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This article is about the terms use in physics. For other ditionally, gamma rays are produced by a number of
uses, see Gamma ray (disambiguation). astronomical processes in which very high-energy elec-
trons are produced, that in turn cause secondary gamma
rays via bremsstrahlung, inverse Compton scattering, and
synchrotron radiation. However, a large fraction of such
astronomical gamma rays are screened by Earths atmo-
sphere and can only be detected by spacecraft.
Gamma rays typically have frequencies above 10 exahertz
(or >1019 Hz), and therefore have energies above 100
keV and wavelengths less than 10 picometers (1012 me-
ter), which is less than the diameter of an atom. How-
ever, this is not a hard and fast denition, but rather only
a rule-of-thumb description for natural processes. Elec-
Illustration of an emission of a gamma ray () from an tromagnetic radiation from radioactive decay of atomic
atomic nucleus nuclei is referred to as gamma rays no matter its energy,
so that there is no lower limit to gamma energy derived
from radioactive decay. This radiation commonly has en-
ergy of a few hundred keV, and almost always less than
10 MeV. In astronomy, gamma rays are dened by their
energy, and no production process needs to be specied.
The energies of gamma rays from astronomical sources
range to over 10 TeV, an energy far too large to result
from radioactive decay.[1] A notable example is extremely
powerful bursts of high-energy radiation referred to as
long duration gamma-ray bursts, of energies higher than
can be produced by radioactive decay. These bursts of
gamma rays, thought to be due to the collapse of stars
called hypernovae, are the most powerful events so far
Gamma rays are emitted during nuclear ssion in nuclear discovered in the cosmos.
explosions.
Gamma radiation, also known as gamma rays, and de- 1 History of discovery
noted by the Greek letter , refers to electromagnetic ra-
diation of an extremely high frequency and therefore con-
The rst gamma ray source to be discovered historically
sists of high-energy photons. Gamma rays are ionizing
was the radioactive decay process called gamma decay.
radiation, and are thus biologically hazardous. They are
In this type of decay, an excited nucleus emits a gamma
classically produced by the decay of atomic nuclei as they
ray almost immediately upon formation (it is now un-
transition from a high energy state to a lower state known
derstood that a nuclear isomeric transition, however, can
as gamma decay, but may also be produced by other pro-
produce inhibited gamma decay with a measurable and
cesses. Paul Villard, a French chemist and physicist, dis-
much longer half-life). Paul Villard, a French chemist
covered gamma radiation in 1900, while studying radia-
and physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900, while
tion emitted from radium. Villards radiation was named
studying radiation emitted from radium. Villard knew
gamma rays by Ernest Rutherford in 1903.
that his described radiation was more powerful than pre-
Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth include gamma viously described types of rays from radium, which in-
decay from naturally occurring radioisotopes, and sec- cluded beta rays, rst noted as radioactivity by Henri
ondary radiation from atmospheric interactions with Becquerel in 1896, and alpha rays, discovered as a less
cosmic ray particles. Rare terrestrial natural sources pro- penetrating form of radiation by Rutherford, in 1899.
duce gamma rays that are not of a nuclear origin, such as However, Villard did not consider naming them as a dif-
lightning strikes and terrestrial gamma-ray ashes. Ad- ferent fundamental type.[2][3] Villards radiation was rec-
1
2 4 NAMING CONVENTIONS AND OVERLAP IN TERMINOLOGY
ognized as being of a type fundamentally dierent from scattering and synchrotron radiation. A large fraction of
previously named rays, by Ernest Rutherford, who in such astronomical gamma rays are screened by Earths
1903 named Villards rays gamma rays by analogy with atmosphere and must be detected by spacecraft. Notable
the beta and alpha rays that Rutherford had dierentiated articial sources of gamma rays include ssion such as
in 1899.[4] The rays emitted by radioactive elements occurs in nuclear reactors, and high energy physics ex-
were named in order of their power to penetrate various periments, such as neutral pion decay and nuclear fusion.
materials, using the rst three letters of the Greek alpha-
bet: alpha rays as the least penetrating, followed by beta
rays, followed by gamma rays as the most penetrating.
Rutherford also noted that gamma rays were not deected
3 General characteristics
(or at least, not easily deected) by a magnetic eld, an-
other property making them unlike alpha and beta rays. The distinction between X-rays and gamma rays has
changed in recent decades. Originally, the electromag-
Gamma rays were rst thought to be particles with mass, netic radiation emitted by X-ray tubes almost invariably
like alpha and beta rays. Rutherford initially believed had a longer wavelength than the radiation (gamma rays)
that they might be extremely fast beta particles, but their emitted by radioactive nuclei.[6] Older literature distin-
failure to be deected by a magnetic eld indicated that guished between X- and gamma radiation on the basis
they had no charge.[5] In 1914, gamma rays were ob- of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary
served to be reected from crystal surfaces, proving that wavelength, such as 1011 m, dened as gamma rays.[7]
they were electromagnetic radiation.[5] Rutherford and However, with articial sources now able to duplicate any
his coworker Edward Andrade measured the wavelengths electromagnetic radiation that originates in the nucleus,
of gamma rays from radium, and found that they were as well as far higher energies, the wavelengths character-
similar to X-rays, but with shorter wavelengths and (thus) istic of radioactive gamma ray sources vs. other types,
higher frequency. This was eventually recognized as giv- now completely overlap. Thus, gamma rays are now usu-
ing them also more energy per photon, as soon as the lat- ally distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted by
ter term became generally accepted. A gamma decay was denition by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma
then understood to usually emit a single gamma photon. rays are emitted by the nucleus.[6][8][9][10] Exceptions to
this convention occur in astronomy, where gamma de-
cay is seen in the afterglow of certain supernovas, but
2 Sources of gamma rays other high energy processes known to involve other than
radioactive decay are still classed as sources of gamma
radiation.
6 Properties
6.1 Shielding
produced as an intermediate particle (rather, a virtual nique of Mssbauer spectroscopy. In the Mssbauer ef-
gamma ray may be thought to mediate the process). fect the narrow resonance absorption for nuclear gamma
absorption can be successfully attained by physically im-
mobilizing atomic nuclei in a crystal. The immobilization
60
27 Co of nuclei at both ends of a gamma resonance interaction
5.272 a 0.31 MeV 99.88% is required so that no gamma energy is lost to the kinetic
energy of recoiling nuclei at either the emitting or absorb-
0.12% ing end of a gamma transition. Such loss of energy causes
1.48 MeV 1.1732 MeV gamma ray resonance absorption to fail. However, when
emitted gamma rays carry essentially all of the energy of
the atomic nuclear de-excitation that produces them, this
energy is also sucient to excite the same energy state in
a second immobilized nucleus of the same type.
1.3325 MeV
6.4.2 Gamma rays from sources other than radioac-
tive decay
60
28 Ni Main article: Gamma-ray astronomy
Extraterrestrial, high energy gamma rays include the tive galaxies are thought to have a gamma ray pro-
gamma ray background produced when cosmic rays (ei- duction source similar to a particle accelerator. High
ther high speed electrons or protons) collide with ordi- energy electrons produced by the quasar, and sub-
nary matter, producing pair-production gamma rays at jected to inverse Compton scattering, synchrotron
511 keV. Alternatively, bremsstrahlung are produced at radiation, or bremsstrahlung, are the likely source
energies of tens of MeV or more when cosmic ray elec- of the gamma rays from those objects. It is thought
trons interact with nuclei of suciently high atomic num- that as a supermassive black hole at the center of
ber (see gamma ray image of the Moon at the beginning such galaxies provide the power source that inter-
of this article, for illustration). mittently destroys stars and focuses the resulting
charged particles into beams that emerge from their
rotational poles. When those beams interact with
gas, dust, and lower energy photons they produce
X-rays and gamma rays. These sources are known
to uctuate with durations of a few weeks, suggest-
ing their relatively small size (less than a few light-
weeks across). Such sources of gamma and X-rays
are the most commonly visible high intensity sources
outside our galaxy. They shine not in bursts (see il-
lustration), but relatively continuously when viewed
with gamma ray telescopes. The power of a typical
quasar is about 1040 watts, a small fraction of which
is gamma radiation. Much of the rest is emitted as
electromagnetic waves of all frequencies, including
Image of entire sky in 100 MeV or greater gamma rays as seen radio waves.
by the EGRET instrument aboard the CGRO spacecraft. Bright
spots within the galactic plane are pulsars while those above and
below the plane are thought to be quasars.
the long bursts (only sources in our galaxy are de- aboard high-altitude balloons and satellites missions, such
tectable for that reason).[19] as the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, provide our
only view of the universe in gamma rays.
The so-called long-duration gamma-ray bursts produce a Gamma-induced molecular changes can also be used to
total energy output of about 1044 joules (as much energy alter the properties of semi-precious stones, and is often
as our Sun will produce in its entire life-time) but in a used to change white topaz into blue topaz.
period of only 20 to 40 seconds. Gamma rays are ap-
Non-contact industrial sensors commonly use sources of
proximately 50% of the total energy output. The lead-
gamma radiation in the rening, mining, chemical, food,
ing hypotheses for the mechanism of production of these
soaps and detergents, and pulp and paper industries, for
highest-known intensity beams of radiation, are inverse
the measurement of levels, density, and thicknesses. Typ-
Compton scattering and synchrotron radiation from high-
ically, these use Co-60 or Cs-137 isotopes as the radiation
energy charged particles. These processes occur as rel-
source.
ativistic charged particles leave the region of the event
horizon of a newly formed black hole created during su- In the US, gamma ray detectors are beginning to be used
pernova explosion. The beam of particles moving at rel- as part of the Container Security Initiative (CSI). These
ativistic speeds are focused for a few tens of seconds by machines are advertised to be able to scan 30 containers
the magnetic eld of the exploding hypernova. The fu- per hour.
sion explosion of the hypernova drives the energetics of Gamma radiation is often used to kill living organisms, in
the process. If the narrowly directed beam happens to a process called irradiation. Applications of this include
be pointed toward the Earth, it shines at gamma ray fre- the sterilization of medical equipment (as an alternative
quencies with such intensity, that it can be detected even to autoclaves or chemical means), the removal of decay-
at distances of up to 10 billion light years, which is close causing bacteria from many foods and the prevention of
to the edge of the visible universe. the sprouting of fruit and vegetables to maintain freshness
and avor.
Despite their cancer-causing properties, gamma rays are
7 Health eects also used to treat some types of cancer, since the rays kill
cancer cells also. In the procedure called gamma-knife
Main article: Sievert surgery, multiple concentrated beams of gamma rays are
directed to the growth in order to kill the cancerous cells.
Gamma rays cause damage at a cellular level and are pen- The beams are aimed from dierent angles to concentrate
etrating, causing diuse damage throughout the body. the radiation on the growth while minimizing damage to
However, they are less ionising than alpha or beta par- surrounding tissues.
ticles, which are, of course, less penetrating. Gamma rays are also used for diagnostic purposes in
Low levels of gamma rays cause a stochastic health risk, nuclear medicine in imaging techniques. A number of
which for radiation dose assessment is dened as the dierent gamma-emitting radioisotopes are used. For
probability of cancer induction and genetic damage.[20] example, in a PET scan a radiolabeled sugar called
High doses produce deterministic eects, which is the udeoxyglucose emits positrons that are annihilated by
severity of acute tissue damage that is certain to hap- electrons, producing pairs of gamma rays that highlight
pen. These eects are compared to the physical quantity cancer as the cancer often has a higher metabolic rate
absorbed dose measured by the unit gray (Gy).[21] than the surrounding tissues. The most common gamma
emitter used in medical applications is the nuclear isomer
technetium-99m which emits gamma rays in the same en-
8 Uses ergy range as diagnostic X-rays. When this radionuclide
tracer is administered to a patient, a gamma camera can
be used to form an image of the radioisotopes distribu-
tion by detecting the gamma radiation emitted (see also
SPECT). Depending on which molecule has been labeled
with the tracer, such techniques can be employed to diag-
nose a wide range of conditions (for example, the spread
of cancer to the bones via bone scan).
Gamma rays provide information about some of the most When gamma radiation breaks DNA molecules, a cell
energetic phenomena in the universe; however, they are may be able to repair the damaged genetic material,
largely absorbed by the Earths atmosphere. Instruments within limits. However, a study of Rothkamm and Lo-
9
brich has shown that this repair process works well after 10 References
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Cortina, J.; Denningho, S.; Fonseca, V.; Gonzalez, J.;
Gotting, N.; Heinzelmann, G.; Hermann, G.; Heusler,
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A.; Jung, I.; Kankanyan, R.; Kestel, M.; Kettler, J.;
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[10] Grupen, Claus; G. Cowan; S. D. Eidelman; T. Stroh
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10 11 EXTERNAL LINKS
[15] Bock, R. K. et al. (2008-06-27). Very-High-Energy Basic reference on several types of radiation
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Radiation Q & A
ent Is the Universe?". Science 320 (5884): pp 1752
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18583607. Radiation information
[16] Domnguez, Alberto et al. (2015-06-01). All the Light Gamma-ray bursts
There Ever Was. Scientic American 312 (6): pp 3843.
ISSN 0036-8075. The Lund/LBNL Nuclear Data Search Contains
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[17] Gamma decay review Accessed Sept. 29, 2014
Mapping soils with airborne detectors
[18] Smith, Joseph; David M. Smith (August 2012).
Deadly Rays From Clouds. Scientic American
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with lter on gamma-ray energy
[19] Announcement of rst close study of a short gamma-ray
Health Physics Society Public Education Website
burst.
[20] The ICRP says In the low dose range, below about 100
mSv, it is scientically plausible to assume that the in-
cidence of cancer or heritable eects will rise in direct
proportion to an increase in the equivalent dose in the rel-
evant organs and tissues ICRP publication 103 paragraph
64
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