Chemistry 315

Experiment 1:
Fluorescence Measurements
Required Readings
The reading below can be found in the relevant volumes on the reserve list in the Chemistry
Library (see course syllabus for full reference).
1. Chapter 15A - 15C2, Molecular Luminescence Spectroscopy, Skoog et al.
2. Section 1D-3, Standard Addition Methods, Skoog et al.
or
1. Section 9.1.5, Molecular Fluorescence, Phosphorescence and Chemiluminescence (pp.
535-539), Kellner et al.
2. Section 7.8.3, p. 393 (Stern-Volmer relationship), Kellner et al.
3. Section 7.9.3, pp. 419-423, (Fluorescent and Chemiluminescent Labels section only),
Kellner et. al.
4. Section 12.2.7, pp. 743-744 (standard addition method), Kellner et al.

Note before reading.

In editing and writing this manual, I have tried to subscribe to many of the formatting and
conventions you will use when writing your lab reports. However, do not take my writing style
as a template. Ive taken certain liberties, such personal pronouns and contractions, in order to
make the manual more legible. Additionally, although there is a scarcity of citations in my
introduction, you will not be given the same freedom in your writing. Dont assume I will know
where you learned something. As always, feel free to let me know if you have any questions.
-Tyler Haddock
Overview
In this lab, you will perform two investigations (1) use fluorescence spectroscopy to
study the effect of a quenching agent on the fluorescence of anthracene and (2) determine the
concentration of quinine in tonic water.

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 Fluorescence is the emission of light caused by the electronic transition from an excited
state to the ground state. The generation of excited states and their decay by fluorescence is the
key to understanding how fluorescent lights work and lends towards an understanding of lasers.
Fluorescence has a wide area of analytical applications, which take advantage of the excellent
sensitivity and selectivity of fluorescence processes.
The first part of this experiment is a study of the quenching of anthracene fluorescence by
chlorocarbon compounds. The quenching rate constant kq and the relative quantum yield 0 /
for the quenching of anthracene by CCl4 will be determined.
In the second part of the experiment, standard addition via fluorescence measurements
will be used to determine the concentration of quinine in commercial tonic water. Quinine is an
antimalarial compound used to flavor tonic water.

Part 1.
Fluorescence and Quenching
Intelligent use of photochemical methods requires an understanding of the processes that
can occur after a molecule absorbs a quantum of light energy. When a molecule absorbs a
photon, it is promoted to an excited state. More precisely, an electron in the molecule jumps to
a higher energy state. A summary of the possible processes that occur after excitation are shown
in Figure 1.
S1
Intersystem
crossing

(Excitation) T1
Phosphorescence

Fluorescence
kf

Internal Intersystem
conversion crossing
knr

So

Figure 1. Jaboski diagram for electronic transitions.

As the molecule returns to the ground state, it can lose this excess energy via either

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radiative or non-radiative processes. Fluorescence is a radiative process whereby the excited
molecule undergoes a transition from the lowest excited singlet state S1 to the ground singlet
state S0. Phosphorescence is also a radiative process, but must first transition to a triplet state
(intersystem crossing). Phosphorescence can then occur when the molecule emits light via a first
excited triplet to ground, singlet state transition, S0 T1. The required reading will describe the
relaxation pathways in more detail.
In many cases, neither phosphorescent nor fluorescent emission are observed. The
absence of emission means that non-radiative processes are occurring so rapidly that the
molecule loses its energy before it can emit a photon. Non-radiative processes compete with
radiative processes for the energy contained in excited molecules. Some substances, called
quenchers, promote the non-radiative loss of energy. When added to a fluorescent substance, a
quencher will diminish the intensity of fluorescence.
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons often show intense fluorescence in solution at room
temperature. Phosphorescence emissionwhich requires a spin flip of the electron for both
intersystem crossing and phosphorescenceis a slower process than fluorescence, so there is
more time available for the excited triplet to lose its excitation energy via non-radiative emission.
As a result, phosphorescence is usually only seen in systems where collisions are minimized,
such as a rigid, frozen solution or an analyte adsorbed onto a solid. Give that both our analytes
are in solution, no phosphorescence will occur in this experiment.
The fluorescence of most aromatic compounds is efficiently quenched by halogenated
alkanes, such as carbon tetrachloride. The presence of heavy chlorine atoms in solvent or other
solutes increases the magnitude of spin/orbit interactions. Enhanced spin/orbit interactions
increase the rate of triplet formation, decreasing the occupancy of the excited singlet states and
correspondingly decreasing fluorescence (See Skoog, Sections 15A4).
The goal of the first part of this experiment is to determine the rate constant for this
quenching reaction through measurements of the fluorescent intensity of the aromatic
hydrocarbon, anthracene A, in ethanol by varying the amount of quencher present. When a
solution of anthracene in ethanol is exposed to UV photons, anthracene molecules absorb some
of the photons and are promoted to S1. If a state other than the lowest excited singlet state
becomes populated (such as an excited vibrational state in S1), the molecule will very rapidly
relax to the lowest excited singlet state. Anthracene molecules in this state, A , can lose energy

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through several different pathways outlined in Figure 1. Fluorescence is a first-order rate process
denoted as

f
A A +

where kf represents the rate constant of quenching, h is Plancks constant, is the frequency of
the emitted light, and h is the energy of the emitted photon
Alternatively, A can lose its energy non-radiatively in the form of thermal energy. This
can occur either by internal conversion, S0 S1, or by intersystem crossing, T1 S1, followed
by internal conversion, S0 T1. Both internal conversion and intersystem crossing proceed
without the emission of a photon and can be combined as a first-order rate process:

nr
A A + (2)

where knr represents the rate constant of non-radiative emission and Et is the thermal energy
released.
Another possible first-order process would be a chemical reaction, but such a reaction is
not observed for anthracene in pure ethanol.
The quantum yield of fluorescence, 0 , is the fraction of the total light energy absorbed
that reappears as emitted light via the fluorescence process. Alternatively, we can define 0 as
the rate at which A* decays via fluorescence divided by the rate A* decays through all pathways
i.e. both fluorescence and non-radiative pathways. We can see that using the rate law equations
from Reactions 1 and 2, the quantum yield of anthracene fluorescence in pure ethanol can be
expressed as

[ ]
0 = [A]+
f

= +f (1)
f nr [A ] f nr

If a quenching species is present in the solution, a third mechanism for A* to decay is

q
A + Q A + Q (3)

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where kq is the rate constant of quenching and Q is the quencher. There are a variety of
mechanisms by which a quencher functions. As discussed earlier, one such mechanism is CCl4s
facilitation of intersystem crossing, which reduces anthracenes fluorescence intensity. All
methods of quenching are combined into Reaction 3.
The quantum yield of fluorescence in the presence of a quencher, , differs from 0 by
the addition of the quenching pathway. Therefore, by adding the rate law from Reaction 3 to eq.
1:

f [A ] f
= = (2)
f [A ]+nr [A ]+q [A ][Q] f +nr +q [Q]

The relative quantum yield, 0 /, can be expressed by dividing eq. 1 by 2. After some
algebraic rearrangement, the equation becomes the Stern-Volmer expression:

0 q [Q]
= 1 + + (3)
f nr

One apparent problem is our inability to measure quantum yield directly. However, using our
spectrofluorimeter, we have the ability to measure the intensity of fluorescence with (I) and
without a quencher (I0). Since I and I0 0 , the relative intensity, I0/I equals 0 . Using
eq. 3, a plot of I0/I as a function of [Q] will yield a straight line with slope kq/(kf + knr). This
graph is called a Stern-Volmer plot.
In order to determine the quenching rate constant, kq, the value of (kf + knr) must be
determined by an independent experiment. The measurement of the time dependence of the
anthracene fluorescence decay in pure ethanol can be used to obtain the value of (kf + knr). Since
both kf and knr are first-order rate constants the time dependence of the concentration of can
be expressed in the first order, integrated rate law:

ln[A ()] = ln[A (0)] (f +nr ) (4)

where [A*(t)] and [A*(0) are the concentrations of excited analyte at time t and 0, respectively.

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By substituting fluorescence intensity for [A*(t)], eq. 4 can be rewritten as

ln( ()) = ln((0)) (f +nr ) (5)

Data obtained for the relaxation of A are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Fluorescence lifetime data for anthracene.

Time / ns Intensity
0 1911
2 1092
4 624
6 356
8 203

Using eq. 5 and Table 1, (f + nr ) can be determined from the slope of ln( ()) as a function
of t. Its then trivial to calculate kq using the Stern-Volmer plot.

Part 2.
Component Analysis by Fluorescence
The second part of this experiment will involve direct measurements of the intensely
fluorescent molecule, quinine. You will use the method of standard addition to determine the
concentration of quinine in commercial tonic water. This method involves first spiking the
sample with known amounts of the analyte of interest, in this case quinine. As the standard
additions are made, you dilute your sample of initial volume, 0. Therefore, the fluorescence
intensities you record are less than without the dilution. To account for this, we correct the
fluorescence intensity using

0 +
= (6)
0

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where is the total volume of standard solution added prior to measurement, I is the measured
fluorescence intensity, and I is the corrected fluorescence intensity. A plot of I as a function of
V is shown in Figure 2.

Standard Addition of Sample Data

200
Corrected Fluorescence Intensity

180
160
140
120
100
80 y = 305.41x + 22.927
60 R = 0.9981
40
20
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Volume of Standard Added (mL)

Figure 2. Sample plot of corrected fluorescence intensity as a function of volume of standard solution added.

The absolute value of the x-intercept of a standard addition plot is equal to the volume of
equimolar stock solution in the sample. Simple dilution equations can be used to calculate the
initial concentration of analyte in the sample solution.

The Spectrofluorimeter
The instrument used in this experiment is a Shimadzu RF-5301 PC Spectrofluorimeter. It
has a xenon lamp as the light source, an excitation monochromator to select the wavelength of
light for irradiating the sample, an emission monochromator for determining the wavelengtht of
fluorescence, and a photomultiplier tube (PMT) for detection. Figure 3 outlines the design of a
typical spectrofluorimeter.

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 Figure 3. Block diagram of a spectrofluorimeter.

The source beam is split so that half the intensity passes through the sample and the other
half acts as a reference beam, which is attenuated before striking the reference photomultiplier
tube. The other half of the beam is focused on the entrance slit of the excitation monochromator.
The monochromator selects for a portion of the spectrum, known as the excitation wavelength, to
pass through to the sample. When incident on a fluorophore, part of this light is absorbed by the
sample and emitted at a longer wavelength as fluorescence. Fluorescence is isotropic, meaning it
is equal in all directions. This property can be utilized to minimize scattering by orienting the
detector outside the direct path of the source. The emitted light is directed into the emission
monochromator. The fluorescent light passes through the emission monochromator to the PMT
which amplifies the electrical output. The emission spectrum is then sent to the computer,
recorded, and displayed on the program screen. The y-axis of the graph is plotted in arbitrary
units and is proportional to the sample emission intensity.
An emission spectrum is produced when a single wavelength is used to excite the sample
and the emission is recorded over a range of wavelengths. The signal produced in an emission
spectrum is proportional to the power of the excitation beam absorbed by the sample. This
intensity is related to concentration in the same way that absorbance and concentration are with
Beers Law. This relationship allows an accurate a plot to be made of the intensity of the
fluorescent signal versus the concentration of the analyte linear at low concentrations. The
Shimadzu RF-5301 PC is also capable of producing an excitation spectrum where the emission
wavelength is held constant while the excitation wavelength is varied. This is useful in
determining what wavelength to excite your sample.

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Prelab Assignment
The prelab assignment should be done in your laboratory notebook. Any work that is typed or
written in another format will not be accepted and a grade of 0 points will be awarded. Cite all
sources consulted.
1. Find MSDSs for anthracene, CCl4, and quinine. What are the health risks associated with
these chemicals? What precautions should be taken when handling them? (3 points)
2. Draw the structure of anthracene. (1 point)
3. The Stern-Volmer equation is given below. Define all six variables and draw a theoretical
Stern-Volmer plot, labeling all parts. (3 points)

0 kq [Q]
1
kf knr

4. Determine the value of (f + nr ) from the following data:

t (ns) I(t)
0 1911
2 1092
4 624
6 356
8 203

You will need the relationship: ln(()) = ( + ) + ln((0)). Show your work and attach
printed copies of any plots you have made. You MUST NOT find the average slope by
using a pair of data points, as this would give inaccurate results if the data was not perfect.
Instead, use a software package such as Excel to find the best fit line of the entire data set. Be
sure to include correct units. (This value will be used in your lab report). (3 points)
5. Calculate the % quinine by molar mass in quinine sulfate. Note that quinine sulfate exists in
the hydrated form: (quinine)2H2SO42H2O. (1.5 points)
6. Calculate the volume of 2 M CCl4 you will need to prepare a 25 mL solution of 0.40 M CCl4
in ethanol. (1.5 points)
7. Prepare a table for Part I for CCl4 listing the concentration of anthracene, the volume of
anthracene stock solution, the concentration of quencher, and the volume of quencher added

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 for each of the 10 mL flasks in Step 4 in the first section of the experiment. Your tables
should resemble the one below, but they should be filled out with your calculated values. (2
point)

Sample [anthracene] / M V of anthracene / mL [quencher] / M V of quencher / mL

1 - - - -
2 - - - -
3 - - - -
4 - - - -
5 - - - -
6 - - - -

Materials
Equipment
1 Shimadzu RF-5301 PC Spectrofluorimeter
1 quartz cuvette
6 10 mL volumetric flask and stopper
1 100 mL volumetric flask and stopper
1 25 mL volumetric flask and stopper
3 50 mL beaker
1 10 mL graduated volumetric pipette
1 large pipette bulb
1 small pipette bulb

Chemicals
H2SO4 (3 M aqueous solution)
CCl4 (2 M in EtOH)
Pure EtOH
Anthracene (8 l0-5 M EtOH solution)
Quinine sulfate stock solution (50 ppm, aqueous)
Tonic Water: Brand A

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Dispose of all waste in the container designated for this experiment. Do not pour waste down the
sink! Carbon tetrachloride and anthracene are considered carcinogens. Prepare solutions in the
fume hood, wearing nitrile gloves. Do not pipette from the stock solutions. Pour them into the
designated beakers for each chemical, then pipette from the beaker. This will avoid
contamination.
NOTES: Never set the cuvette down anywhere that it could be knocked to the floor.
Always invert volumetric flasks at least 20 times to mix your solutions.
You do not need to save any data. Record all data in your notebook.
Make sure all glassware is cleaned before use.

Part I: Determining the Rate Constant of Anthracene Fluorescence Quenching

1. Turn on the RF-5301 PC Spectrofluorimeter. Flip the white switch on the right side of the
instrument to turn on both the spectrofluorimeter and the Xe lamp. Never touch the Xe lamp
switch! The green power light on the front of the fluorimeter is illuminated when the power
is on.
2. Open the instruments software: RF-50XPC. In the software go to Configure in the main
menu and choose Instrument Make sure that the On button next to the fluorimeter option
is highlighted. The other instrument parameters should be:
-HV Control: on
PMT Protect: on
Auto Shutter: off.
Click OK.
Allow at least 20 minutes for the lamp to warm up and stabilize.
3. Prepare 25 mL of 0.40 M CCl4 in ethanol. Transfer approximately 10 mL of the 2 M CCl4
stock into the designated beaker. Use a cleaned volumetric pipette to transfer only the
necessary amount of 2 M CCl4 stock solution from the beaker to a (cleaned) 25 mL
volumetric flask.
4. The anthracene stock solution is 8.0 10-5 M in ethanol. Pour about 35 mL of the anthracene
solution into a clean, dry beaker. Take six 10 mL volumetric flasks, clean with soap, and
water, and then rinse with a small amount of ethanol. Prepare solutions in ethanol containing

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 [anthracene] = 4.0 10-5 M and [CCl4] ranging from 0.0 M to 0.20 M in increments of 0.04
M.
5. Set parameters: Go to Acquire Mode in the software main menu and make sure that
Spectrum is checked. Go to Configure in the main menu and choose Parameters.
Set the following parameters:
Spectrum Type: Emission
EX Wavelength: 366 nm
EM Wavelength Range: Start: 350 End: 500
Recording Range: Low: 0 High: 1000
Scanning Speed: Fast
Sample Interval (nm): 1.0
Slit Width (nm): EX: 3 EM: 3
Sensitivity: High
Response Time (sec): Auto
Click OK
6. Rinse the quartz cuvette with small amounts of solution and let it drain nearly dry by turning
it upside down and touching the corner to a Kimwipe. Pipette about 3.0 mL of the anthracene
solution with no CCl4 into the sample cell using a Pasteur pipette. Wipe the exterior of the
cell with a Kimwipe and place the cell carefully in the sample chamber. Be careful with the
sample cuvette; it is expensive!
7. Click on the Go To WL button on the bottom right of the main screen. A window entitled
Wavelength Selection will pop up.
Set the following: EX Wavelength: 366 nm EM Wavelength: 350 nm
Click Set.
Click on Auto Zero button on the bottom right of the main screen.
8. Scanning the emission spectrum: Click on Start button. The emission spectrum should
appear in the main window. After the scan has been completed a window will pop up. Give
the spectrum a name (for example your initials and the run number). Click on Save. The
spectrum will not be saved on the hard drive; it will only be saved in a channel in
temporary memory.

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9. Recording intensities: Go to Manipulate and choose Peak Pick. If you have more than one
spectrum displayed you will be asked to choose the spectrum you wish to peak pick. A Peak
Pick Window will pop up. Maximize the Peak Pick Window and scroll down to find the
intensity information and record the values in your lab notebook. The peaks of interest are
near 382, 402, and 425 nm.
10. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for the other five CCl4/anthracene samples. Note: as the amount of
quencher increases the position of the peak maxima may shift slightly.
11. After you have completed all of the CCl4 samples and have the intensity data for each of the
samples for all three wavelengths, go to File and choose Channel and then choose Erase
Channel Select All and click OK. (A warning about saving the data to disk may pop up.
Click Yes and continue.) This will erase all of the data. Make sure you have all the
information you need and it is saved on the hard drive.
Note: After erasing the channel, go to Configure in the main menu and choose Instrument.
Make sure the On button next to the fluorimeter is highlighted. Sometimes, after erasing
channels, the Fluorimeter On button switches to Off.
12. Disposal of wastes: Dispose of all wastes in the waste container marked "Experiment 1
Waste." Do not pour anything in the sink.

Part II: Determining the Concentration of Quinine in Tonic Water

1. Place 2.00 mL of tonic water Brand A in a 100 mL volumetric flask (do not pipette straight
from the bottle!). Add H2SO4 (3 M aqueous solution, 1.0 mL) and dilute to the mark with
deionized water. Note: The H2SO4 is used to convert the quinine in the tonic water into
quinine sulfate, to use in the standard addition.
2. Set parameters. Go to the Acquire Mode in the software main menu and make sure that
Spectrum is checked. Go to Configure in the main menu and choose Parameters
Set the following parameters:
Spectrum Type: Emission
EX Wavelength: 337 nm
EM Wavelength Range: Start: 350 End: 500
Recording Range: Low: 0 High: 1000
Scanning Speed: Fast

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 Sample Interval (nm): 1.0
Slit Width (nm): EX: 1.5 EM: 3
Sensitivity: High
Response Time (sec): Auto
Click OK.
3. Pipette exactly 3.0 mL of the sample into the cuvette using a volumetric pipette.
4. Click on the Go To WL button on the bottom right of the main screen. A window entitled
Wavelength Selection will pop up.
Set the following: EX Wavelength: 337 nm EM Wavelength: 350 nm
Click Set.
Click on Auto Zero button on the bottom right of the main screen.
5. Scan the emission spectrum.
6. Record the intensities by using Peak Pick just as in Step 8 of the previous section. In the
Peak Pick Window scroll down and find the intensity information and record the values in
your lab notebook. The peak of interest is around 450 nm. Close the Peak Pick window.
7. Perform the standard addition: Add 0.100 mL of the 50.0 ppm (1 ppm 1 mg L-1) aqueous
quinine sulfate stock solution to the sample cuvette using a syringe. Mix the sample solution
with a Pasteur pipette by drawing in the solution and expelling it within the cell. Be
extremely careful not to scratch the inside of the cuvette with the pipette tip. Repeat steps 5
and 6.
8. Repeat step 7 until five standard additions have been made.
9. After you have completed all of the standard additions and have the intensity data for each
addition, go to File and choose Channel and the choose Erase Channel Select All and
click OK. (A warning about saving the data to disk may pop up. Click Yes and continue.)
This action will erase all of the data.
10. Dispose of all wastes in the waste container marked "Experiment 1 Waste." Do not put
anything in the sink.
Shutting down and cleaning up
1. Turn off the RF-5301 PC Spectrofluorimeter. Be sure you are finished. Flip the white switch
on the right side of the instrument to turn off both the spectrofluorimeter and the Xe lamp.
Never touch the black Xe lamp switch! Exit the software.

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2. Return sample cell to its box.
3. Clean and dry all glassware that you used and return them to the appropriate place.
4. Return all solvents and stock solutions to the original location.

Data Analysis and Results:

1. Determine the values of kq for CCl4 using the kf + knr value calculated in the prelab. Show
your calculations and include the correct units.
2. Calculate the corrected fluorescence intensity for the Part II data.
3. Determine the concentration of quinine (ppm) in the tonic water. Show your calculations.
Note that the standard addition plots allow you to determine mass of quinine sulfate in
the 3.0 mL cuvette. From your calculations, determine the concentration (ppm) of quinine
sulfate in the 100 mL flask. Next, use the dilution formula to determine the concentration
of quinine sulfate in the tonic water bottle. Convert to ppm quinine using the prelab value
for % quinine in quinine sulfate.

For your Laboratory Report: Your lab report must include the following items
Title Page:
o Indicate whether you are a Chemistry or Chemical Engineer student. Failure to do so
will result in 0.25 point deduction.
o Abstract
Mention instrument used
Briefly describe the experiment
Detail the use of the Stern-Volmer plot and standard addition
Give quantitative results
o Keywords
Introduction Section:
o Give a general background of fluorescence in regards to this experiment
o Introduce equations
o Explain the instrument
Experimental Section:
o Describe what was tested (concentrations of solutions, number of solutions)

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 o How it was tested (instrumental information and parameters used)
o Experimental sections must be written in third person passive voice. Make sure the
reader can follow your method and repeat it, but do so succinctly.
o Cite the lab manual
Data and Results Section:
o Text explanations are absolutely necessary! The results should flow in a logical
manner.
o Reference equations used, plots shown, and calculations (the calculations can be
shown in the Supplemental Information, but must be referenced)
o Include Stern-Volmer plots of the I0/I vs. concentration of quencher at each
wavelength (3 figures total) with best fit the line and R2
o Include 1 Table summarizing calculated kq values (include mean and standard
deviation)
o Plot the corrected fluorescence readings vs. volume of quinine sulfate (1 figure). Your
plots should look like that in Figure 3.
Discussion and Conclusions Section: Aside from the detailed explanation/analysis of your
results, incorporate these ideas within your discussion:
o How does your kq value quantitatively and qualitatively compare to values found in
the literature? Remember that the solvent must be considered; look for studies using
ethanol.
o What did these experiments hope to prove or show?
o How does carbon tetrachloride reduce the fluorescence signal?
o Tonic Water: Quinine gives tonic water its distinct taste, but due to its adverse effects,
the FDA has sanctioned that the quinine content in tonic water be limited to 83 ppm.
How do your measurements compare?
o Why use standard addition instead of preparing multiple quinine solutions of known
concentration, and using their measured intensities to construct a calibration curve?
o Error Propagation: Include a discussion of the errors associated with both parts of the
experiment. Include possible sources of random and systematic error (be quantitative)
and how those errors would have affected your results. What steps should be taken to

16
 minimize these sources? Do not include blunders in this discussion (for example:
spilling the solutions, breaking the cuvette, typing in the wrong the parameters, etc.).
Supplemental Information
o Table of intensity vs. concentration of CCl4 at each wavelength of maximum
emission.
o Table of the recorded and corrected fluorescence intensities for the amount of quinine
sulfate stock solution added.
o Calculations (Handwritten is fine)
o Attach the original copy of your lab notebook.
Chemical Engineers: Chemical Engineer Student Question

Chemical Engineer Student Questions: If you are a Chemical Engineer student,

answer following questions and attach to the back of your lab report.

Compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFLs) have become more widely used than ever before. CFLs
contain mercury. Many broken/used CFLs are disposed of in landfills every day. Suppose you
are the CEO of a company that makes CFLs. Would it be better for your company to find a
replacement for mercury for your CFLs or continue to make this popular product until the
government either bans it or mandates removal of mercury from it? Estimate how much mercury
could end up in landfills over the next 5 years based on the present rate. What other material
could be used in place of mercury? Cite your sources.

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