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Wave-particle Duality 1
This generic diagram can be used to represent waves of different types,
including photons:
In general the wave amplitude varies with both distance and time.
The peaks occur at the same place in stationary waves (otherwise the
peaks move in some direction), but in all waves the amplitude varies with
time.
Wave-particle Duality 2
The Energy and Momentum of Light Wave-Particle Duality
The electric field amplitude of a light wave traveling through space is given by:
E ( x, t ) = E0 cos (t kx )
2 c 2
E ( x, t ) = E0 cos t x
Here, is of course the wavelength. The first term in parentheses shows the
time-dependence of the amplitude, whereas the second term deals with the
distance dependence.
Comparing the two equations, we note that: = 2c/ = 2 and k = 2/ .
(For interest, the ratio /k = = c, the velocity of light).
Wave-particle Duality 3
This equation conveys two important pieces of information about the wave-
particle duality of photons. Thus:
h
Energy = ( = h )
2
hk
Momentum =
2
Thus, not only do photons have a wavelength, but they also behave like
particles, having definite amounts of energy and momentum. The quantity k,
which relates to photon linear momentum, is a measure of the number of
wavelengths per unit distance (k = 2/). k is strictly a vector quantity, which is
important in optics, but we often deal just with its magnitude.
All matter has both wave-like and particle-like properties, although the
wave-like properties are only clearly revealed for particles with very small
masses.
Wave-particle Duality 4
Several conservation rules in physics also apply to small particles, including
photons:
Examples: electrons, protons, neutrons, many atomic nuclei (e.g., 1H, 3He, 13C)
Examples: photons, and many atomic nuclei (e.g., 2H, 4He, 14N, 12C, 16O)
2. Rotational angular momentum in many molecules (e.g., CO2 bend and stretch,
HCl))
Wave-particle Duality 7
What are some typical wave-like properties?
Wave-particle Duality 8
Lecture demonstration of diffraction of a laser pointer from a diffraction grating
Laser diffraction
pattern on screen 3
2
1
Wave-particle Duality 9
Using the data from above and the appropriate form of the Bragg equation, can
calculate the divergence angles, , for the different diffraction spots:
Outgoing diffracted beam
comprises ~1000 diffracted
rays
Laser
Wave-particle Duality 11
de Broglie's Hypothesis
The de Broglie relationship combined the particle and wave properties of any
particle into a simple equation:
h
p=
Here, the quantity p is the linear momentum, which would be the same as
the product mv" for a particle having a finite "rest" mass. This does not
include photons, for which we need to use p = hk/2 (or k).
Wave-particle Duality 12
Example, calculate the de Broglie wavelength for an electron having a kinetic energy of
1 eV.
Recall that the energy equivalent of 1 eV is 1.602 x 10-19 Joules, so that:
p2 h2
= = 1 eV = 1.602 1019 Joule
2me 2me 2
whence:
h2 (6.626 1034 ) 2 18
= = 31 19
= 1.4 10 m 1.2 nm
2me Ek 2 9.1110 1.602 10
For a more massive particle, the de Broglie wavelength at the same kinetic
energy decreases with the square root of the mass.
The heavier particle almost always has larger physical dimensions, and quickly
the de Broglie wavelength (and wavelike behavior) becomes less significant.
Wave-particle Duality 13
Some Other Examples:
Particle (nm)
Wave-particle Duality 14
The calculation for the helium atom at 300 K is as follows:
Wave-particle Duality 15
M&S Figure 27.2,
showing the Maxwell-
Boltzmann distribution
of molecular speeds for
different temperatures.
Wave-particle Duality 16
Gas molecule velocity selector
Wave-particle Duality 17
An example of the use of a beam of D2
molecules as a diffraction probe of a
metal surface under high vacuum
conditions.
Wave-particle Duality 18
The deBroglie wavelength of a particle depends on the local environment,
because the momentum is usually variable.
Consider that the total energy, E, of a particle can be expressed by:
1 2 p2
E = KE + PE = mv + V = +V
2 2m
From this, we can write an expression for the momentum of the particle:
p = 2 m( E V ) (See Ch. 3)
Wave-particle Duality 19
A good example of a variable potential energy is the harmonic oscillator, where
we can deduce that, if the total energy is constant, both the potential and kinetic
energy terms vary with time.
In the case that E<V, we need quantum mechanics to explain the behavior of the
particle. (See tunneling discussion later in connection with Chapter 4).
Wave-particle Duality 20
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle
Closely related to the deBroglie relationship is the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle. This is expressed mathematically as:
If we specify the momentum, then the de Broglie formula tells us that there is a
definite wavelength representing the particles.
1.5
Amplitude (arbitrary
1
0.5
units)
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 6 7.2 8.4 9.6 10.8 12
Distance (nm)
Wave-particle Duality 21
We ask the question: Where is the particle?
The best we can do is to say that the probability of locating the particle is
proportional to the square of the amplitude of the function: (One of the
postulates of Quamtum Mechanics see later)
1.2
Probability
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 6 7.2 8.4 9.6 10.8 12
-0.2
Distance
Where is it? It could be anywhere under the blue sine wave.
Why? We specified an exact momentum with no uncertainty, leaving us with
infinite uncertainty of the position. (Actually this is not quite infinite uncertainty,
since we know the particle cannot be at the nodes of the wave function).
Wave-particle Duality 22
Schematic representation of the DeBroglie
Wave-particle Duality 23
A single wave provides no information
A single wave provides no information
about the particle location except for local
about the particle location except for local
maxima and minima
maxima and minima
1.5
1.2
Wave amplitude
Amplitude squared
1
0.5 0.8
0 0.6
-0.5 0.4
0.2
-1
0
-1.5
-0.2
Distance
Distance
Wave-particle Duality 24
Now, we overlap (arbitrarily) seven different waves of different wavelength, to
simulate some uncertainty in the actual wavelength and momentum. They are
chosen for this demonstration to overlap exactly in the middle, whereas they fall
out of phase toward the edges. This generates a wave packet. There are many
ways to pick the component waves, including both wavelength and amplitude.
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0 50 100 150 200
Wave-particle Duality 25
Adding 7 different waves together localizes Adding 7 different waves together localizes
the particle - here amplitude the particle - here amplitude squared
1.5
1.2
Ampliutude squared
1 1
Ampliutude
0.5 0.8
0 0.6
-0.5 0.4
0.2
-1
0
-1.5
-0.2
0 50 100 150 200
0 50 100 150 200
Distance
Distance
Wave-particle Duality 26
Therefore, the model above has defined both p and x, which are the
uncertainties in momentum and position, respectively. If we were to quantify
these values, we could see how this would be consistent with the Heisenberg
Uncertainty relationship.
Wave-particle Duality 27
Mathematical representation of uncertainty
(x x )
2
x2 =
Proof is in Math Chapter B
or more commonly: - not needed in this course.
2
x2 = x 2 x
Wave-particle Duality 28
Lets put some numbers together for the above example of a wave packet
I picked 7 different wavelengths of arbitrary values, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 and 23
distance units. The actual units dont matter as they will cancel.
Using the deBroglie relationship, p=h/, we can specify that the equivalent
momenta, p, are: 1/17, 1/18 etc units of h the Planck constant.
A simple calculation shows that this gives a standard deviation, p, of 0.0055 h,
which is equivalent to the spectral distribution actually used.
Now, the combination of these waves gives us a wave packet, for which we can
estimate an uncertainty in the position. (Review Slide 25). In these arbitrary units,
the fwhm of the distribution is near 50 units, which we take to be close to the value
of x, the uncertainty in position.
Bottom line:
When constructing a wave packet to define more clearly the location of a
particle, we need to include a greater number of distinct wavelengths. This
improvement in positional precision is at the expense of precision in our
knowledge of the wavelength and hence momentum.
The Heisenberg principle defines the limits on the simultaneous precision of
these two types of measurement.
Wave-particle Duality 30
Suppose we take an electron confined to a region approximately 1.2 nm wide
(i.e., the dimensions of a large molecule or a small nanoparticle)
1.2
0
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
See also Example 1-11
Distance (nm)
= = 4.82 10$
!
Wave-particle Duality 31
The velocity uncertainty seems large. Would that not also imply that the electron
velocity is large? Yes. Lets take the example of an electron confined to a classical
Bohr orbit (n=1) in a hydrogen atom. Kinetic energy is numerically equal to the
value of the Rydberg constant. (In fact, quantum mechanics stipulates that we
cannot know the exact KE, and the best we can do is to calculate an average value)
1 2
mv = 2.178 1018 Joule
2
2.178 1018 2
v= 31
= 2.19 106 m s-1
9.1110
This observation means that the electron is traveling close to 1% of the velocity of
light, even in the H atom. The energy of the electron closest to nucleus in
different atoms (Moseley) scales approximately with Z2, raising the interesting
possibility that the electrons in heavy atoms could have velocities approaching
the velocity of light. In this domain, the mass of the electron is no longer
constant, increasing as the velocity approaches that of light. This phenomenon is
a consequence of the theory of relativity, and the needed corrections to the
various formulas are termed relativistic. Such corrections are needed to explain
the properties of heavier elements, such as Hg and Au. 32