Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
(August 2017)
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August 10, 2017
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2017/openbook.png 2017/openbook.png
Contents
I. GROUPS 9
1. Groups 10
1.1.
1.2.
Sub-Groups
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
19
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2. 23
2.1. Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2. Transpositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3. Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.1. Cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1. Homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2. Isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2
Contents Contents
II. RINGS 48
6. Rings 49
6.1. Subrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7. Euclidean Rings. 55
III. FIELDS 60
Field Extensions
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8. 61
9. Questions. 65
9.1. Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
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9.2. Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
IV. Appendix 69
9.3. Mathematical Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Many thanks and appreciation go out to my colleagues in developing this project and to those who
have willingly assisted by volunteering their time and expertise. I would like to especially thank all of
Amaal Ali
Rajesh Lakhan
Diana Munro-Mulchan
Sach Mulchan
esTariq Osman
Jagdesh Ramnanan
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Chandra Rajaram
for their continued input in this venture. A special thanks to the students who attended and who will
attend, without whom this project would have not been successful. Sincere thanks to all of them. Also
a very special thanks to those who assisted in the compilation of these notes, for their advice, time and
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eorts in ensuring that these notes are accurate and correspond to a basic course in modern algebra.
Ultimately, my greatest appreciation goes out to Jay who facilitated and created the sG sessions,
-Aristotle
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In short : group theory is the systematic study of symmetry; when a physical system or mat-
hematical structure possesses some kind of symmetry, its description can often be dramatically
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simplied by considering the consequences of that symmetry. When we are dealing with an
object that appears symmetric, group theory can help with the analysis. We apply the label
The purpose of these notes is to provide readers with some basic insight into group theory
as quickly as possible. Simplicity and working knowledge are emphasized over mathematical
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completeness. As a result, proofs are very often sketched or omitted in favor of examples and
discussion. Readers are warned that these notes are not a substitute for a thorough study of
modern algebra. It is assumed that the reader has a working knowledge of basic set theory
notions, that is have completed a course in introductory Set Theory and Number Systems.
We start this study with group theory as it is a basic building block for other algebraic structu-
res. Notes on both Ring theory and Field theory are also provided to be read at the convience
of the student. However it is recommended that these be read before any futher course in
Modern Algebra. Part I of these notes deals with the introduction of group theory - this is an
important part in developing knowledge in modern algebra. Part II intoduces the concepts of
ring theory which are used in Part III to develop the notion of eld theory. Part IV (The
Appendix) of these notes covers basic set theory - a review of what is needed to succeed in a
course of this nature. It also contains the list of videos to be viewed before each sG session.
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0.1. GENERAL SET-UP FOR THE SMOOTH RUNNING OF SG Contents
Goals of sG:
+ Gain a deep understanding of problem solving / proof construction with respect to Abstract
Algebra.
Note: The list of YouTube Videos to view before each session is in the appendix.
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Explain a little about sG, the name and continutiy, it is monetarily free, the cost will be dealth
not teachers. Call us by our rst names, not sir or Ms! :) If you family or friends ask what are
you doing or where are you going, the answer is to sG, no to class!
+ Elect a sG representative - the person must attend all the sessions, as they will keep the register
and if possible they will give out their phone number. If they have served as a class rep before this
will be helpful. Females are preferred over males. Males slack of to much from my experience...
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:P
+ Printed:
+ Pass around a contact informaiton sheet: Name, Id, email, Contact Number.
es is bijective.
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Proof.
x = y. ( injectivity of f )
gf is injective.
Let z C.
gf is surjective.
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0.1. GENERAL SET-UP FOR THE SMOOTH RUNNING OF SG Contents
This would introduce the students with the idea of abstractness as well as proofs. Explain this to
them.
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GROUPS
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9
1. Groups
Denition 1.1. A non-empty set of elements G is said to form a group if associated with G
there is a binary (closed) operation called product and denoted by such that:
For each of the points below, give examples to illustrate, one at a time, go slow,
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Use possible a*b=a/b is not closed in Z, as we would get fractions
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2. Associativity : For all a, b, c G = a (b c) = (a b) c
Addition(is associative) vs a*b=|a-b| is not associative,
4. Inverse : For each element a G there exists an element a1 such that aa1 = a1 a = e.
Negative numbers for addition and inverses for multiplicaiton,
or use above eg
NOTE:
+ We say that (G, ) or (G, ?) or (G, ) is a group. We generally write G is a group and take
the operation to be . Eg. ab=a+b
10
CHAPTER 1. GROUPS
it is addition.
+ Clearly all groups must have at least one element. The group with exactly one element is
Denition 1.3.
by |G|.
The number of elements in
1. The set of all integers is an abelian (or commutative) group under the operation of addi-
2. The set of all rational numbers is an abelian group under the operation of addition.
3. The set of all real numbers is an abelian group under the operation of addition. (Additive
(G, ) is an abelian group. It can be shown that G satises all properties of a group
(Denition 1.1) and is also commutative under usual multiplication. Since G contains
four elements, the group formed is said to have order of four ie. |G| = 4.
6. Let G consist of the real numbers 1, 1 under the multiplication of real numbers. Is G a
Ask them about {i, 1} or {i, i} with multiplication, are groups, ans no, not
closed
7. The set of all 22 matrices is an abelian group under the operation of addition. (Additive
Ask if (N, +) forms a group.. ans is no because of no inverse, let them give the
answer...
Ask if (Z, +) forms a group... ans is yes... then ask if Z with multiplicaiton forms
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Go through with them all but the last two, let them tell you about the last two
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examples, if they are indeed groups or not.
Proof. This is a uniqueness proof, the standard method is to assume that another
item exists, in this case an element that acts as the inverse of x, say z, and then
We know from the axioms that the group G contains at least one element x1 which satises
xx1 = e and x1 x = e.
Proof. Emphasis the general method of proving that something is an inverse. That
is: if you have to show that is the inverse of then you show that i) = e and
Extend this to ask them to show that (ABC)1 = C 1 B 1 A1 , give them time to
physcially do this. Walk around the room, peak in their books, make small talk
etc.. if you want you could ask them to come up on the board and write the
solution...
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Theorem 1.7. Let G be a group and a, b, c G. If either ab = ac or ba = ca, then b = c.
a1 (ab) = a1 (ac)
sG
= a1 a b = a1 a c
= eb = ec
= b = c.
ba = ca
ba a1 = ca a1
b aa1 = c aa1
b= c
Hence proven.
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1.1. Sub-Groups
Denition 1.8. Let (G, ) be a group. Let HG such that (H, ) is also a group.
1. e H,
2. ab H for all a, b H ,
3. a1 H for all a H.
Denition 1.10.
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A subgroup H of G is said to be proper if H is a proper subset of G.
2. The group of non-zero rational numbers is a subgroup of the groups of non-zero real
3. The group of all 2 2 matrices of real numbers with determinant equal to 1 is a subgroup
of the group of all 22 matrices of real numbers with non-zero determinant under the
cos sin
4. Consider the collection of all 22 matrices that are of the form for
sin cos
some real number . This is a subgroup of the group of all 22 matrices with non-zero
determinant under matrix multiplication. Indeed the above matrix is the identity matrix
when = 0.
cos sin cos sin cos( + ) sin( + )
Also =
sin cos sin cos sin( + ) cos( + )
(as can be seen from the well-known formulae giving sin( + ) and cos( + ) in terms
of and ), and
1
cos sin cos() sin()
=
sin cos sin() cos()
for all real numbers and . Thus the denition of a subgroup is satised. The cor-
responding geometrical result states that the set of all rotations of the plane about the
origin is a subgroup of the group of all linear transformations of the plane that send a
point (x, y) to (ax + by, cx + dy) for some real numbers a, b, c and d satisfying ad bc 6= 0.
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Let a non-empty subset of
Then H is subgroup of G.
inverse h1 H.
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Proof. Suppose that the condition holds, then from Theorem 1.12, H is a subgroup of G.
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Theorem 1.14. Let G be a group and H a nite non-empty subset of G such that H H = H.
Then H is a subgroup of G.
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({1, 1} , ) is a subgroup of ({1, 1, i, i} , )
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Remark 1.17. Handout from Herstein page 39, example 2.4.7. The solution is in my handwriting.
Proof. The identity element of G belongs to H K since it belongs to the subgroups H and K.
H K, as required.
Denition 1.19. A group G is called cyclic if there exists an element g G such that G=
{g n : n Z}, where Z is the set of integers and
ggg (n times) if n>0
n
g = if n = 0 .
e
g 1 g 1 g 1 (|n| times) if n < 0
Remark 1.20. If a nite group G can be generated from one of its elements, g together with its
Example 1.21.
1. The group
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The following are some examples of cyclic groups:
2
2. The group of all rotations of the plane about the origin through an integer multiple of
n
Denition 1.22. The order of an element gG is the smallest positive integer n such that
Lemma 1.24. Let G = hgi be a nite cyclic group, where g has order n. Then the powers
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This contradicts the fact that a generator of an innite cyclic group has innite order.
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Therefore, g m 6= g n .
Problem 1.27. (Finding the order of an element.) Find the order of the element a6 in the cyclic
sG
group G = {1, a, a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 , a6 , a7 }.
Solution: If n is the order of the group, then n = 8. Since gcd(6, n) = gcd(6, 8) = 2 , a6 has
n 8
order = = 4.
gcd(6, n) 2
Check:
So assume H 6= {1}.
What is a generator? It is an element whose powers make up the group. A thing should be
smaller than things which are "built from" it for example, a brick is smaller than a brick
building. Since elements of the subgroup are "built from" the generator, the generator should
es gm H .
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Why is there such an integer m? Well, H contains something other than 1 = g0 ,
well ordering.
Hence, H again contains positive powers of g, so it contains a smallest positive power, by Well
Ordering.
But by the Division Algorithm, there are unique integers q and r such that
n = mq + r, where 0 r < m.
It follows that
g n = g mq+r = (g m )q g r , so h = (g m )q g r or g r = (g m )q h.
Now gm H , so (g m )q H . Hence, (g m )q h H ,
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Theorem 2.1. For any non-empty set X, let S (X) denote the set of all bijections on X. Then
Note 2.2. It is important to understand that the elements of S (X) are functions that are bijections.
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Associativity: This follows since composition of functions (in general) is associative.
Denition 2.3. The group S (X) (sometimes also denoted SX ) is called the symmetric group
on the set X.
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Example 2.4. Let X = {1, 2}. Then S (X) = {e, f }, where e is the identity function (i.e.
e (1) = 1 and e (2) = 2), and f is the function such that f (1) = 2 and f (2) = 1.
Exercise 2.5. Find the symmetric group on the set X = {1, 2, 3}.
When X is a nite non-empty set, the bijections on X are simply permutations (or arrange-
ments) of the elements of X. If X has n elements, then we denote the group of permutations
S (X) by Sn , and we call this group the symmetric group on n elements, or the symmetric
group of degree n.
Note that, for simplicity, we usually take X to be the set {1, 2, . . . , n}. However, the properties
23
CHAPTER 2. PERMUTATIONS AND SYMMETRIC GROUPS
Remark 2.6. The symmetric groups given in Example 2.4 and Exercise 2.5 are S2 and S3 ,
respectively.
Proof. The order of Sn is the number of bijections on X. The number of bijections is simply the
number of dierent ways there are to permute the n elements of X. Therefore, the number of
represented as permutations.
1 2 ... n
, where
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: {1, 2, . . . , n} {1, 2, . . . , n}
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(1) (2) . . . (n)
1 2 3 1 2 3
Example 2.9. Consider S3 . Let 1 = and 2 = .
sG
3 1 2 1 3 2
Then 1 (1) = 3, 1 (2) = 1, 1 (3) = 2, and 2 (1) = 1, 2 (2) = 3, 2 (3) = 2.
Therefore,
1 2 (1) = 1 (1) = 3,
1 2 (2) = 1 (3) = 2,
1 2 (3) = 1 (2) = 1.
1 2 3
Thus, 1 2 = .
3 2 1
1 2 3
Similarly, 2 1 = .
2 1 3
In fact, S1 and S2 are the only abelian symmetric groups. All other symmetric groups are
non-abelian.
Exercise 2.11. Using the notation above, list all the elements of S3 .
1. Is 3 an element of S4 ? Explain.
. 1
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inverse of a permutation (denoted by 1 ) is one that undoes the
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changes made by We can nd by nding the inverse image of each element, which
can be done by reading the permutation in reverse order (upside down). This is equivalent to
switching the two rows of the permutation and rearranging the columns so that the numbers
1 2 3 4
Example 2.14. Consider S4 . Let = .
sG
2 4 1 3
1 2 3 4
Reading the permutation in the reverse order gives 1 = .
3 1 4 2
2 4 1 3
Alternatively, switching the rows gives ,
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
and after moving around the columns, we get 1 = .
3 1 4 2
We can represent the elements of Sn even more concisely, as we will see below.
+ (a1 ) = a2 , (a2 ) = a3 , . . ., am1 = am , (am ) = a1 and
1 2 3
Example 2.17. The permutation = (132) is a 3-cycle in S3 .
3 1 2
1 2 3 4
Example 2.18. The permutation
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4 3 1 2
1 2 3 4 5
= (1423)
is a 4-cycle in S4 .
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Example 2.19. The permutation = (132) is a 3-cycle in S5 .
3 1 2 4 5
Note. (132) and (321) represent the same cycle. The starting number in a cycle is not important;
For each x
/ {a1 , a2 , . . . , am }, we have (x) = x, and hence m (x) = x.
Now take x {a1 , a2 , . . . , am } , say x = ak , and let am+1 = a1 , am+2 = a2 , and so on (since
Note: This is equivalent to saying that the order of a cycle is equal to its length.
The algorithm proving this theorem is best illustrated by the following example:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example 2.22. Consider the permutation = in S8 .
6 7 8 4 5 2 1 3
We start by writing '(1 '.
Since (7) = 1, this cycle is complete (we have arrived back at the starting point).
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Now, we move on to the smallest positive integer not included in the cycle above.
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In this case, the number we are looking for is 3 (since both 1 and 2 appear in the cycle above).
Since (8) = 3, this cycle is complete (we have arrived back at the starting point).
Next, we move on to the smallest positive integer not included in either cycle above.
Now, we move on to the smallest positive integer not already encountered. In this case, the
Since all the remaining elements of X (i.e. 6, 7, 8) have already been met, we stop.
not appear in any other cycle, the order in which the cycles are considered does not matter.
Thus, in the example above, it would have also been correct to write = (38) (1627) .
Remark 2.24. Not all elements of X have to appear in the cycle decomposition of .
The elements that do not appear are xed, i.e. they are not aected by .
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Exercise 2.25. Give the cycle decomposition of = in S9 .
1 4 8 5 2 3 9 6 7
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= (1236)1 (435) (14) as a product of disjoint cycles.
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Theorem 2.29. The order of a permutation is the least common multiple (LCM) of the length
Exercise 2.30. Find the orders of the permutations given in Example 2.22 and Exercises 2.25
- 2.28.
Proof. First, note that the identity permutation e can be written as the product of any trans-
Now, Theorem 2.21 states that every permutation can be written as a product of disjoint cycles.
We are left to show that every cycle can be written as a product of transpositions.
sitions by pairing up the rst term a1 with each of the other terms in reverse order, as follows:
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= (a1 am ) a1 am1 (a1 a3 ) (a1 a2 ) .
Exercise 2.33. Express the permutations given in Example 2.22 and Exercises 2.25 - 2.28 as
products of transpositions.
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Denition 2.35. A permutation is even if it can be written as the product of an even number
Exercise 2.38. Find the parities of the permutations given in Example 2.22 and Exercises 2.25
- 2.28.
Theorem 2.39. The set of all even permutations An forms a subgroup of Sn . It is called the
Exercise 2.40. Find the elements of S4 which leave invariant the expression x1 x2 + x3 x4 , where
x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 R.
es S4 ?
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2.3. Symmetry
A symmetry of a geometrical gure is a rearrangement of the gure that preserves the ar-
rangement of its vertices and sides as well as its distances and angles. Each symmetry is a
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bijection, or permutation of the vertices.
Example 2.43. A scalene triangle has a unique symmetry - the identity mapping.
Example 2.46. A rectangle (with unequal sides) has four symmetries. These form a group
3.1. Cosets
Denition 3.1. Let (G, ) be a group with subgroup (H, ). For a, b G, we say that a is
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is an equivalence relation on G.
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Proof. For all a G , aa1 = e H. The relation is reexive.
Denition 3.3. The equivalence class containing a is Ha = {ha : h H}, and is referred to
Proof. Let h H.
31
3.1. COSETS CHAPTER 3. COSETS AND LAGRANGE'S THEOREM
H Ha.
Since a H, ha H.
Therefore Ha H.
Hence Ha = H.
Lemma 3.5. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then the left cosets of H in G have the
following properties:
(i)
(ii) if
x xH
x and
for all
y
x G;
Let z be an element of xH yH .
Proof. Let H = {h1 , h2 , ..., hm }, where h1 , h2 , ...,hm are distinct, and let x be an element of G.
Then the left coset xH consists of the elements xhi for i = 1, 2, ..., m.
Suppose that j and k are integers between 1 and m for which xhj = xhk .
Then
hj = x1 (xhj ) = x1 (xhk ) = hk ,
It follows that the elements xh1 , xh2 , ..., xhm are distinct.
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and the left coset xH both have m elements, as required.
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3.2. Lagrange's Theorem (Very Very Very Important!!! - Very )
Theorem 3.7. (Lagrange's Theorem). If H is a subgroup of the nite group G, then the order
sG
= |G| = m |H|
nite then the number of such cosets is referred to as the index of H in G, denoted by [G : H].
|G|
Note 3.9. [G : H] = = index of H in G
|H|
Theorem 3.11.
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Every group of prime order is cyclic.
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Proof. Let G be a group of prime order, and let x be some element of G that is not the identity
element.
Then the order of x is greater than one and divides the order of G.
But then the order of x must be equal to the order of G, since the latter is a prime number.
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4.1. Homomorphism
Denition 4.1. Let (G, ) and (H, ) be two groups. A function : GH is a homomorphism
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(x y) = (x) (y).
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Example 4.2. Let n be a xed positive integer.
2ik
Let : (Z, +) (C {0} , ) such that (k) = e n . Then is a homomorphism.
Consider (k1 + k2 )
sG
2i(k1 +k2 )
= e( n )
2ik1 2ik2
= e( n + n )
2ik1
= e( n ) e( 2ikn2 )
= (k1 ) (k2 ).
Hence, (k1 + k2 ) = (k1 ) (k2 ) . Therefore, is a homomorphism.
35
4.1. HOMOMORPHISM CHAPTER 4. HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORPHISMS
Then
(a b) = log(ab)
= = log a + log b
= = (a) + (b)
= (a b) = (a) + (b)
Hence is a homomorphism.
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a, b G,f (ab) = eH = eH eH = f (a)f (b)
0,
if x is even
f (x) = .
1, if x is odd
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x is even, y is odd;
x is odd, y is even.
Now if x and y are both even or both odd, then x+y is even. In this case (x + y) = 0.
In the rst case (x) + (y) = 0 + 0 = 0 and in the second case (x) + (y) = 1 + 1 = 0.
Otherwise one is even and the other is odd and x+y is odd.
(i) (eG ) = eH
Proof. (i) a G,
.
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aeG = a
= (aeG ) = (a)
1
(ii) Let x G, then(x)(x ) = (xx1 ) = (eH ) = (eG ) ( from (i)).... next side...see notes
Lakhan
Note 4.8. Since a homomorphism preserves the operations, it preserves the identity and inverse.
Proof. We have to show that the kernel is non-empty and closed under multiplication and
Now suppose that x, y ker , so that (x) = (y) = e and so (xy) = (x)(y)= ee = e.
Thus xy ker
es
and so the kernel is closed under multiplication.
(x1 ) = (x)1 = e.
x ker , (x) = e.
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Then
Consider (gkg 1 )
= (g)(k)(g 1 )
= (g)(g 1 ) = e
Proof. If f is injective, then at most one element can be sent to the identitye H.
Then is injective.
Theorem 4.12. (For Completeness) (Euler-Fermat Theorem). Let G be the multiplicative group
of congruence classes modulo n. Additionally if n and a are coprime positive integers, then
a(n) 1 (mod n)
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Proof. ( Left as exercise)
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4.2. Isomorphism
Denition 4.14. If f is one-one and onto, then we say that G is isomorphic to H and write
G
= H.
Note 4.15. If two groups are isomorphic, all their structural properties are the same.
Thus, if one of the groups has some structural property, while the other does not, then these
groups are not isomorphic. Let us give a couple of examples of this situation.
Example 4.16.
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1. The group Z3 is not isomorphic to Z4 , because Z3 has 3 elements, and Z4 has 4 elements.
2. The group R under multiplication and the group C under multiplication are not isomorphic.
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The equation x2 = a has solution x C for any a C , but the same equation does not have
3. The group R under addition is not isomorphic to the group R under multiplication.
The equation x2 = 1 in R has two solutions (1 and 1), and the corresponding equation
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Note: the importance of dening the function, if you cannot nd a proper homomorphism
Denition 4.18. Let H and K be groups. The direct product of groups H and K denoted by
H K, is the group with elements of all ordered pairs (h, k) where hH and k K with
operation given by
Exercise 4.19. Prove that H K is abelian if and only if both H and K are abelian.
Example 4.21.
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The set of all non-identity elements of a group is a generating set for the group.
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Denition 5.1. If H is a subgroup of a group G with operation and a G then the left coset
aH of G is the subset aH of G, where a H = {a h : h H}.
Denition 5.2.
group or normal divisor) of
A subgroup
G
H of a group
if
The following theorem is useful for proving that a subgroup H of a group G is a normal subgroup
sG
of G.
Let h H. Then hg Hg .
Now, since
= g 1 hg = h0 , g 1 hg H.
42
5.1. NORMAL SUBGROUPS CHAPTER 5. NORMAL SUBGROUPS & QUOTIENT GP.
Let hg Hg . Now
hg = gg 1 hg = gh gH
since g 1 hg H, g G and h H .
= Hg = gH .
Thus H C G.
Let gh gH .
H
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be a subgroup of an abelian group G.
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Then, since G is abelian, gh = hg Hg : = gH = Hg = H CG.
Let G be the group of all integers under addition and H be the set of all integers divisible by
5, then H is a subgroup of G under addition, further, HCG and the decomposition of G into
Example 5.6. H,
H1 = {x G : 5 | (x 1)} ,
H2 = {x G : 5 | (x 2)} ,
H3 = {x G : 5 | (x 3)} ,
H4 = {x G : 5 | (x 4)} .
Fact 5.7. A relation is well-dened if every object has a unique image. i.e. f is well-dened
a = b = f (a) = f (b).
operation dened by N g1 N g2 = N g1 g2 .
Proof. We rst show that the operation is well-dened on the set G/N .
Suppose
N g1 = N h1 and N g2 = N h2 .
Then by denition of ,
N g1 N g2 = N g1 g2 .
Now, g1 N g1 = N h1 .
g1 = n1 h1 for some n1 N
Similarly,
es
g2 = n2 h2 for some n2 N.
not
g1 g2 = n1 h1 n2 h2
Now,
g1 g2 (h1 h2 )1 = n1 h1 n2 h2 h1 1
2 h1
sG
= n1 h1 n2 h1
1
= n N, since N /G
g1 g2 (h1 h2 )1 N
= N g1 g 2 (h1 h2 )1 = N
= N g1 g2 = N h1 h2
Let N g1 N g2 G/N .
Then N g1 N g2 = N g1 g2 = N g G/N.
Then N g1 (N g2 N g3 ) = N g1 N g2 g3 = N g1 g2 g3 = (N g1 g2 )N g3 = (N g1 N g2 )N g3 .
Inverses: N gN g 1 = N gg 1 = N = N g 1 g .
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5.2. Quotient Group or Factor Group
Denition 5.9. The group G/N is called the quotient group or factor group of G by N.
Exercise 5.10. Prove that if H and K are two normal subgroups of a group G, then the group
sG
H K is normal in G.
Exercise 5.11. Prove that two right cosets, Ha and Hb of a group G are identical i ab1 G:
G/K
= G.
Note. K = ker f , G is the range of f. Thus, it could be stated as domain (of f) over kernel
+ Construct a mapping,.
+
Show mapping
Show that
es
is 1-1, well-dened and onto
is a homomorphism
not
+ Show normality
+ Show HT is a subgroup of G.
+ Show NT B T
+ Show Kernal =H K
Now that all these remarks have been done, it is not dicult to see that the 2nd
Isomorphism Theorem follows from the 1st Isomorphism Theorem, as does the 3rd
Isomorphism Theorem.
es
not
Let G be a group with K P G, and let : G G/K be the natural map.
Then S (S) = S/K is a bijection from the family of all these subgroups S of G which
contain K to the family of all the subgroups of G/K . Moreover , if one denotes S/K by S ,
then
Proof. Discussed in class, when you are enrolled in the course, or feel free to conduct personal
research - Rajesh :P
es RINGS
not
sG
48
6. Rings
Denition 6.1. A ring R is a set with two binary operations, + and , satisfying:
es
(a + b)c = ac + bc, a, b, c R.
not
Note. The rst operation is called addition and the second operation is called multiplication.
+ The identity for addition is called the zero of the ring. i.e. If R contains an element such
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+ The identity for multiplication is called the unit element. i.e. If R contains an element u
49
6.1. SUBRINGS CHAPTER 6. RINGS
Exercise 6.4. Let Z be the set of integers and dene addition and multiplication in Z as
follows:
ab=a+b+1
a b = a + b + ab
6.1. Subrings
es
not
Denition 6.5. A subring of a ring R is a subset which is a ring under the same operations
1. Z is a subring of Q.
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2. Q is a subring of C.
subset of R.
Proof. Alternative theorem: Share out Handout.. with zero divisors included... non-unique elements...
Denition 6.9. An element a 6= 0 (the zero of the ring) of a ring R is called a zero divisor if
es
(R, +, ) into R , ,
is said to be a (ring) homomor-
not
phism from R into R i:
1. (a + b) = (a) (b) , a, b R.
Denition 6.11. If is one-one and onto, then we say that R is isomorphic to R and write
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R
= R.
Question. Let (R, , ) be a ring and let (R, +, ) be a ring. We dened addition and
multiplication in R as follows:
ab=a+b+1
a b = a + b + ab
Thank you.
Note 6.13. If R is commutative, we only need to worry about multiplication on one side. More
generally, one can speak of left ideals and right ideals and two-sided ideals.
1. If
2. If
a, b I , then
r R, a I ,
(a b) I ;
then ra I and
es
ar I .
not
Proof. (Left as exercise)
1. nZ = {kn|k Z} for any nZ is an ideal in Z. If n=0 we get the zero ideal, an ideal
of any ring R. If n = 1 we get Z, the whole ring. Again, for any ring, R the whole ring
is an ideal of R.
3. p(x)R[x] = {p(x)f (x)|f (x) R[x]}is an ideal of R[x] for any commutative ring R with 1.
4. . In Z[x], the set I = {f (x) Z[x] | f (0) 0 (modn)} is an ideal for any n2 in Z.
Denition 6.16. Field - A eld is a commutative ring in which the non-zero elements form a
Denition 6.17. A division ring is a ring in which the non-zero elements form a group under
multiplication.
4. ** 0 6= 1.
es
**Unsure of these conditions, please verify with your lecturer. There are varying opinions about
not
the denition.
Denition 6.20. Euclidean Domain (D, +, , d) consists of an integral domain (D, +, ) together
with a function d : D Z+ , such that:
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It was a pleasure spending these 2 weeks of our life with you all - The Facilitators and many
Regards.
Proposition 6.21. Every integral domain R satises the cancellation property: if ax = ay and
Proposition 6.22. If R is an integral domain, then so is R[x] - where R[x] are polynomials over
Proof. The only non-obvious thing to check is that there are no zero divisors.
For contradiction, assume that f (x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + am xm , g(x) = b0 + ... + bn xn are elements
es
am 6= 0, bn 6= 0
not
Then f (x)g(x) = a0 b0 + ... + am bn xm+n .
Denition 7.1. An integral domain R is said to be a Euclidean ring if for everyx 6= 0 in R there
(ii) For any x and y in R, both nonzero, there exist z and w in R such that x = zy + w
where either
Example 7.2. Z
w=0 or d(w) < d(y).
es
not
is clearly a Euclidean Ring with ||n|| dened to be absolute value.
Denition 7.3. An integral domain R with unit element is a principal ideal ring if every ideal
in R
is a principal ideal;
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Note 7.4. If R is a commutative ring, a principal ideal is one of the form dR for some d R.
A principal ideal domain (PID) is an integral domain in which every ideal is principal.
55
7.1. DIVISION ALGORITHM CHAPTER 7. EUCLIDEAN RINGS.
7.1. Division Algorithm
Hencer < n.
es
not
Example 7.9. : If m = 37 andn =6 we may write 37 = 6 (6) 1 in which case q = 6
and r = 1.
written as a/b,
3. . If R is a eld, e.g. R=Q or R, then for any a, b R,a 6= 0, we can write b = ac for
some cR by
Denition 7.12. Element uR is a unit (or an invertible element) if uv = 1 for unit some
v R,
1. Z = {1}.
F = F 0.
es
2. . Clearly, an integral domain F is a eld i
3. . Z[i] = 1, 1, i, i :Suppose that a + bi Z[i] is a unit, so(a + bi)(c + di) =1 for some
not
c, d Z .
Then also (a bi)(c di) = 1.,so clearly a + bi 1, 1, i, i.
(1)r
/ R,
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unit.
Example. In R[x] the polynomial x2 + 1 is irreducible. But in C[x], x2 + 1 = (x + i)(x i), and
An irreducible element of a polynomial ring F [x], where F is a eld, is the same as the irreducible
polynomial.
are equivalent)
(4) aR = bR.
For (3) implies (1), consider b = sa for some sR and a = tb for some t R.
es
a 6= 0 we have that
are associates.
ts = 1.
not
Otherwise t, s are units, hence again a and b are associates.
Denition 7.17. An integral domain R is called a unique factorization domain (UFD) if the
following hold:
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(1) Every non-zero element of R is either unit or a product of nitely many irreducibles.
(2) If a1 am = b 1 b n , where the ai , bj are irreducibles, then n=m and after reordering of
factors,
Theorem 7.19. Element F is a root of f (x) F [x] if and only if (x ) divides f (x).
Theorem 7.20. Let ,f (x) F [x] where F is a eld and degf (x) = n 1.
es
b
a
n 1.
not
If f (x) has no roots in F, we are done.
Otherwise,f (x) has at least one root, say . Writef (x) = (x )g(x) by the induction assump-
tion,
Example. . The polynomial x6 1 Q[x] has only two roots in Q, namely 1 and 1.
es
FIELDS
not
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60
8. Field Extensions
Example 8.2. Fields R and Q( 2) are extensions of Q.
es
Proof. Recall that a vector space is an abelian group under addition where we can multiply
not
elements by the
elements of F.
(1) (v1 + v2 ) = v1 + v2 ,
(2) ( + )v1 = v1 + v1 ,
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(3) v1 = (v1 ),
(4) 1v1 = v1 .
So [C : R] = 2.
61
CHAPTER 8. FIELD EXTENSIONS
Example 8.6. Find [Q( 3 2) : Q].
3
3
2
We claim that 1, 2, 2 is a basis of Q( 3 2).
Indeed, since otherwise these three elements are linearly dependent (they clearly span Q( 3 2)),
i.e. we can nd b0 , b1 , b2 Q not all zero, such that b0 + b1 3 2 + b2 ( 3 2)2 = 0.
But the minimal polynomial of
3
2 is x3 2 because it is irreducible over Q (by the Eisenstein
Criterion).
Therefore [Q( 3 2) : Q] = 3.
Theorem 8.7. Let F K be a eld extension, K. The minimal polynomial of has degree
i [F () : F ] = n.
Proof. Suppose
es
the degree of minimal polynomial of is n. We know that
not
F() = a0 + a1 + + an1 n1 |ai F
If not, there are b0 , ..., bn1 F such that b1 + b1 + + bn1 n1 = 0 and not all bi = 0
sG
Suppose [F () : F ] = n.
By the proof of , m = [F () : F ], so m = n.
2. . x2 2 is the minimal polynomial of 2 over Q and [Q( 2) : Q] = 2.
3. . x3 2 is the minimal polynomial of
3
2 over Q and [Q( 3 2) : Q] = 3.
Example 8.9. Let Q( 2, 3) be the smallest subeld of R containingQ, 2 and 3.
We have (Q( 2))( 3) = Q( 2, 3):
By previous results (Q( 2))( 3) = n + 3|, Q( 2) because
x2 3 is the minimal polynomial of 3 over Q( 2).
Also
es
(Q( 2))( 3) = na + b 2 + c 3 + d 6|a, b, c, d Q
not
Theorem 8.10. Let F KE be elds. Then [E : F ] = [E : K][K : F ].
[E : K] divides [E : F ].
1 + 1 + + 1|{z} = 0
( n times ) is called the characteristic of the eld F. If there is no such n, then F has
characteristic 0.
then x = 0or(n 1) = 0, so x = 0.
es
not
(3) If char(F ) = p, p prime, then for any x F, (p x) = (p 1)x = 0x = 0.
sG
9.1. Groups
(G, )
b) Let
under the same operation
H = {kn : n Z},
es .
a) H is a subgroup of G.
b) H is a normal subgroup of G.
8,
sG
c) Find all subgroups of the dihedral group of order and calculate also all left and
4. Let G be a set with a binary operation , associating to each pair of elements x and
exists an element e of G such that ex = x for all elements x of G; for each element
respect to this binary operation. [Thus you must show that xe = x and x x0 = e for
all x G.]
65
9.1. GROUPS CHAPTER 9. QUESTIONS.
6. Let G be a group. Prove that any subgroup N of index 2 in G is a normal subgroup of
G.
7. Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G. Show that the function mapping G onto
itself that sends gG to g 1 induces a bijection from the set of left cosets of H in G to
the set of right cosets of H in G. Hence show that the number of left cosets of H is equal
Isomorphism Theorem.)
9. Find the elements of S4 which leave invariant the expression x1 x2 +x3 x4 , where x1 , x2 , x3 , x4
R.
es
not
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a) (51, 192)
b) (20, 500)
d) 26 13i and 17 + 7i
es
(c) A non-commutative ring of characteristicp, p a prime.
invertible elements.
not
(e) An innite non-commutative ring with only nitely many ideals.
commutative.
4. Determine for which integers n the ring Z/nZ is a direct sum of elds. Prove your answer.
sG
5. Let R be a nite commutative ring with more than one element and no zero-divisors.
6. Show that if p is a prime such that p 1(mod4), then x2 + 1 is not irreducible in Zp [x].
8. Let R be a non-zero ring with identity. Show that every proper ideal of R is contained in
a maximal ideal.
es
not
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es
Appendix
not
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69
FREQUENTLY USED NOTATION
es
not
for all
there exists
: or | such that
= implies
sG
is logically equivalent to
is proportional to
= is isomorphic to
+ Modern Algebra (Abstract Algebra) Made Easy - Part 6 - Cosets and Lagrange's Theorem by
es
scalenescott.
What is a proof ?
logical argument that establishes the truth of the statement based upon other already proven
statements or axioms.
Statement Notation
not
es
or
P
Q
P
W
P Q
V
not
P and Q P Q
If P then Q P = Q
P if and only if Q P Q
The statement P Q is true if and only if both P and Q are true. The statement P Q is
true if and only if at least one of the statements P, Q is true. This is what we call the inclusive
sG
For example, the statement: 'We will have class in the morning or in the afternoon' means
in real life that only one of the alternatives will take places (exclusive or). In mathematics
however, this includes the possibility that we will have class in the morning as well as in the
P Q is considered to be false only in the case that P is true and Q is false. Otherwise it is
true. This is also in contrast to the plain English. For example, a statement like: 'If it rains
now then 2 is a prime number' is mathematically true, despite the fact that there is no relation
between the two parts of the statement, and regardless of whether the rst part is true or not.
The statement P Q is true if and only if P and Q have the same truth values. We also
es
not
sG
You may nd it useful at rst to separate such a statement into background assumptions, the
Specically:
n 6
es
+ If: is divisible by
+ Then: n is even.
not
Note 9.1. The background assumptions are just as important as the 'if ' assumptions.
+ Carefully write out all assumptions (the 'if ' part) at the beginning of the proof. Usually
this involves expanding what's written in the assumptions using the denitions of the
+ Write out the conclusion of the theorem (the 'then') at the end of the proof, and expand
it using denitions as well. This is what we want to show follows from our assumptions.
+ The point of the proof is now to show that, given the assumptions, logical deduction leads
to the conclusion.
+ One of the best ways to do this is to work forward logically from the assumptions (think:
what follows from the 'if ' ?) and backwards from the conclusion (think: what would imply
Example 9.2. The assumptions of the theorem are: n is an integer divisible by 6. By the
The conclusion of the theorem says: n is even. By the denition of even, that is the same
as saying that n is divisible by 2. By the denition of divisibility, this means that we want to
So now, we want to assume that n = 6d for some integer d, and then somehow deduce that
n = 2r for some integer r. However, if we know that n = 6d, then after a while, we might see
that n = 2(3d), which means that n = 2r holds for r = 3d. We therefore obtain the following
proof:
we see that
r = 3d,
n = 2r for an integer r,
es
not
which means that n is even.
A if and only if B
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Note: This statement may also be written in dierent forms (See Notes on Logics).
Proof Structure:
Proof: Assume A
.
.
.
Hence B
Conversely, Assume B
.
.
.
Hence A
In a direct proof , the rst thing that you do is explicitly assume that the hypothesis is true for
your selected variable, then use this assumption with denitions and previously proven results
Theorem 9.3. If x, y are integers and x and y are both odd, then x+y is even.
es
Consider
k a + b + 1.
not
where is the integer
T
Proof. Assume that AB =A B.
the theorem.
We assumed that A B = A B, so x A B.
Finally, A B B, so consequently, x B.
Notice this is a formal proof and not a proof using set theory and that we did not end
the proof with the consequence of the theorem, but rather with a statement that suces to imply
the theorem by our earlier understanding. Here also we used implicitly some denitions from
V
set theory, like (x D) (D C) (x C).
In a proof by contrapositive , you explicitly assume that the conclusion is false for your variable,
then use this assumption, plus denitions and proven results, to show that the hypothesis must
Remember that the contrapositive of an implication is logically equivalent to the original im-
plication, so this is an indirect method for showing that the original implication is true. This
method should be used when the negative of a denition in your implication is easier to work
A good example is linear dependence, which only means that a set is not linearly independent.
If you use the contrapositive, you are working with linear independence, which is a set denition
with many theorems tied to it, making it much easier to work with.
es
not
Restate the original statement to be as follows:
Case 1. If y is odd then y = 2a + 1 for some integer a and the dierence of two odd numbers
Case 2. If y is even then y = 2a for some integer a and the dierence x = (2n + 1) 2a =
2(n + a) + 1 is odd.
Therefore we have proved the contrapositive statement is valid and so the original statement is
also true.
is false; that is, you assume that the hypothesis is true but the conclusion is false for your
selected variable.
Then use both of these assumptions to arrive at a contradiction of some other proven result.
Because you know the other proven result must be true, you must conclude that your original
assumption that the conclusion was false was incorrect; in other words, you are indirectly
proving that the original implication is true by showing that it cannot possibly be false. Proofs
by contradiction are useful for showing that something is impossible and for proving the converse
of already proven results. Proofs by contradiction can be somewhat more complicated than
es
direct proofs, because the contradiction you will use to prove the result is not always apparent
Restate the original to be that x and y are odd integers and x+y is also odd.
Given that y is odd then y = 2a + 1 for some integer a and the dierence of the two odd
Therefore the original statement must be true, and if x, y are integers and x and y are both
1. A proof must always begin with an initial statement of what it is you intend to
prove. It should be self-contained, in that it denes all variables that appear in it. After
you have written what it is you are proving, you should begin the proof itself with the
2. Always introduce your variables. The rst time a variable appears, whether in the
initial statement of what you are proving or in the body of the proof, you must state what
kind of variable it is (for example, a scalar, an integer, a vector, a matrix), and whether
that . . . " or "for any aA . Note that if you write "let aA ," you are implying that
3. If asked to disprove a statement, then the method of counterexample may be used. Ho-
wever, please note that if asked to prove a statement involving for all integers, then the
a single integer n.
es
5. Now that you have your universally quantied implication, there are three common stra-
tegies for proving the implication is true and only one for proving it is false; these are
not
outlined here. Note that direct proofs are preferred whenever possible, and that direct
proofs and proofs by contrapositive are far more common than proofs by contradiction.
6. At the end of your proof, one of the following must be placed to indicate the end of the
00
proof: 00 , or Q.E.D..
7. Prove that if a is an integer, then a is not evenly divisible by 3 if, and only if, a2 1 is
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evenly divisble by 3.
8. Prove if x and y are two integers for which x+y is even, then x and y have the same parity.
10. The sum of any even integer and any odd integer is odd.
11. If a, b are integers, The product is odd if and only if a and b are both odd.
integers
1. r0 = 0r = 0,
Proof. (1): r0
Adding (r0)
= r(0 + 0) = r0 + r0.
to both sides,
es
not
we get: 0 = r0 (r0) = r0 + r0 r0 = r0.
Similarly,r(s) = (rs).
...
however it is useful to ask if we can nd a smaller generating set. A (left)(right) ideal I is
called nitely generated if it is generated as a (left)(right) ideal by a set X with |X| < .
element.
(x)L = {rx|r R}
The zero ideal (0) and the whole ring (1) = R are always examples of principal ideals in any
ring R.
Theorem 9.8. Let R be a commutative ring with identity. Let c R. The set I = rc | r R is
an ideal of R.
For any
Therefore
a R, a(r1 c) = (ar1 )c I .
I is an ideal.
es
not
(We have implicitly used the fact that R is commutative so that multiplication on the right
also works.)
sG
Example 9.9. LetR = Z. If n is an integer, let nZ be the set of all multiples of Z .That is,
nZ = {na : a Z} .
To see that this set is an ideal, rst consider addition. if x, y nZ , then there integers a and b
Therefore, x + y nZ.
Therefore, rx nZ .
...
Theorem 9.11. Let I be an ideal in a ring R. If a+I =b+I and c+I =d+I in R/I ,
then (a + c) + I = (b + d) + I
Proof. (Disscussion)
and
es
ac + I = bd + I .
not
Therefore we can dene addition in the set R/I by (a + I) + (b + I) = (a + b) + I
so is R/I . It is called the quotient ring or factor ring of R by I .It is easy to see that if R is
suppose that a
/ I. Let x = a + I, y = b + I . Then xy = ab + I = 0.
Example 9.13. Let R = Z. Then every ideal in R has the form (n) = nZ .
es
be an integral domain and let a be a non-zero element of R.
not
(a) is a prime ideal, not equal to the whole of R.
Note 9.15. the condition that (a) is not the whole of R is equivalent to requiring that a is not
a unit.
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....
We say that the characteristic of R is n if the order of the image of is nite, equal to n;
Theorem 9.17. Let R be a domain of nite characteristic. Then the characteristic is prime.
Thus is certainly unique and it is not hard to check that in fact is a ring homomorphism.
Now suppose that R is an integral domain. Then the image of is an integral domain.
Example 9.18. The characteristic of Q is zero. Indeed the natural map Z Q is an inclusion.
Denition 9.19.
such that I J,
Let
either
I be an ideal. We say that
J =I or J = R.
Therefore0 6= 1 inR/M .
Thena
/M and we build a bigger ideal I = ra + m|r R, m M .
SinceR/M is commutative, this gives an inverse for a+M and so R/M is a eld.
If I 6= M , let a I, a
/ M.
Therefore M is maximal
Proposition 9.21. Let R be a commutative ring. Then R is a eld i the only ideals are {0}
and R.
Proof. We have already seen that if R is a eld, then R contains no non-trivial ideals.
Suppose that a = 0 and let I = (a). Then I = {0}. Thus I = R. But then 1I and so 1 = ba.
es
not
Theorem 9.22. Let R be a commutative ring. Then R/M is a eld i M is a maximal ideal.
Proof. Note that there is an obvious correspondence between the ideals of R/M and ideals of
Corollary 9.23. . Let R be a commutative ring. Then every maximal ideal is prime.
Example. Let R=Z and let p be a prime. Then I = (p) is not only prime, but it is in fact
maximal.
End of sG notes 2017. Thank you for participating. All the best in your exams and academic career.
Regards,
The sG Team.