PHYSICS
Electricity and magnetism
David Williams
Abstract
This article introduces essential concepts of electricity and magnetism
relevant to anaesthesia. Simple analogies are used to explain current
electricity and the action of electronic components in common use.
The concept of electric and magnetic elds is introduced with exam-
ples of their practical application.
Keywords Electricity; electronics; magnetism
Royal College of Anaesthetists CPD Matrix: 1A03, 2A04, 3J00
Static and current electricity
Static electricity involves redistribution of electrons (charge
separation) between two or more insulators, such that one
insulator acquires an excess of electrons (negative charge), and
the other develops a deficit of electrons (positive charge); but
there is no net gain or loss of charge (Q; coulomb, C), or ongoing
movement of electrons (hence static). The elementary charge e
carried by a single electron is 1.602
1019 C. Like charges repel
and unlike charges attract. Redistribution of electrons may be
achieved by rubbing two insulators together to transfer electrons,
or by attraction or repulsion of electrons by an adjacent charged
object (induction). Charge may rapidly flow to earth via a
conductor, causing ignition of flammable agents, or cardiac ar-
rest due to microshock.
Current electricity involves a supply of energy in the form of
an electromotive force (EMF)(E ; volt, V) which produces a po-
tential difference (PD)(V; volt, V) between two points on a
conductor. If there is a continuous unbroken loop of conductor
(circuit), and a source of energy (EMF) to push the electrons
around the circuit, electrons will flow through the conductor as
electric current (I; ampere, A) from a point of high PD to low PD
in a manner analogous to the flow of water through a pipe (Table
1), or rotation of an unbroken column of marbles around a hula
hoop. EMF can be provided by, for example, a single cell or
battery of interconnected cells that converts chemical potential
energy into kinetic energy of electrons via chemical reactions
which may be irreversible (primary cell) or reversible (sec-
ondary or rechargeable cell).
Individual electrons move very slowly through the conductor
at a drift velocity of w1 m in 75 minutes, but interaction between
adjacent electrons causes an almost instantaneous wave of
conduction at the speed of light (w3
108 m s1). Electrons
move from a region of excess (negative charge) to deficit (posi-
tive charge); however, conventional flow notation used in all
David Williams FRCA, DipDHM is a Consultant Anaesthetist at the
Welsh Centre for Burns, Swansea, and Honorary Associate Professor
at Swansea University. UK. Conicts of interest: none declared.
ANAESTHESIA AND INTENSIVE CARE MEDICINE --:-
Please cite this article in press as: Williams D, Electricity and magnetism, Anaesthesia and intensive care medicine (2017), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.mpaic.2017.04.011
Learning objectives
After reading this article, you will be able to:
C describe key concepts of static and current electricity
C explain the principles and application of common electronic
components
C describe the relationships between electricity and magnetism
circuit diagrams, formulae and laws describes current as flowing
in the opposite direction (i.e. from positive to negative).
If the direction of current flow is constant, the current is said
to be direct current, DC. If the direction of current flow peri-
odically reverses at a given frequency ( f; hertz, Hz), it is termed
alternating current (AC). The fluctuating voltage in AC circuits
may be described in terms of the peak voltage (Vpeak); however,
for most of the time the voltage is less than Vpeak, and is therefore
usually described (and indicated by test equipment) as the root
mean square (VRMS), which is the DC voltage that would have an
equivalent heating effect. For a sinusoidal waveform:
.p
VRMS Vpeak 2 0:707 Vpeak
p
Vpeak VRMS 2 1:414 VRMS
Hence European domestic mains voltage of 230 VRMS is 325
Vpeak. Similar equations apply to current.1
Components
Electric current may be put to use by the addition of components,
which may be arranged in a circuit in series or parallel configu-
rations (Figure 1). Kirchhoffs Current Law states that the sum of
all current entering any point in a circuit equals the sum of all
current leaving any point in a circuit (i.e. charge is conserved).
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law states that the sum of all the potential
drops in any closed loop of a circuit equals zero (i.e. energy is
conserved). Passive components (e.g. resistors, capacitors, in-
ductors) do not generate a current or PD.
Resistors (load) oppose current flow and dissipate the lost
energy as heat.2 Resistance (R; ohm, U) depends on properties of
the material (resistivity, r; U: conductivity, s 1/r), and in-
creases with increased length, decreased diameter, and increased
temperature. Most conductors obey Ohms Law: V IR. Fuses
and safety cut-out devices break a circuit if current exceeds
normal flow. The Power Law: P VI (I2R) may be used to select
the correct fuse rating (A) for a given application if supply
voltage and power consumption (P; watt, W) are known. In
combination, resistors can be used to make a potential divider
that allows connection to a smaller PD (e.g. for a power supply),
or a Wheatstone bridge that translates a small change in
1
Audio amplifier power output is often quoted as Watt RMS; but this is
misleading. Average Power (VRMS
IRMS for resistive loads) should be
used instead.
2
N.B. The PD across a resistor drops, but the current passing through it
remains constant: current is not used up as it passes through a resistor.
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 PHYSICS
Comparison of water and electricity
Water
Property Units
Volume (quantity of water) L Charge (quantity of electrons)
Flow (movement of water) L s1
Pressure N m2 or pascal (Pa)
Difference in pressure N m2 or pascal (Pa)
Volume (L) flow (L s1)
time (s)
Work (J) pressure (Pa)
volume (L)
Power (W) pressure (Pa)
flow (L s1)
Table 1
Figure 1 Components in series and parallel. Effective values of resistors (a), inductors (b), and capacitors (c) in series
and parallel congurations.
resistance into a substantially proportional large change in PD to
increase the sensitivity of sensors (e.g. pressure transducer)
(Figure 2). Wheatstone bridges also help to compensate for
thermal drift, and may be modified to measure other quantities
(e.g. capacitance, inductance, impedance).
Variable resistors with linear or logarithmic scales (e.g. dim-
mers and volume controls), thermistors3 (e.g. temperature
probes and thermal cut-outs) and light-dependant resistors (e.g.
motion detectors, emergency lighting) are all widely used in the
hospital environment.
Capacitors typically consist of two conductors separated by an
insulator (dielectric) and store energy as electric charge. In
terms of our fluid analogy, capacitors resemble a rigid container
divided into two compartments by a thick rubber plate. In
essence, DC cannot pass through a capacitor, but transient or AC
can. Capacitance (C; farad, F) depends on the permittivity of free
space (0) and dielectric (r), plate area (A) and separation (d ): C
0rA/d. Stored charge Q CV. If 1 J energy is needed to push
1 C of charge uphill against an electrical potential of 1 V, then 1
joule 1 coulomb-volt: E QV. The mean voltage during
complete charge and discharge is V/2, therefore stored energy (or
work of charging) E 1/2CV2 1/2QV. There is an exponential
relationship between current, voltage, and electrical charge with
3
Depending on the type of thermistor, resistance may increase (positive
temperature coefficient, PTC) or decrease (negative temperature coeffi-
cient, NTC) with increasing temperature in a non-linear fashion.
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Electricity
Property Units
Coulomb (C)
Current (movement of electrons) C s1 or ampere (A)
EMF J C1 or volt (V)
Difference in potential (PD) (voltage) J C1 or volt (V)
Charge (C) current (A)
time (s)
Work (J) potential (V)
charge (C)
Power (W) potential (V)
current (A)
time when a capacitor charges or discharges. Applications
include storage and release of charge (e.g. defibrillator, camera
flash), smoothing of AC (e.g. power supplies, suppression of
radio frequency interference), touch sensors, and timing devices.
Inductors consist of a coil of wire around an air or ferromag-
netic core. Inductance (L; Wb/A: 1Wb/A 1 Henry, H) depends
on the permeability of free space (m0) and core (mr), number of
turns (n), cross sectional area (A) and length (l ) of core: L
m0mrn2A/l. Inductors store energy as a magnetic field (E 1/
2LI2), and effectively add inertia e analogous to a turbine with
a flywheel attached e delaying onset and offset of maximal
current flow. The latter effect may be employed in a defibrillator
to prolong the duration of the delivered shock.
The flow of AC through passive components is more complex
than DC, as frequency ( f ) and phase angle (f) are involved as
well as amplitude. The AC analogues of DC resistance are
impedance (Z; ohm, U) for resistors; and reactance (X; ohm, U)
for capacitors (XC 1/2pfC ) and inductors (XL 2pfL). Current
flow through resistors is not affected by frequency, but current
passes more easily through capacitors at high frequencies, and
through inductors at low frequencies. A combination of resistors,
capacitors and inductors will therefore have minimum or
maximum impedance at a resonant frequency ( f0), which occurs
when XC and XL are equal and opposite, and this can be used in
the design of high-pass, low-pass, band pass, or notch filters to
selectively pass or block specific frequency bands as part of
signal processing (e.g. in monitoring equipment and radio
receivers).
2 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
 PHYSICS

Figure 2 Potential divider and Wheatstone bridge. (a) Potential divider: Two resistors (R1, R2) in series have total resistance R1 R2, and by
Kirchhoffs Current Law, the same current (I ) passes through each. By Ohms Law: V1 I(R1 R2) and V2 IR2; therefore V2 V1R2/R1 R2 (i.e.
the PD across each resistor varies in proportion to the ratio of the two resistances). In practice, if load RL is placed across R2, then V2 V1
Rp/R1
Rp, where: Rp (R2
RL)/(R2 RL). (b) Wheatstone bridge: Two potential dividers are connected to a common supply voltage (V), and linked by
a galvanometer (M ) at the bridge between them. R1 and R2 are xed and known resistances (ratio arms), R3 is a calibrated variable resistor, and
R4 is the unknown resistance. R3 is adjusted until current through the galvanometer is zero (null deection), at which point the bridge is
balanced: potential at A potential at B (i.e. PD 0 V; I1 I2; I1R1 I2R3 and I1R2 I2R4; therefore R1/R2 R3/R4; and R4 R2/R1
R3).

Semiconductors topographic gradient) at that point. In terms of our fluid analogy,

Diodes readily conduct current from anode (a) to cathode (k); but
resist current flow in the opposite direction, and effectively
function as one-way valves. They may be used as (half-wave,
full-wave or bridge) rectifiers, to convert AC to DC. Light-emitting
diodes (LED) and liquid crystal diodes (LCD) are used for al-
phanumeric displays; and infrared and photodiodes are used in
remote controls and pulse oximeter probes.
Transistors (transfer resistors) come in two types: NPN and
PNP, and are analogous to hydraulically activated servo valves:
a small current flow between base (b) and emitter (e) controls a
larger current between collector (c) and emitter. Applications
therefore include switching (e.g. solid-state relays) and signal
amplification. The related field effect transistors (FET) use a
small change in voltage between gate and drain to control a
larger voltage between source and drain.
Transistors and diodes may be combined to form binary logic
gates (e. g. AND, OR, XOR, NOT) in which the output is deter-
mined by the combination of inputs, summarized in a truth table;
and flip flops, which form the basis of binary counters. These
are the building blocks of all microprocessors and computers.
Vast numbers of semiconductors and other components can be
etched onto a small piece of silicon (silicon chip) to form in-
tegrated circuits (IC).
Magnetism
Electric and magnetic fields are produced by motion of electrons
and subatomic particles, and are examples of vector fields. Each
position in space is represented by a vector that defines the
magnitude and direction of the force which would be exerted on
a tiny test particle (e.g. charge or magnet) placed at that point.
Adjacent vectors can be connected to form field lines (analogous
to the representation of the continuous function of elevation by
contour lines on a topographic map). The density of the field
lines at a point is proportional to the strength of the field (or
a vector field is the fluid, field lines are stream lines, and field
strength is the velocity (i.e. speed and direction) of the fluid at a
given point. Electric and magnetic fields are intimately related,
and are described by the four Maxwells equations: a changing
magnetic field creates an electric field (i.e. current flow) and a
changing electric field creates a magnetic field. We can define
magnetic flux density or magnetic field strength at a point (B;
derived unit Wb m2 or tesla, T; cgs unit gauss, G: 1 G 104
T)4; and magnetic flux (FM; V s, derived unit weber, Wb; cgs unit
Maxwell Mx: 1 Mx 108 Wb) acting at an angle q through an
area A: FM BAcos q.
Permanent and electromagnets
Magnets have at least one north (N) and one south (S) pole, with
a field direction (by convention, the direction of force on a N pole
placed in the field) from N to S. Like poles repel: unlike poles
attract. Strong magnetic fields may adversely effect medical
equipment (e.g. pacemakers and cathode ray tube [CRT] dis-
plays). Materials containing unpaired electrons are attracted by
magnets: ferromagnetic materials (e.g. Fe, Ni, Co and their alloys:
AleNieCo and ferrite: ZnO2eFe2O3) are strongly attracted,
whereas paramagnetic materials (e.g. transition elements, Al,
Mg, Mo, O2) are weakly attracted. Diamagnetic materials (e.g. Bi,
Cu, Au, Ag, Pb and their alloys; as well as carbon, water, most
gases, and organic compounds) contain no unpaired electrons,
and are weakly repelled by magnets.
A current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field with
strength proportional to current, and direction predicted by
Maxwells Corkscrew Rule. The magnitude of the magnetic field is
increased by use of a coiled conductor (solenoid), and further
increased if the coil is wound on a ferromagnetic core
4
B w0.5
104 T at the earths surface; w1 T near rare earth magnets;
and w1.5 T inside a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner.

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 PHYSICS
(electromagnet). Pure (soft) iron cores produce temporary
electromagnets that lose magnetism when the current is switched
off: steel (i.e. FeeC alloy) cores produce permanent electro-
magnets, which retain magnetism when the current is switched
off.
Ferromagnetic objects placed within a solenoid may be
magnetized by DC to make permanent magnets, and demag-
netized (degaussed) by AC. Ferromagnetic objects may also be
weakly magnetized by repeatedly stroking them with another
magnet, or hammering them when aligned with the earths
magnetic field at the appropriate angle of dip; and demagne-
tized by heating, or hammering them when aligned perpendic-
ular to the earths magnetic field. Alloys of rare earth elements
(e.g. samariumecobalt: SmCo5, neodymiumeironeboron:
Nd2Fe14B) can be magnetized to make extremely strong compact
permanent magnets.
Electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic induction (inductance) is generation of a po-
tential difference across a conductor due to a changing magnetic
field. The changing magnetic field may be caused by AC, or by
relative motion between the conductor and the magnet. The
magnitude of the induced EMF is proportional to the frequency of
the AC, or rate at which the lines of the magnetic field are cut by
the conductor (Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction); and
the direction of the induced EMF is such as to oppose the change
in magnetic flux which caused it (Lenzs Law).
A transformer consists of two (primary and secondary) or
more coils on a common ferromagnetic core. Although electri-
cally isolated, in an AC circuit the coils interact via electromag-
netic induction, and can step up or step down voltage at the
expense of current in an analogous manner to the way in which
different gear ratios on a bicycle exchange torque for speed. The
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magnitude of the effect depends on the ratio of the number of
windings (n): n1/n2 V1/V2 I2/I1. Applications include power
supplies and isolation transformers.
Motion (mechanical kinetic energy) can be converted into
current (electrical energy) by relative motion between a
conductor and a magnetic field. The direction of current flow is
predicted by Flemings Right Hand Dynamo Rule. Applications
include generators, dynamos, and microphones. Conversely,
current may be converted into motion by passing a changing
current through a conductor in a fixed magnetic field. The di-
rection of motion is predicted by Flemings Left Hand Motor Rule.
Applications include: electric (rotary and linear) motors, relays,
loud speakers and moving coil meters.
When current flows through a (typically wide, flat) conductor
in a magnetic field, the transverse force generated on the elec-
trons causes them to accumulate on one side, producing a
measurable PD across the width of the conductor (the Hall ef-
fect). Common applications include magnetometers, robust non-
contact switches, and sensors for e. g. flow, pressure, and
movement. A
FURTHER READING
Scherz P. Practical electronics for inventors. 2nd edn. 2007. New York:
McGraw Hill, 2007.
Serway R, Jewett J. Physics for scientists and engineers. 6th edn. CA:
Thomson, Brooks, Cole, 2004.
Tooley M. Electronic circuits: fundamentals and applications. 2nd edn.
2004. Oxford: Elsevier/Newnes, 2004.
FOR FURTHER DETAILS OF LAWS OF MAGNETISM
Williams D, Mandal NG, Sharma A. Electricity and magnetism. Anaesth
Intensive Care Med 2011; 12: 423e5.
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