweed
Japanese are among the only human beings to extracts to the diet of laboratory animals significantly
have in their intestinal flora a bacterium that has reduces the cancer development caused by
acquired, in the course of evolution, the enzymes carcinogenic substances, including breast, colon,
porphyranase and agarase, which facilitate the and skin cancers. Even though the mechanisms
digestion of the polysaccharides in the algae, notably responsible for these anticancer properties are
nori. Such is natures gift to sushi fans. still poorly understood, there is no doubt they
Japanese women have one of the lowest rates are largely linked to algaes high fucoxanthin and
of breast cancer in the world, and several studies fucoidan content (from the Greek phukos, algae),
have suggested that this protection could be linked two compounds that interfere with several
to longer menstrual cycles as well as to blood processes essential to enable cancer cells to grow.
estrogen levels lower than in Western women. Fucoidan, a complex sugar polymer plentiful
These two factors decrease the exposure of tissues in some algae, especially kombu and wakame,
targeted by these hormones (breast, endometrium, prevents the growth of a wide variety of cancer
and ovaries), resulting in a lower risk of developing cells and even causes these cells to die by
cancer. Recent studies indicate that, as well as apoptosis (cell suicide). In addition to its cytotoxic
soy phytoestrogens, marine algae might also play activity, fucoidan also seems to have a positive
a role. The consumption of algae by laboratory impact on immune function by increasing the
animals causes a 37 percent increase in the length activity of cells involved in defending against
of the menstrual cycle as well as a significant pathogenic agents (viruses, bacteria, and other
decline in blood estrogen levels. These results germs that cause diseases). This may help create
are certainly representative of the effect of algae on an environment more hostile to microtumors and
humans, because a study done on premenopausal restrict their development.
women produced similar results, with a significant Fucoxanthin (see Figure 88, opposite) is a yellow
increase in the length of the menstrual cycle and pigment that, depending on its concentration, gives
a decrease in blood estrogens. plants a color ranging from olive green to reddish-
Seaweed might therefore be important foods for brown. A close relative of other pigments in the
preventing hormone-dependent cancers, and their carotenoid family, such as beta-carotene and
anti-estrogenic action likely contributes to the low lycopene, fucoxanthin occurs widely in nature,
incidence of these cancers in populations that but mainly in plants growing in the sea. Here it
consume large amounts of algae. For example, participates in photosynthesis due to its unique
one study recently observed that Korean women ability to absorb sunlight in deep water.
who ate the most nori algae had 56 percent less Of all the dietary carotenoids tested to date,
risk of developing breast cancer. Protection against fucoxanthin is one of those that shows the greatest
Anticancer Biodiversity 193
FUCOXANTHIN
H H H H H H
HO C
H H H H H O
O
O
O
OH
Figure 88
anticancer activity, both in laboratory animals and The pomegranate is indeed a very unusual fruit
in cells isolated from human tumors. For example, (a large berry, in fact). It contains several hundred
adding fucoxanthin to cells taken from a prostate arils, seeds consisting of a translucent red pulp
cancer causes a significant decrease in the growth with a sweet and sour taste. Chewing on these
of these cells; this inhibiting effect is much greater arils provides a genuine explosion of antioxidants
even than that of lycopene, a carotenoid found owing to their exceptional levels of two large
mainly in tomatoes (see Chapter 13) that has long groups of polyphenols: anthocyanins, which give
been touted as playing a preventive role in the the pomegranate its characteristic red color, and
development of prostate cancer. Since seaweed is hydrolyzable tannins, like punicalin, punicalagin,
the only food source of fucoxanthin, it should be part and other derivatives of ellagic acid. Data
of any dietary cancer-prevention strategy, especially accumulated to date indicate that this remarkable
with regard to breast and prostate cancer. polyphenol content gives pomegranates powerful
In conclusion, seaweed is not just a culinary
curiosity, but cancer-preventing foods, able to
counteract the progression of latent microtumors The pomegranate is
actually a very large berry.
both by acting directly on their growth and by
positively influencing the immune system and
inflammatory processes.
anticancer capabilities, and that these molecules The positive effect of pomegranates on the
have the ability to inhibit the growth of cells from evolution of prostate cancer clinically confirmed
colon, breast, lung, and prostate cancers. In the to be at an advanced stage indicates that this fruit
latter case, preclinical studies show that giving has an enormous preventive potential to slow down
pomegranate juice to animals with tumors of the the progression of this disease at earlier stages,
prostate leads to a substantial reduction in the when the cancer cells have not yet reached their
growth of these tumors, as well as a decrease in full strength. In this regard, it must be noted that
PSA levels, a marker for cancer progression. This where this fruit has been part of the diet for
protective effect is also observed in clinical studies thousands of yearsfor example, in countries
done on patients with prostate cancer who have around the Caspian Sea (Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan,
undergone surgery or radiotherapy. Normally, PSA and Azerbaijan)men have the lowest incidence of
levels in these patients double 15 months after prostate cancer in the world, at almost 50 times
treatment, reflecting the rapid growth of residual lower than in the West.
cancer cells. However, this progression is nearly
four times slower (taking 54 months) in those who PEACHES, A CANCER-FIGHTING GUILTY PLEASURE
consume 9 ounces (250 milliliters) of pomegranate The peach tree (Prunus persica) is native to the
juice daily. Interestingly, a clinical trial recently Tarim Basin, in northwestern China, where it was
showed that an extract containing pomegranate in domesticated and cultivated about 4,000 years
combination with turmeric, green tea, and broccoli ago. A symbol of long life and immortality, the
caused a dramatic reduction in PSA levels in peach has always occupied a place of honor in
patients with prostate cancer. Chinese culture, as evidenced by its pervasiveness
in fables and works of art, and as a decoration
on gifts to loved ones. This love for peaches is
CHLOROGENIC ACID CONTENT OF FRUITS IN obviously not limited to China, and the cultivation
THE ROSACEAE FAMILY
of the fruit rapidly spread to the West, first to
Chlorogenic acid Persia, following its conquest by Alexander the
Fruit Great (hence the botanical name of persica), and
content (mg/100g)
then Europe. They were not, however, especially
Apples 119
popular with the Romans, who preferred apricots.
Pears 59
According to Pliny (see p.96), peaches were a fruit
Plums 44 without perfume and of little interest.
Nectarines 28 The peach found its true home in France, where
Peaches 24 it was cultivated on a large scale beginning in the
Apricots 17 15th century. La Quintanie, gardener to Louis XIV,
actually succeeded in cultivating about 30 different
Cherries 12
species (including the famous Tton de Vnus) to
satisfy his employers passion for peaches. Even
The values represent the highest
amounts measured in certain varieties. though most of these peach varieties were the
result of manipulations carried out by the fruit
Adapted from C. Andres-Lacueva et al., 2009. Figure 89
growers of the day, it must be noted that the
Anticancer Biodiversity 195
plaques. These cardiovascular effects cause better may be linked to a reduction in inflammation, since
circulation of blood to the brain, which could the majority of polyphenols reach the colon, where
contribute to the improvements in memory and they are changed by the intestinal bacteria into
cognitive function that have been observed phenolic acids and into short-chain fatty acids with
following the consumption of chocolate. As stated anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, just as with
in an article published in the New England Journal fruits and vegetables, including dark chocolate in
of Medicine, it is no surprise that populations who our eating plan could have important benefits for
eat the most chocolate are also those that have the proper functioning of the intestine and, by
the highest number of Nobel Prize winners! extension, for the prevention of colorectal cancer.
The high amounts of polyphenols in dark Consuming 34 ounces (20 grams) of dark
chocolate also make it possible to foresee a chocolate with a cocoa content of 70 percent
positive role for this food in cancer prevention. It on a daily basis can supply the body with a
has been known for several years that people who significantly valuable ration of polyphenols and,
eat the largest amounts of flavonoids have a lower as a result, provide benefits in terms of preventing
risk of getting several types of cancer, especially cardiovascular diseases and cancer. This effect will
bladder, ovarian, prostate, liver, and lung cancer. be even more enhanced if eating dark chocolate
The contribution of the flavonoids in chocolate to satisfies a cravings for other sweets and helps
these protective effects has not been specifically reduce intake of sugary foods that contain no
studied, but there is every reason to be optimistic. anticancer compounds and ultimately lead to
For example, it has been observed that eating 112 weight gain.
ounces (45 grams) of dark chocolate containing In other words, while we accept that sugar
860 milligrams of polyphenols was associated with consumption is now part of our eating habits
a pronounced decrease in DNA damage in blood because of the feelings of satisfaction and well-
cells caused by oxidative stress, which lowers the being it gives us, changing these habits by
risk of mutations that can trigger cancer. These substituting high-quality dark chocolate for
results concur with several preclinical studies commonly eaten sugary foods can have a
showing that the polyphenols in cocoa paste have significant impact on the prevention of chronic
strong anticancer and antiangiogenic activity and diseases like cancer. Who ever said that eating
are able to slow down the development of several a healthy diet had to be unpleasant?
types of cancer in laboratory animals, colon cancer
in particular. In the latter case, this protective effect
There can be no doubt that increased consumption
of all fruits and vegetables is an essential prerequisite
for any approach to preventing chronic diseases,
cancer included.
Several phytochemical compounds with the potential
to interfere in the processes involved in cancer
development have been identified in recent years.
Eating foods containing such molecules can help
reduce cancer risk.
A number of foods from around the world have
offered protection to the local populations who
cultivated and consumed them regularly. These bear
closer scrutiny and inclusion in the Western diet in
the fight against cancer.
On the Menu: Fighting Cancer!
The destiny of nations depends upon
the manner in which they feed themselves.
Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin,
The Physiology of Taste (1825)
Finding a healthy happy medium between these with nine broad principles that can have an
two dietary extremesand avoiding processed and enormous impact on protecting you from the
junk foods as much as possiblewill go far to help risk of getting cancer.
your body fight off chronic diseases like cancer.
Inspired by the recommendations of various 1. STOP SMOKING
cancer-fighting bodies such as the World Cancer One-third of cancers are directly caused by
Research Fund, the American Cancer Society, and smoking, so it goes without saying that quitting
the Canadian Cancer Society, we have come up smoking is one of the lifestyle changes you can
204 On the Menu: Fighting Cancer!
make that has the greatest impact on cancer significantly reduces the risk for several
prevention. The list of harmful effects associated cancers, especially colon and breast cancer.
with smoking is a long one. Smokers have a Being physically active does not just involve giving
40times higher risk of getting lung cancer; your muscles a workout. It also causes a series
a significant increase in cancers of the of biochemical and physiological changes that
aerodigestive system (mouth, larynx), pancreas, reduce chronic inflammation inside the body.
and bladder; and a significant increase in the This deprives still-immature cancer cells of a tool
risk of dying from cardiovascular diseases. This indispensable for their growth. In addition, regular
is not to mention the various unpleasant side physical activity helps maintain a normal body
effects associated with tobacco use, such as weight, another essential part of cancer
the loss of the senses of smell and taste, chronic prevention. Conversely, many studies show that
fatigue, and so on. leading a sedentary life is linked with a significant
Fortunately, most societies have made giant increase in cancer risk, especially for colon,
strides in controlling smoking. Intensive, high-profile breast, lung, and uterine cancer.
campaigns broadcasting solid facts and information Regular physical activity is particularly important
on the dangers of tobacco, more and more for people who have had cancer. Many studies
widespread bans on smoking in public places, have in fact shown that cancer survivors who are
and increases in the price of tobacco products the most physically active are also those who live
have all had the direct result of significantly the longest, a particularly well documented effect
reducing the number of people who smoke. for breast and colon cancer. This does not mean
Today, even the most seasoned smokers dont you have to undertake an Olympic fitness program
deny that smoking is harmful to health, and most to get the most out of exercise. In every study,
of them express the desire to give up the habit. regular fast walking, for example, between three
However, nicotine is one of the most powerful and five hours a week, was the activity most
drugs found in nature. It creates a dependency commonly associated with a decrease in cancer
that is extremely hard to fight, so smokers should risk or recurrence. The most important thing to
not be made to feel ashamed or humiliated if they understand is that being sedentary is an abnormal
have trouble quitting smoking. We must teach behavior for which human physiology is completely
people never to start smoking in the first place, ill-adapted. We must avoid as much as possible
and encourage smokers who want to quit to use being inactive for too long. Cancer loves peace
every means currently at their disposal (electronic and quiet, and it is only by moving regularly that
cigarettes, nicotine patches, or pharmacological we can hope to disrupt its development.
products) to help them end their dependency.
Quitting smoking is by far the move that will have 3. LIMIT ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION
the greatest impact on the quality of your life. The beneficial effects of drinking small amounts of
alcohol for heart health must not make us forget
2. GET ENOUGH EXERCISE that this substance is very toxic in higher doses
Exercise is not just a good habit for maintaining and promotes the development of several types
flexibility and muscle tone. Many studies show of cancer, especially cancers of the upper digestive
unequivocally that regular physical activity tract (mouth, larynx, esophagus), liver, and breast.
On the Menu: Fighting Cancer! 205
Regular physical activity, such as brisk walking, is especially important for people who have had cancer.
This carcinogenic effect is especially pronounced moderate single glass a day, is associated with
in smokers, with a 4060 times increase in risk for an increase in risk of about 10 percent. While
developing cancer of the buccal cavity and this increase in cancer risk is much lower than
esophagus, which, it must be said, is another the reduction in risk of heart disease associated
excellent reason to stop smoking. with the moderate consumption of alcoholic drinks,
The link between alcohol and cancer risk is still drinking alcohol still remains for all women a
more complex in terms of breast cancer, since the highly personal decision. Given these implications,
consumption of any form of alcohol, even a whether or not to drink alcohol depends on each
206 On the Menu: Fighting Cancer!
womans comfort zone. For those who choose mutations to occur in skin cell DNA, which
to drink, it is essential to limit consumption to one considerably increases cancer risk. The most
glass a day to get the most benefit from alcohols important rule is to avoid sunburn at all costs
cardioprotective effect, while minimizing the risk because occasional and excessive bouts of
of breast cancer or recurrence in those who have exposure that burn the skin are the main risk
had the disease. Red wine should also be the drink factors for melanoma, especially when sunburns
of choice owing to its positive impact on some are sustained in childhood and in fair-skinned
types of cancer, especially cancer of the colon. people. For example, in Canada, as in most
industrialized countries, the incidence of skin
4. AVOID UNNECESSARY SUN EXPOSURE cancer has increased dramatically in recent
In summer, exposing the skin to UV rays for no decades. This shows just how many people
more than 15 minutes is very positive, because occasionally expose their skin to inordinate
it enables the body to produce vitamin D, a amounts of UV rays.
substance absolutely essential for maintaining For UV exposure lasting longer than
good health. When sun exposure is excessive, 15minutes, use a sunscreen with a sun
however, UV rays cause numerous genetic protection factor (SPF) of at least 15. If you have
fair skin, light-colored eyes, and fair hair, use a
higher SPF. But be careful. No matter what its
effectiveness and protection factor, no product
offers enough protection to enable you to safely
remain in the sun indefinitely. Sunscreens offering
protection both from UVA and UVB rays have
appeared, and these products are a very sensible
option for people who cannot avoid spending
long periods in the sun due to their work.
Never use tanning beds. Studies show that
exposure to their very high doses of UVA rays
has a potential to cause cancer that is as high as
that of cigarette smoke, and causes a dramatic
rise in melanoma risk, especially for women.
will be. You cannot eat just any old foods and then and preparing your own food will give you total
try to safeguard yourself against the inevitable health control over the amount and quality of nutrients
problems that will arrive by taking a pill! With the in your diet. In addition, instead of replacing butter
exception of specific cases, such as pregnancy, or with margarine, use olive oil as a fat as often as
in medical conditions, such as severe malnutrition, possible. This not only gives you the benefit of its
supplements are not recommended. They make no healthy fats but also helps your body fight off cancer.
useful contribution to cancer prevention and only Finally, a simple way to reduce your calorie intake
reinforce bad eating habits. is to think of takeouts, hamburgers, pizza, chips,
That said, there is an exception to every rule, and sugary soft drinks as occasional treats, not
and, in the case of supplements, the exception is daily foods. Human beings, like all animals, are very
vitamin D. Several studies suggest that vitamin D attracted to foods high in fat and sugar; eating them
deficiency might encourage the development of some provides genuine pleasure that encourages repetition
types of cancer, especially cancers of the colon, and the formation of habits. It would be unrealistic
breast, and prostate, as well as non-Hodgkin to attempt to completely repress this instinct.
lymphomas, and it is therefore crucial to maintain Nonetheless, you can still turn the situation to your
optimal levels of this vitamin. However, contrary advantage by eating these foods as an occasional
to other vitamins that can easily be obtained in treat. That way, you satisfy your cravings without
the diet, vitamin D is quite rare in nature and is risking the health problems associated with caloric
mainly produced by the body itself when the skin overload, or a guilty conscience!
is exposed to sunlight. This situation poses a
problem for inhabitants of Earths northern and 8. REDUCE CONSUMPTION OF RED MEAT AND
southern regions, since the low levels of sunshine PROCESSED MEAT PRODUCTS
in fall and winter mean that taking supplements Eating large amounts of red meat (beef, lamb,
is really the only way to maintain adequate levels and pork) not only increases your risk of developing
of vitamin D. For all these reasons, the Canadian colon cancer, but supplies enormous amounts of
Cancer Society recommends a daily intake of calories in the form of fats that can contribute to
1000 IU of vitamin D in fall and winter. excess weight gain.
When meat is cooked over a flame, the fat
7. CUT BACK ON CALORIE INTAKE that runs off and catches fire produces toxic
The only realistic way to maintain an ideal weight compounds called aromatic hydrocarbons.
is to reject high-calorie, industrially processed foods These stick to the meats surface and can act
and follow the kind of diet that our metabolism has as carcinogens. In addition, other carcinogenic
adapted to in the course of our evolution as human compounds known as heterocyclic amines
beings. This is a diet primarily made up of plant are formed by cooking animal protein at high
products like fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. temperatures. Recent studies suggest, however,
Avoid buying ready-made industrial foods, either that marinating the meat in an acidic solution,
for snacks or for main meals. These products such as lemon juice, can reduce the formation
contain far too much sugar, too many bad fats, and of these toxic substances.
unhealthy levels of salt, and also lack the nutritional Vary your menu by using leaner meats, like
value of fresh foods. Getting to know your kitchen chicken or fish (ideally fish high in omega-3 fats),
On the Menu: Fighting Cancer! 209
Myth 1. Fruits and vegetables contain proteins resulting from genetic modifications are
pesticides that cause cancer. in any event destroyed during digestion and cannot
False. Pesticides remaining on fruits and vegetables therefore have any real impact on nutrient intake.
are only found in trace amounts, and no study has The problem with GMOs is above all environmental,
been able to establish a link between these residues with the most important issue being their extremely
and cancer. On the contrary, fruit and vegetable negative impact on the diversity of living plant species.
consumption is consistently associated with a decrease This is a serious problem, and we share the concern of
in the risk of getting cancer, and there can be no those who oppose GMOs.
doubt that the benefits of an increased intake of these
foods are many times greater than the hypothetical Myth 3. Only organic fruits and vegetables
negative effects of tiny traces of contaminants. A very are good for health.
simple way to eliminate almost all of these pesticide False. All of the studies establishing the anticancer
residues is to rinse your fruits and vegetables potential of fruits and vegetables have examined the
thoroughly with water, or choose organic produce. consumption of foods grown by traditional agriculture,
and it is therefore certain that the organic label is not
Myth 2. Fruits and vegetables are the product an essential prerequisite for enjoying the benefits of
of genetic engineering, and genetically these foods. While growing vegetables without any
modified organisms (GMOs) are harmful pesticides may stimulate the plants defense systems,
to health. with the result that they may contain slightly higher
False. The vast majority of fruits and vegetables amounts of anticancer phytochemical compounds, it
currently available come from naturally selected is wrong to think that only organically grown products
varieties, without external genes introduced by can have positive impacts on health. It is better to eat
humans, and so can be considered completely natural. ordinary fruits and vegetables in generous amounts
As for the portion of foods that really are GMOs, on a daily basis than to occasionally eat organic
no study has yet established any link to cancer products whose (usually) higher price may discourage
whatsoever, which is not very surprising since the us from buying fruits and vegetables regularly.
and sometimes try replacing your daily meat with their carcinogenicity has been proven in humans.
other protein sources (legumes, for example). Eating Plenty of books and Internet sites offer outstanding
does not necessarily have to mean eating meat! ideas for healthy and appetizing lunches that dont
It is particularly important to limit the require the use of processed meats. Such sources
consumption of processed meats, such as are a helpful reference for people who are running
bacon, sausages, salami, and ham, and other out of ideas and need some inspiration. Another
foods containing preservatives such as nitrites. easy way to decrease your consumption of meat
Several studies clearly show that these products and processed meats is to rethink the role they
are associated with a significant risk for colorectal play in daily meals. Meat does not necessarily have
cancer and shortened life expectancy. Processed to be at the forefront of a dish for us to enjoy its
meats are actually the first class of foods to have flavor. Various Asian stir-fry dishes offer a great
been recognized by the World Health Organization way to satisfy the desire to eat meat, even when it is a
as being Group I carcinogenic agents, meaning that team player in a dish and doesnt dominate the plate.
210 On the Menu: Fighting Cancer!
Food Examples
Green tea
Beverages
Coffee
Figure 92
On the Menu: Fighting Cancer! 211
9. EAT LOTS OF PLANT-BASED FOODS we must do all we can to fight its appearance
To concludeand this is the very essence of this by using every tool at our disposal.
bookwe must increase our consumption of plant- We must have a fear of cancer, not the kind
based foods if we hope to reduce the incidence of of fear that paralyzes our energy or invades our
cancer in our societies. Despite several years of thoughts, but instead a constructive fear that
government programs and widespread medical motivates us to adopt behaviors most likely to ward
advice encouraging us to consume more fruits and off the disease. Just as people can control their fear
vegetables, barely one-quarter of the current of fire by installing a smoke detector in each room
population respects the minimum recommendation in their house, we can be afraid of cancer and
of eating five servings a day. This is not even to react by changing our behaviors so as to protect
mention that the range of plants people do eat is ourselves as much as possible from the disease.
not very diverse and so limits the benefits that can As we discussed in previous chapters, this
be gained. This worrisome situation has several defensive approach to cancer must include eating
causes, in particular a number of persistent myths plenty of the kind of plants that contain the largest
that seem to dampen consumers enthusiasm for amounts of anticancer phytochemical compounds
products of plant origin (see box on p.209). Given and have been identified in population studies as
the essential role of fruits and vegetables in a having the ability to decrease the risk of several
global cancer prevention strategy, it goes without different types of cancer (see Figure 92, opposite).
saying that negative perceptions about this All foods of plant origin are good for health because
category of foods must be stamped out before of their vitamin, mineral, and fiber content, but only
there can be any significant reduction in the those that are particularly good sources of anticancer
cancer rates currently seen in our societies. molecules can significantly reduce the risk of cancer.
We will say it again. There really is a close link Think of regularly eating vegetables from the
between not eating enough plant-based foods cabbage and garlic families, soy- and tomato-
a typical habit of people living in the Westand based products (all enhanced with spices like
the risk of developing certain types of cancer. turmeric), fruits like berries and citrus, and drinks
We absolutely must take this link seriously by like red wine, coffee, and green tea as a form of
changing our lifestyle habits to prevent cancer natural preventive chemotherapy. Eating these
at the source, before it becomes too formidable foods will introduce thousands of phytochemical
an enemy. compounds into your system, where they will
It is important to understand that none of the
foods discussed in this book is in itself a miracle
cure for cancer. This very concept of a miracle
NUTRAPREVENTION: FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES
cure, so sought after in our society, is largely
responsible for peoples lack of interest in the
Increase consumption
impact of their daily habits on the development of
Vary consumption
diseases as serious as cancer. Instead, we should
Choose dishes made up of several varieties
approach cancer in a more realistic way and admit Eat them daily
that in the current state of scientific and medical
knowledge, this disease is too often deadly, and
212 On the Menu: Fighting Cancer!
Dark chocolate
Citrus fruits
Omega-3s
Tomatoes
Green tea
Soybeans
Crucifers
Turmeric
Nutraceutical targets
create an inhospitable environment for microscopic of new blood vessels a microtumor needs in order
tumors and keep them in a dormant, harmless to grow, and thus keeps it in a dormant state. Some
state. This way of eating is based on the concepts molecules associated with these foods even act at
we have tried to explain throughout this book. several stages in the cancer formation process and
maximize the protection offered by food. We only
DIVERSITY have to think of the resveratrol in grapes, which acts
Different classes of anticancer molecules make on all three stages in the growth of tumors (referred
it possible to prevent cancer from developing by to as the cancerogenesis process), as well as the
interfering with several processes involved in the genistein in soy, which, in addition to being a
progression of the disease. No food contains by phytoestrogen reducing the sometimes harmful
itself all the anticancer molecules that can act on effect of sex hormones, is a powerful inhibitor of
these processes (see Figure 93, above), so it is several proteins involved in the uncontrolled growth
important to incorporate a wide variety of foods of cancer cells.
into our eating habits. Getting a diversity of anticancer molecules into
For example, eating cruciferous vegetables and the diet is important. Cancer cells use many tricks
vegetables from the garlic family helps the body to to grow, and it is totally unrealistic to think their
eliminate carcinogenic substances, reducing their ability to overcome obstacles can be controlled by
ability to cause DNA mutations that encourage the using anticancer molecules that interfere with just
appearance of cancer cells. Similarly, consuming one process. We must emphasize again the central
green tea, berries, and soy prevents the formation role of soy, green tea, and turmeric. These foods are
On the Menu: Fighting Cancer! 213
beyond a doubt major preventive tools that contribute our special relationship with food and cannot be
to the enormous differences in cancer rates and type sustained in the long term because of the sheer
of cancer seen in the East and the West. monotony and lack of enjoyment associated
To make a simple analogy, if you carry water with consuming it. And it is pointless to eat an
in a bucket with holes in several different places, extravagant meal once a week containing huge
plugging only a few of the holes will not stop the amounts of the foods described in this book,
water leaking out. You have to plug all the holes. and then ignore them the rest of the time. Using
The same is true of cancer. Only by attacking it on a strategy like this contributes nothing really useful
several fronts can we hope to succeed in preventing to cancer prevention, any more than the injection
it from surviving and going on to reach full maturity. of a massive dose of insulin solves a diabetics
blood sugar problems in the long run.
CONSTANT VIGILANCE BUT A BALANCED APPROACH It is often said that moderation is the basis of a
The concept of continual combat is extremely healthy diet, and the same holds true for all efforts
important. Regular absorption of these anticancer related to cancer prevention. Preventing cancer
phytochemical molecules is necessary to keep through diet requires vigilance, and is a constant,
precancerous cells off balance and stop them steady task that can only be accomplished by, as
from growing. We all have immature tumors, so we often as possible, eating a wide variety of foods
must think of cancer as a chronic disease requiring with the strongest anticancer activities.
constant treatment to keep it in a dormant, inactive Such changes need not be radical or extreme,
state. This is true both for people who want to either. In every study, it has been a moderate
avoid getting cancer and for survivors of the consumption of anticancer foods two to four times
disease. The anticancer molecules in the kinds
of foods we have highlighted in this book slow
REDUCTION IN BREAST CANCER RISK BY
the progress of microscopic tumors that form THE MEDITERRANEAN DIET
spontaneously during our lives. In fact, several
studies suggest that they could even do the same 80
Reduction in breast cancer risk (%)
a week that has been linked with a decrease in works whether the agent interferes with the tumors
cancer risk. It is just a matter of regaining control attempt to establish its own blood vessel network to
over our daily diet, reconsidering its place in our support itself, or stimulates the organisms immune
lives, and looking at it not as an act solely designed defenses, for example (Figure 95, above right).
to satisfy our need to survive, but as a pleasurable The combination of several foods, however, all
part of our daily lives with the power to make a containing different anticancer compounds, makes
major contribution to our overall well-being. it possible not only to target different processes
The Mediterranean diet illustrates this concept associated with tumor growth, but also to make
very well, as shown by the results obtained in the their action more effective. In fact, thanks to this
Spanish clinical study PREDIMED (PREvencin synergy, a molecules anticancer action can be
con DIeta MEDiterrnea), which was started in considerably increased by the presence of another
2003 to determine the influence of this diet on molecule, a very important property for compounds
heart disease. The participants in this random in food, which are usually present in small amounts
clinical study were divided into three groups in the blood. For example, neither curcumin nor the
and each given a different diet, including: 1) a main polyphenol in green tea, EGCG, is able on its
Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin own to cause cancer cell death when present in
olive oil; 2) a Mediterranean diet supplemented small amounts. On the other hand, when these two
with a mixture of nuts; and 3) a low-fat diet, as molecules are present at the same time, they cause
suggested by heart disease organizations. When a very significant response that results in the death
the incidence of breast cancer in 4,152 women of cells by apoptosis (see Figure 96, below right).
age 6080 who participated in the study was This kind of direct synergy can also considerably
examined, it was noticed that those who followed increase the therapeutic response to a specific
a Mediterranean diet were much less affected by anticancer treatment. For example, research in
cancer, with a decrease in risk of 40 percent in the our laboratory has shown that adding curcumin
group whose diet was supplemented by a mixture and EGCG to cancer cells subjected to low doses
of nuts and 70 percent in the group whose diet of radiation causes a spectacular increase in the
was supplemented by extra-virgin olive oil (see response of these cells to treatment (same figure).
Figure 94, p.213). Random trials are considered the Synergy also often relies on indirect
gold standard in clinical research (the subjects are mechanisms. For example, the foods we eat on a
divided randomly, to minimize statistical distortion), daily basis contain a wide range of molecules with
so the dramatic decrease in breast cancer risk no anticancer activity of their own. However, these
observed here is one of the best proofs to date molecules may have a substantial impact on cancer
of the key role diet plays in cancer prevention. prevention by increasing the amount (and therefore
the anticancer potential) of another anticancer
EFFECTIVENESS molecule in the blood, either by slowing down its
As we have seen, anticancer agents in food are elimination or by enhancing its absorption (see
often able to act directly on the tumor and limit Figure 95, above right).
its development, both by causing the death of One of the best examples of this indirect synergy
cancer cells and by preventing the tumor from is the property of a molecule in pepper, piperine,
progressing to more advanced stages. This to enable the body to increase its absorption of
On the Menu: Fighting Cancer! 215
Figure 95
60
6
Death of cancer cells
40
4
20
2
10
Changing our diet to incorporate certain foods Cuisine is the culture of humanitythe expression
that are exceptional sources of anticancer of our ingenuity in exploring our environment and
molecules is one of the best weapons currently discovering new foods, and the illustration of our
at our disposal for fighting cancer. constant quest for well-being. It is impossible to
These changes in habit are not at all extreme resign ourselves to the idea that barely one century
or revolutionary: it is simply a matter of restoring of industrialization should succeed in destroying
food to its important role in daily life by paying this heritage and, in so doing, deny the collective
more attention to the consequences that the knowledge of humanity and lay waste to its
food we eat can have on our overall well-being. fundamental principles. Preventing cancer through
You can take enormous satisfaction from putting diet is thus above all about recapturing the essence
these changes into practice, both for the of the food culture developed over millennia by
gastronomic enjoyment they offer and for the civilizations. It is about paying homage to the
feeling of satisfaction you get from participating priceless knowledge acquired by thousands of
actively in your bodys defence mechanisms generations of women who wanted to give their
by providing it daily with a large dose of children the foods needed for good health, while
nutraceuticals. Using the plentiful food resources seeking the best way to prepare these foods so
we have the immense privilege to have access to, they would be enjoyed. It is about paying respect
not only to feed ourselves but also to reduce the to humanitys most amazing accomplishment,
incidence of diseases as serious as cancer, could without which we would not exist. Preventing
be one of the most important advances in our cancer through diet is simply about reconnecting
fight against this disease. with the very essence of the human condition.
220
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230
and food allergies 142 aromatase and estrogen broccoli 62, 85, 87
freezing effect 141, 146 production 19091 dietary fiber 188
polyphenols 72, 14548 blueberries and 73, 75, 145 glucosinolate content 88
proanthocyanidins 14748 BRCA genes 15, 47 indole-3-carbinol (I3C)
raspberries 64, 14142, 145, calcium and 73 (phytochemical compound) in
14748, 188 cell diversity 36 92
resveratrol 177 coffee and 196 isothiocyanates and indoles
strawberries see strawberries cruciferous vegetables and 87 (phytochemical compounds) in
therapeutic uses 143 dietary fiber and 186 75, 8889, 91
in traditional medicines 142 and estrogen levels 110, 114, myrosinase in 8889
beta-carotene 68, 76, 162, 164, 207 19091 sprouts 90
biochemical signals (VEGF [vascular exercise, importance of 204 sulforaphane (phytochemical
endothelial growth factor]) 40, garlic and onions and 99100 compound) in 74, 88, 9092
138, 14647, 156 green tea and 73, 13738 bronchial cancer, and silicosis 43
black beans 188 herbs and 128 see also lung cancer
blackberries 145, 147 immigration effects 17, 126 Brussels sprouts 62, 85, 88, 92
blackcurrants 64 indole-3-carbinol (I3C)
bladder cancer
coffee and 196
(phytochemical compound)
and cancer prevention 92
C
cabbage family (cruciferous) 62,
cruciferous vegetables and 73, 87 lignans and 73
8293, 212
green tea and 137 Mediterranean diet effects,
in ancient cultures 8384, 86
schistosomiasis and 43 21314
chewing effects on anticancer
smoking and 204 mushrooms and 18891
molecules 8890
U.S./India comparison 125 omega-3 fatty acids and,
cooking care 90
blueberries 64, 7273, 15758
freezing concerns 90
14345 peaches and 195
glucosinolates 8892
delphinidin 74, 14647 phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC)
as hangover cure 86
ellagic acid 145 (glucosinolate) and cancer
indole-3-carbinol (I3C)
proanthocyanidins 14748 prevention 91
(phytochemical compound) in
resveratrol 177 phytoestrogen and 57
74, 77, 92, 212
brain cancer see head and pomegranates and 194
indoles 88
neck cancer red wine and 17980
isothiocyanates 8892
brassicas see cabbage family soy and 10911
myrosinase enzyme 8890
(cruciferous) strawberries and 145
phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC)
BRCA genes, breast and ovarian tamoxifen 10, 57, 109, 115, 196
(glucosinolate) 9192
cancer 15, 47 tomatoes and 164
phytochemicals in 8892
breast cancer tumor incidence and diagnosis
sulforaphane (phytochemical
alcohol effects 17879, percentages 59
compound) in 74, 88, 9092
20406 turmeric and 12526
varieties 8485
algae and 192 U.S. and Canada 16
wild 8485
and anastrozole 115 U.S./India comparison 125
calcium 73
angiogenesis effect 46 vegetable extract and 6263
calorie intake reduction 208
animal fats and 110 vitamin D and 73, 208
232 Index
E
phytochemical compounds in sulforaphane (phytochemical
16970, 212 compound) in, and apoptosis
terpenes in 16970 (cell suicide) process 9091 edamame (fresh soybeans) 106, 110
vitamin C 16970 turmeric and cancer 12526 EGCG (epigallocatechin-3-gallate)
clementines 168 and ulcerative colitis 43 13638, 21415
cloves 122 U.S./India comparison 125 see also phytochemicals
coffee 19596 vitamin D and 208 eggplants 62, 162
colon cancer 22 Western countries 16 Egypt 9596, 174
alcohol effects 17879 see also rectum cancer eicosapentaenoic (EPA) acid,
algae and 192 colon polyps 92, 125, 127, 147 15354, 15557
angiogenesis effect 46 coriander 122, 127 see also omega-3 fatty acids
anti-inflammatory drugs, effects of cranberries 64, 14445, ellagic acid 74, 78, 14547
47, 12526 14748, 177 see also phytochemicals
chocolate and 198 crucifers see cabbage family endive 62
coffee and 196 (cruciferous) endometrium cancer 92, 110,
cruciferous vegetables and 87 cumin 122, 127 125, 192
dietary fiber and 18687 curcumin 64, 7475, 77, 12427, environmental factors and pollution
digestive system cancers, 212, 21416 14, 20
sunshine and UV rays exposure see also phytochemicals enzymes
20 cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme cell structure and cancer
exercise, importance of 204 4344, 12526 development 29
garlic and onions and 98, 100 see also anti-inflammatory enzyme cyclooxygenase-2
green tea and 73, 13738 properties (COX-2) and cell growth 4344,
herbs and 12728 64, 127, 156
immigration effects 17
India 16, 126
D inhibitors 55, 57
myrosinase enzyme, cabbage
daidzein 10809 family 8890
and inflammatory intestinal disease
see also phytoestrogens esophagus cancer 22, 47
43
delphinidin 74, 14647 alcohol effects 178, 20405
and intestinal flora (microbiome)
see also phytochemicals angiogenesis effect 46
7071
diabetic retinopathies, and Asia 16
Japan 18
blueberries 144 Barretts metaplasia and 43
mushrooms and 190
diallyl sulfate (DAS) 74, 77, citrus fruits and 73, 169
oleocanthal molecule (phenolic
10002 coffee and 196
compound), ant-inflammatory
see also sulphur compounds garlic and onions and 98, 100
effects 156
diet diversity and moderation green tea and 138
omega-3 fatty acids and 15758
21216 and NMBA (or
phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC)
dietary fiber 18688 N-nitrosobenzylmethylamine)
(glucosinolate) 91
DNA 28, 3234, 76 carcinogen 14546
pomegranates and 194
docosahexaenoic (DHA) acid, red wine and 17980
proanthocyanidins 148
15357 smoking effects 178
red and processed meat
see also omega-3 fatty acids strawberries and raspberries and
consumption 20809
red wine and 17980, 206 14547
234 Index
H
free radicals 29, 33, 7677
glucosinolates 8892
freezing of food 90, 141, 146
see also phytochemicals
hangover cure, cabbage as 86
gooseberries 64
G grapefruit 163, 168, 170, 172
grapes
hazelnuts 145, 148
head and neck cancer 73, 19596
garlic and onions (Allium family) 62,
see also mouth cancer
72, 8293, 164, 212 grape juice 17778
heart disease see cardiovascular
ajoene 99, 102 and parasite attacks 70
disease
allicin 98100 proanthocyanidins in 148
Helicobacter pylori 43, 91
Index 235
hepatitis viruses B and C, and liver insulin levels, obesity 110 lentinan (polysaccharide) 190
cancer 43 intestinal cancer see colon cancer lettuce 62
herbivorous animals, dietary intestinal flora (microbiome) 7071, leukemia 15, 9091, 125, 138, 169,
choices 54 8990 180
herbivorous insects, plant damage isoflavones 75, 10617, 212 lifestyle changes 1920, 20217
69 see also phytochemicals lignans 73, 11618
herbs see spices and herbs isothiocyanates 71, 75, 77, 8892 limonene 74, 78
heredity factors 15, 20, 32, 60 see also sulphur compounds see also phytochemicals
herring, omega-3 fatty acids 153 Italy 85, 99 linoleic acid (LA) 151, 155
history of medicine, diet and cancer Rome see Ancient Rome see also omega-6 fatty acids
prevention 5354 linolenic acid (LNA) 153,
human papilloma virus (HPV) 92
hydrogenated oils and margarines
J 15557
see also omega-3 fatty acids
jalapeo 62
15354 linseeds
Japan
omega-3 fatty acids 15254,
I
algae (nori) in diet 192
157
breast cancer incidence 110, 192
phytoestrogens 11618, 157
immigration effects 1719, 126 chanoyu tea ceremony 133, 138
liver cancer
India colon cancer 18
alcohol effects 17879, 204
Alzheimers disease 124 green tea production 133, 136
Asia 16
Ayurvedic medicine 124, 178 menopause symptoms 11213
coffee and 196
cancer rates 16, 12526 migration effects 17
dietary fiber and 187
colon cancer 16 mushrooms 188, 190
green tea and 137
Darjeeling tea 132 prostate cancer 17
hepatitis viruses B and C 43
migration effects 126 resveratrol (from Japanese
intestinal flora (microbiome) 7071
tea production 132, 134 knotweed), medicinal use 178
omega-3 fatty acids and 157
turmeric production and soy use 10607
turmeric and 125
consumption 12324 tofu and prostate cancer 112
U.S./India comparison 125
indole-3-carbinol (I3C) 74, 7778, junk food, as risk factor 2123, 48
longevity see aging
92, 212
lung cancer
see also phytochemicals
inflammation
K apples and pears and 195
bronchial cancer and silicosis 43
kale 62, 85, 88
inflammatory cells in immune
Kaposi sarcoma, and HHV-8 43 cruciferous vegetables and 73,
system 4146, 48
kidney cancer 4647, 125, 138, 164 87
inflammatory diseases that
kiwis 145 exercise, importance of 204
predispose to cancer 43
garlic and onions and 10001
and obesity 4446, 187
promotion, and omega-6 fatty
acids 154, 158
L green tea and 13738
herbs and 128
larynx cancer 178, 204 immigration effects 17
reduction properties, spices and leeks 62, 9697, 101 mushrooms and 190
herbs 123 legumes, dietary fiber 186, 188 pomegranates 194
see also anti-inflammatory lemons 168 red wine and 179
properties lentils, dietary fiber 186, 188 smoking and 16, 20, 204
236 Index
M
nasopharyngeal cancer, and salt
and chemotherapy drug
consumption 207
effectiveness 158
mackerel 152, 154 neck cancer see head and neck cancer
docosahexaenoic (DHA) acid,
macrophages (white blood cells) nectarines 72, 75, 19495
15357
41, 44 Nigeria 1718
eicosapentaenoic (EPA) acid,
macular degeneration 162 nitrosamines, protection against 91,
15357
Malaysia 113 10001
essential fatty acids 15154
Mali 207 NMBA (N-nitrosobenzylmethylamine),
linolenic acid (LNA) 153,
MALT lymphoma, and Helicobacter and esophagus cancer 14546
15557
pylori 43 non-Hodgkin lymphoma 126, 208
main dietary sources 153
mandarins 168 nuts 73, 21314
omega-6 fatty acids 15155,
marjoram 122, 127 dietary fiber 18687
158, 191
Mediterranean diet 156, 182, 21314 ellagic acid 145
omega-9 fatty acids 152, 154
melanoma 126, 164, 180, 196, 206 omega-3 fatty acids 152, 154,
onions see garlic and onions (Allium
see also skin cancer 15758
family)
melons 72 polyphenols 72
oranges 72, 16869
menopause, and soy 11214
oregano 122, 127
mesothelioma, and asbestosis 43
metastases, and cancer
O organic fruit and vegetables 209
ovarian cancer 15, 17, 43, 47, 125,
obesity 1315, 2022
development 3334
calorie intake reduction 208 128, 19192
Mexico 19697
global levels 46
P
microbiome (intestinal flora) 7071,
and inflammatory cells 4446,
8990
187
migration effects 1719, 126 pak choi (Chinese cabbage) 62, 88,
insulin levels 110
mint 122, 12728 91
oils 73, 152
miso 10608, 110, 11314 pancreatic cancer
olive oil 154, 156, 208, 213
see also soy angiogenesis effect 46
and angiogenesis 154
monounsaturated fats 152, 154 citrus fruits and 169
anti-inflammatory properties 154,
mouth cancer green vegetables and 73
156
alcohol effects 17879, 204 Indian cancer rates and migration
antioxidant properties 156
citrus fruits and 169 effect 126
oleocanthal molecule (phenolic
coffee and 196 nuts and 73
compound) 156
green tea and 13738 omega-3 fatty acids and 158
omega-9 fatty acids 152, 155
red wine and 179 red wine and 179
tomatoes cooked in, and lycopene
smoking effects 178, 204 smoking and 204
availability 16364
see also head and neck cancer turmeric and 126
Index 237
papaya 163 lycopene 74, 78, 16164, green tea 72, 13337
parsley 122, 12728 193, 212 luteolin in herbs 12728
pasta, dietary fiber 188 molecular composition of foods nuts 72
peaches 72, 75, 145, 19495 6768 phenolic acids in wine 176
peanuts 117, 177 as nutrients 75 pomegranates 19394
pears 7273, 145, 188, 19495 pharmacological (druglike) effects 70 raisins 72
pecans 145 phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) terpenes see terpenes
pediatric cancers 32 9192 wine 72, 17682
pelvic inflammatory disease, and and plant characteristics 7175 see also phytochemicals
ovarian cancer 43 plant evolution in defence against polysaccharides 190
pepper, piperine and curcumin attack 6970 polyunsaturated fats 152, 154
absorption 21416 polyphenols see polyphenols pomegranates 19394
peppers 62, 162 proanthocyanidins 78, 14748, pomelo 168
perinatal factors 20 176, 197 Portugal 207
pesticides, risks associated with resveratrol 64, 7475, 7778, potatoes 62, 162
209 17682, 197, 212 precancerous cells 3940, 4243,
phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) sulphur compounds see sulphur 4647
9192 compounds proanthocyanidins 78, 14748, 176,
see also phytochemicals terpenes 127, 16970 197
phenolic acids in wine 176 wine 17576 see also phytochemicals
see also polyphenols phytoestrogens 57, 10809, processed foods 20709
phytochemicals 6679, 21112 11618, 157 prostate cancer 22
and antioxidants 7678 see also estrogen algae and 193
beneficial intestinal bacteria, pistachios 187 and androgen hormones 164
promoting growth of 7071 plant-based foods broccoli and 194
cabbage family (cruciferous) diet and cancer prevention citrus fruits and 169
8892 5263 cruciferous vegetables and 73, 87
calories, low density 70 importance of increasing garlic and onion and 9899
citrus fruits 16970, 212 consumption of 21112 green tea and 13738, 194
curcumin 64, 7475, 77, 12427, lack of, as risk factor 2022 herbs and 128
212, 21416 negative myths associated with Indian cancer rates and migration
delphinidin 74, 14647 fruit and vegetables 209, 211 effect 126
EGCG (epigallocatechin-3-gallate) plant starches and fiber, anti- Japan 17
13638, 21415 inflammatory effect in colon 70 migration effects 17, 126
ellagic acid 74, 78, 14547 plums 73, 19495 Nigeria 1718
function of 6876 polyphenols oils, plant and nut, and 73
genistein 5657, 74, 77, 10809, anthocyanidins 78, 144, 14647, omega-3 fatty acids and 15758
117, 212 176, 178 phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC)
glucosinolates 8892 apigenin in herbs 122, 12728 (glucosinolate) 91
indole-3-carbinol (I3C) 74, 7778, berries 72, 14448 pomegranates and 194
92, 212 catechins see catechins proanthocyanidins 148
isoflavones 75, 10617, 212 chlorogenic acid 19495 and prostatitis 43
limonene 74, 78 flavonoids 96, 169, 176, 198 PSA levels 194
238 Index
R
shallots 97, 101
spinach 62
Singapore 109, 113
spring greens 88
radicchio 62 sirtuins (proteins), and longevity 180
spring onions 62, 97, 100
radishes 89 skin cancer 20, 125, 138, 192, 196
squash 62
rainbow trout 153 see also melanoma
stomach cancer 22
raisins 72 smoking
Asia 16
rapeseed oil 15254 NNK (carcinogenic nitrosamine in
citrus fruits and 73, 169
raspberries 64, 14142, 145, tobacco) 91, 101
cruciferous vegetables and 87
14748, 188 as risk factor 1314, 16, 2021,
garlic and onions and,
ready-made meals, and calorie 32, 4143, 178, 20304
98101
intake 208 socioeconomic factors 20
green tea and 13738
rectum cancer 17, 87, 125 soy 10419, 21213
Helicobacter pylori and 43, 91
see also colon cancer age when people begin to eat soy
mushrooms and 190
red beans 117, 148 products, significance of 111
proanthocyanidins 148
red cabbages 62, 88 in Asian diet 7576, 10506
salt consumption and 207
red clover, and isoflavones 113, cultivation and fermentation 10506
sunshine and UV rays exposure
116 daidzein 108
20
red meat consumption 21, 20809 false controversy around 11217
turmeric and 125
red wine see wine genetically modified 108
strawberries 64, 72, 14243, 145
redcurrants 64 genistein molecule 5657, 74, 77,
in beauty treatments 142
resveratrol 64, 7475, 7778, 10809, 117, 212
cultivation, France 143
17682, 197, 212 isoflavones (phytochemical
ellagic acid 74, 14547
see also phytochemicals compound) 75, 10617, 212
food allergies 142
Rome see Ancient Rome and menopause 11214
and longevity 143
rosemary 122, 127 miso 10610, 11314
proanthocyanidins 14748
239
symbols, myths, and legends trans fats, hydrogenated oils and vitamin D 73, 208
142 margarines 15354 vitamin E 68, 76, 125, 207
therapeutic uses 143 turmeric 122, 21213
stroma see cellular environment
(stroma)
absorption concerns 12627
antioxidant properties 125
W
walnuts 117, 153
sulphur compounds 78 in Asian diet 7576
watercress 8889, 9192
diallyl sulfate (DAS) 74, 77, curcumin (phytochemical) in 64,
watermelons 163
10002 7475, 77, 12427, 212,
white blood cells (macrophages) 41, 44
in garlic and onions 74, 77, 21416
white currants 64
9698, 10002 in curry powder 124, 12627
wine 17283
isothiocyanates 71, 75, 77, 8892 as dye and food coloring 123
anthocyanidins (polyphenol) 176
see also phytochemicals as saffron of the Indies 124
antioxidant properties 178
sun exposure risks 206 therapeutic properties 12324
and cardiovascular diseases 174
sunflower seeds 117, 187 turnips 8889
75, 17879, 18182
sunshine and UV rays exposure, twins, and inherited genes 15
ethanol in 175
2021, 32
U
flavonols (polyphenol) 176
supplements, use of 21, 20708
grape fermentation process effects
T
ulcerative colitis, and colon cancer 176
43 grapevine culture history 17374
tamoxifen, and breast cancer 10, unsaturated fats 152 LDL cholesterol and red wine 175
57, 109, 115, 196 urinary infections, and cranberries phenolic acids (polyphenol) 176
tangerines 168 144 phytochemical compounds 17576
tanning beds, and UVA rays 206 ursolic acid, in herbs 127 polyphenols 72, 17682
tea see green tea U.S. 1618, 77, 125, 13435, proanthocyanidins (polyphenol)
terpenes 127, 16970 14245 148, 176
see also phytochemicals uterine cancer recommended red wine intake 182
Thailand 1617 angiogenesis effect 46 red wine characteristics 17576
thyme 122, 12728 coffee and 196 red wine and mortality 175
thyroid cancer 43, 59 exercise, importance of 204 resveratrol (polyphenol) 64,
tofu 10708, 112 migration effects 17, 126 17682, 197
see also soy omega-3 fatty acids and 157 see also alcohol; grapes
tomatoes 62, 73, 87, 16065, soy and 112 world distribution of cancer cases
193, 212 1619
allergies 142
antioxidant properties 164
V
vegetable extract 6263
cooked in olive oil 16364
vegetable oils, omega-6 fatty
as fruit, vegetable, or poison 16162
acids 152
hybridization effects 163
VEGF (vascular endothelial growth
in ketchup 163
factor) 40, 138, 14647, 156
lycopene (phytochemical
viruses, as risk factor 1920, 32
compound) 74, 16164,
vitamin A 68, 76
193, 212
vitamin C 77, 16970
origins 16162
240
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