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Aquaculture Research, 2011, 42, 823^831 doi:10.1111/j.1365-2109.2011.02855.

Fish farming of native species in Colombia: current


situation and perspectives

Pablo Emilio Cruz-Casallas1,V| ctor Mauricio Medina-Robles1 & Yohana Mar| a


Velasco-Santamar| a1,2
1
Research Group on Reproduction and Toxicology of Aquatic Organisms ^ GRITOX, Aquaculture Institute, University of the
Llanos,Villavicencio, Meta, Colombia
2
Institute of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense M, Denmark

Correspondence: P E Cruz-Casallas, Research Group on Reproduction and Toxicology of Aquatic Organisms ^ GRITOX, Aquaculture
Institute, University of the Llanos, Km 12 via Puerto Lopez,Villavicencio, Meta, Colombia. E-mail: pecruzcasallas@unillanos.edu.co

Abstract Potentialities for the Colombian


aquaculture
In Colombia and the rest of the world, the decrease
in capture sheries production has turned the aqua- Colombia is a tropical country with an ambient tem-
culture into an alternative source of protein for the perature exceeding 24 1C in most of the country
populations food security as well as an important especially in the Caribbean, Pacic, Amazon and Or-
productive activity, generating employment and in- inoquia regions (22^30 1C), and these regions repre-
come for the rural communities. The Colombian senting about 80% of the Colombian territory.
pisciculture is based on red Tilapia Oreochromis sp. Colombia has a wide river system that ows through
(Linnaeus), Rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss the whole country, which has a continental area of
(Walbaum) and cachama blanca Piaractus brachypo- 1141748 km2 and1300 km of coastline on the Pacic
mus (Cuvier), which currently represent around Ocean and1600 km on the Atlantic Ocean. Therefore,
96% of the total national production. The remaining this country is ranking in a relevant place in the
4% comes from other farmed species such as boca- world due to the high amount of watersheds and
chico Prochilodus magdalenae (Steindachner), carp available water resources. Colombia has one of the
Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus) and yamu Brycon amazo- greatest sh varieties of the planet with a high biodi-
nicus (Spix & Agassiz). From the three main sh spe- versity of hydro-biological organisms, and fresh-
cies, cachama blanca is the only native species, water, brackish and marine waters, as well as land
which has shown excellent performance in pond suitable for construction of ponds and dams which
farming due to its rusticity, omnivorous habits, docil- oer a great potential for developing both marine
ity, meat quality, food conversion and disease resis- and continental aquaculture (Nash 1988).
tance. The limited oer of Colombian sh farmed The average annual rainfall is around 3000 mm
species determines its currently low competitiveness exceeding more than three times the world average
and restricted impact on the international markets; of 900 mm and twice the South American average
thus making necessary to explore the potential of that is 1600 mm year 1 (IDEAM 2002). In Colombia,
new sh species in order to introduce them to the pis- 25% of the total continental area, the equivalent of
ciculture system and to expand the range of sh 274 000 km2, corresponds to the basin of Magdalena
farming species. A good alternative is the introduc- and Cauca regions that provides 11% of water supply
tion of native catsh, which have great potential for to the country, supporting 70% of the population and
sh farming activity. generating 85% of gross domestic product. The rivers
Orinoco, Amazonas, Sinu, Atrato and Catatumbo are
Keywords: aquaculture, Piaractus brachypomus, found in the remaining 75% of the continental area
Colombia, native sh species, pisciculture, Leiarius (868 000 km2), contributing with 89% of the surface
marmoratus water supply and support 30% of the population.

r 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 823


Fish farming of native species in Colombia P E Cruz-Casallas et al. Aquaculture Research, 2011, 42, 823^831

Moreover, Colombia has ca. 720 000 basins and in sucient amounts for the establishment of com-
micro-watersheds and around 1800 water bodies mercial sh farming. Subsequently, the captive
classied as ponds, lakes and reservoirs with an breeding of other species such as yamu Brycon ama-
approximate volume of 26300 million m3 and ca. zonicus (Spix & Agassiz) was successfully achieved
140 879 km3 of groundwater reserves. Colombia (Arias, Pardo-Carrasco, Atencio-Garc| a, Vasquez-
shares 490 rivers, streams, pipes and springs with Torres & Zaniboni-Filho 2005). Currently, few re-
ve neighbouring countries. Along its 3000 km of search groups evaluated dierent protocols to induce
coastline on the two oceans, Colombia has the most the nal gonadal maturation and ovulation of native
rich, diverse and productive coastal marine ecosys- catsh species with the aim to diversify the national
tems of the tropic (IGAC 2010). These statistics aquaculture (Munoz & Atencio 2003; Mira-Lopez,
about the Colombian hydrologic potential ranked Medina & Cruz-Casallas 2010a; Valbuena-Villarreal,
the country in the tenth worldwide place in terms of Zapata-Berruecos & Cruz-Casallas 2010).
amount of internal renewable water resources Despite all the eorts to generate relevant informa-
(IDEAM 2000). tion about the Colombian native sh species, the low
Around 6025 freshwater sh species in Central availability of the knowledge produced in Colombia
and South America have been estimated, which are reduce its applicability to the productive systems.
grouped into 71 families (Reis, Kullander & Ferraris An additional factor to the low development in
2003; Maldonado-Ocampo & Usma 2006). Within this area is the lack of training or knowledge
this amount of species, 4475 are recognized as valid transfer to the local farmers aecting the aquacul-
species and around 1550 undescribed species have ture and its possibilities to expand to large scale
been estimated (Reis et al. 2003). Most authors agree (Salazar 2005).
that the South American freshwater sh fauna has Figure 1 shows the percentage variation of the
evolved in the Amazon region and from there it most important sh species supporting the piscicul-
has spread to other Neotropical areas (Hernandez- ture in Colombia from 1985 to 2010. As shown, the
Camacho, Hurtado-Guerra, Ortiz-Quijano & Walsch- pisciculture in 1985 was supported mainly by the
burger 1992). farming of Rainbow trout (67%), while the contribu-
The Colombian freshwater sh are one of the most tion of cachama farming reached only 11%. In 2001
diverse in the Neotropic, contributing with a funda- cachama blanca contributed to about 33% of the na-
mental part of the South American sh fauna. The tional production, however, due to the increased
Colombian sh biodiversity has been estimated in farming of red Tilapia during the last years, the parti-
1547 freshwater species ranking the country in the cipation of cachama and in general all native species
second place in biodiversity in South America with decreased to about 25% (ENA 2008). On the other
Brazil being the country with the highest biodiver- hand, Fig. 2 shows the variation of the total aquacul-
sity (Maldonado-Ocampo & Usma 2006). ture production in Colombia over the past 15 years.
After 5 years of continuous growth in the aquacul-
ture, a dramatic decline in the total production of
Aquaculture history in Colombia
continental aquaculture was observed in 2000, pri-
The aquaculture in Colombia began in 1939 with the marily due to the decline in the Rainbow trout pro-
introduction of Rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss duction associated with the increase in the national
(Walbaum) to re-stock the water bodies in the civil conict, however, a progressive growth in the
Andean region. Afterwards, some species including production exceeding 5% annual rate has been
carp Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus) and Tilapia Oreochro- observed [Instituto Nacional de Pesca y Acuicultura
mis sp. (Linnaeus) were introduced to carry out the (INPA) 2001; Instituto Colombiano de Desarrollo
rst trial of sh farming in earthen ponds. In 1967, Rural (INCODER) 2005; Corporacion Colombia Inter-
Redbreast tilapia Tilapia rendalli (Boulenger) was in- nacional (CCI) 2008; ENA 2008].
troduced to the country, and at the same time the rst
studies on native species breeding were carried out
Fish farming of native species
particularly with bocachico Prochilodus magdalenae
(Steindachner). However, only until 1983 the studies In Colombia there are mainly three native sh species
with native species began in captivity, achieving commercially farmed (cachama blanca, yamu and
successfull breeding of cachama blanca Piaractus bocachico), providing approximately 30% of the total
brachypomus (Cuvier) and the ngerlings production national production (Salazar 1999; CCI 2006).

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Aquaculture Research, 2011, 42, 823^831 Fish farming of native species in Colombia P E Cruz-Casallas et al.

Vidal-Barrios & Ram| rez-Duarte 2009), feeding ha-


bits and nutritional requirements (Vasquez-Torres,
Pereira-Filho & Arias-Castellanos 2002; Vasquez-
Torres, Hernandez-Arevalo & Yossa 2007) and ma-
nipulation of their reproductive cycle in captivity
and semen cryopreservation (Navarro, Velasco-San-
tamar| a & Cruz-Casallas 2004).
The rst farming trials of cachama blanca and ca-
chama negra Colossoma macropomum (Cuvier) car-
ried out in Brazil, evidenced the potential of these
species for production in ponds, particularly due to
their rusticity, fast growth, feeding habits, easy adap-
tation to articial diets and tolerance to unfavourable
limnological conditions (Mesa-Granda & Botero-
Aguirre 2007). The rst limitation for cachama blan-
ca production at commercial scale was its inability to
spontaneously breed in captivity making it necessary
to induce the nal gonadal maturation and the ovu-
lation using heterologous hormones (Navarro et al.
2004).

Biology

Cachama exhibits anatomical features in the oral


cavity and gills that allows the ingestion of a
wide variety of feed from planktonic organisms to
many kinds of leaves, fruits and seeds. In the natural
Figure 1 Percentage variation of the main sh species environment, these Characins reach sexual maturity
supporting the pisciculture in Colombia. Note the high between 3 and 4 years old with a body weight
participation of exotic-foreign species such as Rainbow (BW) of 3^4 kg. Cachama spawn once a year at the
trout or Tilapia during the last two decades. Cachama beginning of the rainy season and the spawning oc-
blanca Piaractus brachypomus (Cuvier) is the native spe- curs in the marginal whirl of the rivers to ensure that
cies with the most signicant participation to Colombian fertilized eggs and larvae are dragged and carried
pisciculture. Adapted from ENA (2008).
into the oodplains to take advantage of the natural
productivity of these ecosystems (Navarro et al.
Cachama blanca P. brachypomus
2004).
Piaractus brachypomus is a Characin sh widely dis- Most of the sh migrate to the bed of the main riv-
tributed in the Amazon and Orinoco basin; although ers when the ow of small tributary streams de-
one report also mentions its presence in the La Plata crease. During this period, the gonadal development
river (Lopez, Menni & Miquelarena 1987). Its omni- begins a temporary resting period, which is reactive
vorous feeding habits, rapid growth, meat quality with the onset of rains and the rise of the river water
and its commercial acceptance are the characteris- levels. These environmental stimuli together with the
tics that promote the cachama blanca as one of the formation of sh schools and the beginning of the up-
species most widely farmed (CCI 2006). The research stream migration (subienda), to nd suitable places
studies on this species have been mainly focused on to spawn, induce the later stages of the reproductive
the knowledge of their biology, anatomy (Pardo-Car- cycle. The nal gonadal maturation, ovulation and -
rasco, Arias-Castellanos & Atencio-Garc| a 1997), ba- nally the spawn occur during this short period. In the
sic haematology and health (Eslava, Verjan-Garc| a & Orinoco River basin in the Llanos Orientales of Co-
Iregui-Castro 2001; Eslava, Arias, Benavides-Bustos lombia, the onset of the rainy season is around March
& Hernandez 2003), toxicology (Ochoa, Pena & Gon- and few weeks later the breeding season of cachama
zalez 2002; Velasco-Santamar| a, Gomez-Manrique & begins which lasts until mid-June. This pattern
Calderon-Bernal 2006; Eslava, Rondon-Barragan, of seasonal reproductive behaviour is observed in

r 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Aquaculture Research, 42, 823^831 825


Fish farming of native species in Colombia P E Cruz-Casallas et al. Aquaculture Research, 2011, 42, 823^831

Figure 2 Total production variation of Colombian pisciculture from1985 to 2008. Note that production recovers progres-
sively from 2000 with an annual rate 45%. Adapted from INPA (2001), INCODER (2005), CCI (2008) and ENA (2008).

wild-sh and also in sh kept in captivity at the farm The limitations during the early ngerlings pro-
stations and centres dedicated to ngerlings produc- duction associated with the induced breeding have
tion; therefore this seasonal pattern initially led to a been overcome through the use of protocols using
decrease in ngerlings production for farming pur- natural or synthetic hormones (Munoz, Vasquez-
poses during most of the year, mainly outside the nat- Torres & Cruz-Casallas1991) to induce the nal gona-
ural breeding season. dal maturation and ovulation. Moreover, the season-
ality problem in the female gonadal maturation
preventing the reproduction in dierent seasons at
Pisciculture
the commercial sh farms has also been resolved by
Many studies have demonstrated that cachama management practices and optimum broodstocks
blanca has high potential for farming in ponds due to feeding (Vasquez-Torres & Gomes 1996). The induc-
its biological and productive characteristics and also tion to the nal gonadal maturation has been
to its ability to accept natural and agro-products feed, achieved by intramuscular administration of carp pi-
and articial diets. In addition, under farming condi- tuitary extract (CPE). In females three doses are in-
tions cachama has high food conversion rates and jected as follows: an initial dose of 0.25 mg kg 1BW
good growth, as well as high degree of disease resis- namely preliminary dose, 24 h later 0.5 mg kg 1 BW
tance (Lopez, Gomez, Diaz, Armas, de Conroy, Cruz- and 12 h later 5.0 mg kg 1 BW (Navarro et al. 2004).
Casallas, Useche,Velasco-Santamar| a & Feliu 2005). The males are also injected with 4.0 mg kg 1 CPE in
The desirable farming conditions for this species one dose. The ovulation occurs between 6.0 and 7.0 h
are: (a) water temperature 24^29 1C, although they after the last CPE application, at 26  1 1C ambient
can temporarily tolerate temperatures below 22 1C temperature and from this moment the semi-natural
or above 34 1C; however, these extreme temperatures spawning is performed by placing the female and
reduce the food consumption and increase the male in circular ponds with water in recirculation
disease susceptibility, (b) pH: 6.5^8.5, (c) dissolved which stimulate the courtship behaviour and eggs
oxygen: 43 mg L 1, even though they can resist fertilization. The fertilized eggs are removed from
concentrations below 2 mg L 1 only for short peri- the circular ponds and incubated in 200 L incuba-
ods, (d) alkalinity: 420 mg L 1 (20^100 mg L 1) tors, Woynarovich type, keeping a constant vertical
the equivalent to calcium carbonate and (e) total ow of ca. 0.2 L seg 1. The hatching occurs approxi-
hardness 420 mg L 1 (20^120 mg L 1) (Rodriguez mately 14 h after fertilization at a temperature of 26^
& Anzola 2001). 27 1C.

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Aquaculture Research, 2011, 42, 823^831 Fish farming of native species in Colombia P E Cruz-Casallas et al.

Currently, some diculties to optimize the produc- reproductive biology and wild feeding habits (Cruz-
tion have been found in the growth stage especially Casallas, Arias, Eslava & Vasquez-Torres 2000). Later
associated with the feeding, due to the scarce knowl- studies have contributed to macroscopic and micro-
edge on the nutritional requirements of this species. scopic anatomical descriptions of skin and digestive
Therefore, the absence of specic ration at commer- organs, circulatory, respiratory, skeletal, muscular
cial level is one of the factors that have limited the and nervous system (Eslava, Suarez-Mahecha, Par-
commercial growth of this activity to economically do-Carrasco, Arias & Cruz-Casallas 2001). Other re-
important levels in Colombia. searchers have made signicant contributions on
Based on the fact that the aim of pisciculture is the the population ecology and biology, the minimum re-
increase in sh weight in a shortest time under eco- quirements and feasibility for farming, ngerlings
nomically advantageous conditions, it is essential to production and induced breeding (Arias, Pardo-Car-
provide food that supplies the nutritional require- rasco, Atencio-Garc| a,Vasquez-Torres & Zaniboni-Fil-
ments of each particular species. Because the nutri- ho 2004). More recently, the research studies have
tional requirements in cachama blanca are limited been focused on the seminal characterization (Cruz-
(Vasquez-Torres et al. 2002), the production costs have Casallas, Lombo-Rodr| guez & Velasco-Santamar| a
risen excessively in the last years due to the low e- 2005) and gametes cryopreservation (Cruz-Casallas,
ciency of the rations used. The rations are formulated Medina-Robles & Velasco-Santamar| a 2006a, b;Velasco-
and manufactured from extrapolation of the nutri- Santamar| a, Medina-Robles & Cruz-Casallas 2006).
tional requirement information from foreign species
such as carp, Tilapia and Rainbow trout, whose re-
Biology
quirements are possibly dierent. In order to improve
this situation, the Aquaculture Institute of the Uni- This species is distributed in geographic areas be-
versity of the Llanos has been working to determine tween 50 and 500 m AMSL with water temperature
the nutritional requirements of this species evaluat- above 24 1C and inhabit tributaries, reservoirs and
ing puried diets with dierent protein levels during channels of the rivers Meta, Ariari, Guaviare and Or-
dierent stages of growth development (Vasquez- inoco. Like other sh species, the juveniles and adults
Torres 2008). It is important to highlight that most prefer to consume vegetables matter, particularly
of the nutritional research studies are based on pre- fruits and seeds, insects and other sh. An observa-
vious studies about stomach content, feeding prefer- tion of the stomach contents revealed that 20^90%
ences and habits at dierent life stage. is composes of animals (mostly insects) and the re-
maining from seeds and fruits; however, this compo-
sition varies according to the period of the year (Arias
Yamu B. amazonicus
2006).
Brycon is a genus of Neotropical Characins which The sexual maturity is reached when the standard
species are widely distributed from southern Mexico length is around 28 cm with a fecundity of ca.
to Argentina. The more well-known species in Colom- 120 000 eggs kg 1 BW. The ovaries mature only
bia are Brycon henni (Eigenmann), Brycon moorei once a year in a process that starts a few weeks after
(Steindachner) and B. amazonicus, nevertheless the spawning which is associated to the decrease of the
published information on those species is scarce. rivers water level. The process ends up in the next
Brycon henni and B. moorei commonly known as Sa- rainy season during which the sh spawn again, fol-
baleta and Dorada, respectively, inhabit the Inter An- lowing a similar development pattern to those ob-
dean tributaries particularly the Cauca, Magdalena served in other rheophilic species like cachama
and Sinu rivers (Lenis, Restrepo, Rivera, Monsalve & blanca and bocachico (Arias 2006).
Cruz-Casallas 2009), while B. amazonicus known as
yamu is native from the Orinoco River basin, being
Pisciculture
the most common Brycon genus in the Colombian
Llanos Orientales (Arias 2006). The environmental conditions in which yamu have
Yamu is an omnivorous sh with a rapid growth been most successfully breed in captivity are: water
and excellent meat quality and therefore constitutes temperature 27  0.5 1C, dissolved oxygen concen-
a species with great potential for sh farming. The tration of 7  1mg L 1 and pH of 6.8  0.3. The in-
earliest studies in Colombia were carried out in the duction to the nal gonadal maturation has been
late 1980s and were focused on the basic aspects of achieved by administration of CPE. For this purpose,

r 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Aquaculture Research, 42, 823^831 827


Fish farming of native species in Colombia P E Cruz-Casallas et al. Aquaculture Research, 2011, 42, 823^831

when the female are reproductively suitable two Bocachico P. magdalenae


doses are injected intramuscularly as follows: an
Bocachico is the third native sh species farmed in
initial dose of 0.5 mg kg 1 of BW and 12 h later
Colombia, however, it is the main species of continen-
5.0 mg kg 1 of BW (Arias, Pardo-Carrasco et al.
tal sheries in the country. Its capture was estimated
2004).
in 13 435 MT in 2000 (Barreto & Mosquera 2001),
The experiences obtained at the Aquaculture Insti-
nevertheless in the last few years the capture has de-
tute of the University of the Llanos in Colombia have
clined by 90% and this species has been declared in
shown that at 26  1 1C ambient temperature the
a high risk of extinction in a near future (Mojica,
ovulation occurs between 6.0 and 7.5 h after the last
Castellanos, Usma & Alvarez 2002). Some of the
CPE application and from this moment the spawning
reasons for its drastic population decline include the
should be performed manually by gently stripped
environmental deterioration of its habitats caused by
(Arias, Zaniboni-Filho, Pardo-Carrasco & Vasquez-
organic and inorganic pollution, marsh draining,
Torres 2004). Immediately, the oocytes must be ferti-
construction of hydroelectric dams and overshing
lized with semen also extracted manually by slight
(Atencio-Garc| a 2000).
compression of the coelomic wall after previous hor-
This species has been considered as an alternative
monal induction (6^7 h before) with 4.0 mg kg 1 BW
for extensive and semi-intensive pisciculture due
of CPE. The embryo incubation can be done in 200 L
to the advantages of its detritivorous habits. The
incubators, Woynarovich type, keeping a constant
farming is carried out at densities of one sh m 2
vertical ow of ca. 0.2 L seg 1. The hatching occurs
commonly farming inpoly-culture with other omni-
approximately 12 h after fertilization at a tempera-
vorous species as cachama negra, cachama blanca
ture of 26^27 1C.
and Tilapia. In 2009, the bocachico production was
The onset of larvae exogenous feeding should start
estimated in 1474 Mt (Barreto & Mosquera 2001) be-
at 29 h post hatching due to the high cannibalism
coming the fourth most cultivated species in Colom-
that start ca. 30 h post hatching. The cannibalism is
bia; therefore, the ngerlings demand has increased
the main problem for the larviculture of this species
due to the expansion of farming and the implementa-
and this problem is minimized by keeping the larvae
tion of stocking programmes in the main national
in large containers such as tanks of 500 L with a den-
rivers basins.
sities of 50 larvae L 1 and a frequent food supply
In most Colombian sh farming stations, the boca-
for 1^2 days with Artemia salina (5 nauplii mL 1,
chico ngerling production starts when the postlar-
ve or more times per day), cachama blanca larvae
vae (once initiated the exogenous feeding) are
(1^5 larvae per yamu) or zooplankton at satiety
stocked directly into the earthen ponds where they
(Atencio-Garc| a, Zaniboni-Filho, Arias & Pardo-
develop into ngerlings; however this procedure is
Carrasco 2003).
not ecient and oers unstable nal survival rates.
After 48^60 h post hatching the larvae are stocked
Nevertheless, in other sh farming stations the rst
at densities of 100^200 larvae m 2. For this pur-
feeding phase of larvae is carried out oering wild
pose, earthen ponds are prepared 3^5 days before
zooplankton or Artemia sp. nauplii, and after 2^4
the stocking; the pond preparation consisting in dis-
days of feeding the postlarvae are stocked in the n-
infection with quicklime and fertilization with or-
gerlings ponds.
ganic and chemical fertilizers to induce the
plankton production. From the third day after stock-
Production systems
ing, pulverized commercial food of 45% crude pro-
tein is provided three times a day. The maximum The semi-intensive system is the main sh farming
survival recorded was 33% estimated at 12^15 days system used in native species, carried out especially
after stocking (Atencio-Garc| a et al. 2003). by small farmers in earthen ponds and using organic
Fingerlings are farmed to reach the desired mar- or inorganic fertilizers, commercial food pellets or
keting size (2^3 cm) in earthen ponds of 500^ farm by-products. The intensive and super-intensive
2000 m2, prepared under similar conditions to those systems are used by industrial producers in dierent
used for other species such as P. brachypomus. In sizes earthen ponds or cages using only commercial
overall, sh are kept at densities of 1^2 animals m 2 food pellets. In recent years, water exchange systems,
and fed with commercial food or grains mixtures articial aeration with propeller or paddle aerators
with crude protein levels close to 25%. The food is and, in some cases, liquid oxygen have been imple-
daily oered at a rate of 3% BW twice per day. mented to increase the sh production per unit area,

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Aquaculture Research, 2011, 42, 823^831 Fish farming of native species in Colombia P E Cruz-Casallas et al.

however these practices are unfeasible for small References


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Perspectives and final considerations Pecuarias 19,125^133.
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Within the economical livestock activity in Colombia, TorresW. & Zaniboni-Filho E. (2004) Breeding and domes-
the continental pisciculture has become the sector ticating of Brycon siebenthalae female for reproduction.
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erated low competitiveness, reducing subsequently quez-Torres W. (2004) Ovogenesis del Yamu Brycon sie-
the ability to access national and international mar- benthalae (TELEOSTEI: CHARACIDAE), en cautiverio.
Actualidades Biologicas 26,171^183.
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Arias J.A., Pardo-Carrasco S.C., Atencio-Garc| aV.J.,Vasquez-
fer of sh species for aquaculture is the introduction
Torres W. & Zaniboni-Filho E. (2005) Eect of food restric-
or transfer of foreign species. Despite in some cases tion in spawning of Yamu females Brycon siebenthalae.
this practice has successfully established an indus- Acta Scientiarum ^ Animal Sciences 272, 235^239.
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unknown (Perez, Alfonsi, Nirchio, Munoz & Gomez Carrasco S.C. (2003) Inuencia da primeira alimentacao
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Barreto C. & Mosquera B. (2001) Bolet| n Estad| stico Pesquero
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to enable the use of native species as a sustainable
(INPA), Bogot a, Colombia, 180pp.
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aquaculture. Acuicultura Colombia 2006. Informe Tecnico Regional
Currently no native catsh species are commer- Cuencas del Orinoco y Amazonas. Ministerio de Agricul-
cially farmed in Colombia and all the meat consumed tura y Desarrollo Rural, Bogot a, Colombia.
from these species is derived from shing activities Corporacion Colombia Internacional (CCI). (2008) Pesca y
(CCI 2008). However, due to the inappropriate use of Acuicultura Colombia 2008. Informe Tecnico Regional
shing resources, habitats deterioration and oversh- Cuencas del Orinoco yAmazonas, Bogot a, Colombia,75pp.
ing through the last years, a dramatic decline in cat- Cruz-Casallas N.E., Marciales-Caro L., D| az-Olarte J.J., Mur-
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