Vehicle Dynamics 101

CG Location, Weight Distribution, Load Transfer:

Goals: Maximize Acceleration, Braking, Cornering. Dont tip over or roll over.

Longitudinal Load Transfer: Acceleration

Draw FBD of car under acceleration. Assume Rear Wheel Drive (RWD).
F = ma F ma = 0 Draw the -ma force just as another force.

Sum Forces in x:
ma - Fr = 0 a = Fr/m
Sum Forces in y:
Nf + Nr mg = 0
Sum Moments about the rear contact patch:
- NfL - mah + mgc = 0
Nf = (m/L) * (gc ah) = Static weight Load transfer
Nr = (m/L) * (gb + ah) = Static weight + Load transfer
Static case: a=0. So Nf and Nr follow c and b (% weight Front:Rear). Typical values:
Front-engine FWD: 60%F : 40%R
Front-engine RWD: 50-55%F : 45-50%R
Mid-engine RWD: 45%F : 55%R
Very high power RWD: 30-45%F : 55-70%R
Maximize Rear Traction (RWD) for any acceleration:
Max Fr = r*Nr Want max Nr So,
For static case, Nr equation says to maximize b (CG is over rear wheels).
For dynamic case, to maximize accel:
o Want max Fr and min mass. So max Fr = Nr = (m/L) * (gb + ah)
o Still want max b (CG over rear wheels), except
 o More h is helpful up to point, but we dont want to pop a wheelie: Nf=0, occurs when gc =
ah a = gc/h
https://youtu.be/zhtKqHwWkJA?t=8s
To prevent wheelie, need some dimension c>0, and/or small h CG somewhat in
front of rear wheels, low CG height.
Ideal max accel: tiny weight on front wheels, just enough to steer.
Wheelie is also like hill climb: want max Nr, but dont want to tip over.
o Downforce effects: more Nr but without the mg penalty
o Drag effects: More Nr, less Nf

Longitudinal Load Transfer: Braking

Draw FBD of car under braking: very similar to accel, except all 4 wheels can brake (Ff is added to the FBD)

Maximize Braking: a = (Ff + Fr )/m want min mass, max Ff + Fr = fNf + rNr (could substitute to
eliminate N)
is NOT CONSTANT it is inversely proportional to N
So we want to minimize Nf and Nr, which is done by putting CG in middle of car (50:50), and
minimizing h.
Racing Tire on Asphalt (research is needed to find the curve shape of a dirt tire on dirt)

Also must not tip over! Need Nr>0 a = gb/h need more b and less h. Longer wheelbase is a
common way to get more b.
Tip over is more likely going downhill: long wheelbase and more b help this.
Downforce and aero drag effects: same as acceleration

Lateral Load Transfer: Cornering

 Draw FBD of car in corner (Rear View, Left Turn):

Sum Fy = 0 = -mg + Ni + No
Sum Fy= 0 = ma Fi Fo a = (Fi + Fo)/m At limit: a = (iNi + oNo )/m
Sum Moments about outside wheel = 0 = -NiT + mgT/2 - mah Ni = mg/2 - mah/T = Static Weight -
Load Transferred to Outside wheel
No = mg/2 + mah/T = Static Weight + Load Transferred to Outside wheel
Substitute: a = (i (mg/2 - mah/T ) + o (mg/2 + mah/T ) )/m (m cancels)
a = (i (g/2 - ah/T ) + o (g/2 + ah/T ) )
h is the input moment arm, T is the output moment arm.
a = (i + o) g/2 - (i - o) ah/T (i - o)>0 since Ni is always less than No
a = (i + o) g / (2T/ (1 - ah(i - o)) = a appears on both sides, need to solve for a
Maximize lateral acceleration (cornering speed)
Want Ni and No to be as equal as possible to maximize
This is done by minimizing m and h, and maximizing T.
Downforce is free Fo and Fi

Tip over: https://youtu.be/y6oSCAoHnL8?t=13s

Combined acceleration/braking and cornering: Friction Circle

Actual data:

Dirt Tire Friction

Four-Wheelers Bible: https://books.google.com/books?id=tyje5iXkGmUC&pg=PA24

Typical: 0.2 0.7. 0.4 - 0.5 is a common average.

http://www.google.st/patents/EP1349902A1?cl=en

http://hpwizard.com/tire-friction-coefficient.html
Dry Earth: 0.75
Gravel, Sand, Wet Earth: 0.60

Tire Slip Angle

Important meaning: the tire must develop a slip angle in order to produce lateral force. Tires do not work
like railroad wheels.
Roll Center and Roll Moment
Kinematics of Independent Suspension: Center of rotation of each wheel motion of body about roll center

If the Roll Center is at the CG, the car does not roll! But it will jack, and for IRS a wheel may tuck under.
Pitch Moments, Precession, Recession, Anti-Dive, Anti-Squat

Anti Squat (Solid rear axle with driveshaft)

Antisquat: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g9RlVEXU0eo

Sprung and Unsprung Mass

Effect of unsprung mass on road-following: https://youtu.be/Z2ldDZ9hdSU?t=18s

https://youtu.be/X5hpuOsIYJw?t=54s
Ideal is zero unsprung mass, with all mass in vehicle: ~ideal road following.
Scrub radius: 2 is desired. 0 is not. A lot is not.
Kingpin angle: typically ~8-15 degrees. Less is better. Goal is to get a small positive scrub radius.
Caster angle: typically 5-10 degrees. More caster gives more trail, which is more stable but harder to turn., More
caster gives more negative camber on outside wheel during a turn (good).
Springs and Shocks
Motion Ratio
Usually try to maximize, to minimize forces transmitted to body, and force on a-arms. Typical:
Front MR = 0.75.
Rear MR = 0.90
MR below 0.5 is usually not considered a good design.
Rising Rate Motion Ratio: Need chassis mount to be on perpendicular line at max jounce

And/or use non-linear spring:

Roll Angle
Double A-arm suspension design:
Kinematic analysis

Bump Steer:
http://www.racingaspirations.com/apps/suspension-geometry-calculator
dmalicky
Effect of bump and roll on RC control, Camber, Scrub.
Effect on arm length ratios, initial VSA length.
Bump Steer:

http://www.eng-tips.com/viewthread.cfm?qid=327844
Wishbone program: https://drive.google.com/open?id=0ByMYcemnSot-ZGlSUThHZTlZY2c

Lotus Suspension Analyzer does AA and Semi-Trailing: 1 seat free!

http://www.lotuscars.com/engineering/engineering-software
Academic Licenses
Licenses are available for use within an academic environment for the purpose of research or teaching.
Whilst under academic licensing a single seat of one product is offered free of charge, an academic license
fee is payable for multiple seats and/or products. Use of the software for consultancy purposes or any off-
site use requires prior approval by Lotus.

Semi Trailing Arm Rear Suspension Design

Instant Center and Roll Center

Typical street car angles (off-road is probably less, while still getting a high enough RCH):
Porsche 914: 16 degrees
BMW 3 and 5 series: 13-20 degrees

Only 2 chassis points: simple, but it means toe change and camber gain (or RCH) are always linked. Cant design
them independently.

Typically, the frame points are at the same height for toe-in under bump (stable cornering) and droop (stable
braking). If not, RCH can be changed for same camber gain, but Toe control will also change (usually for the worse).
Antisquat, Antilift, and recession are determined in the side view, where the suspension axis crosses the track
width.
Want long arms to minimize drastic changes in Anti behavior and precession.

Example Analysis
Car Suspension and Handling, Second Edition
Written by Donald Bastow
6.9 TRAILING AND SEMI-TRAILING ARMS

The fundamental difference between trailing and semi-trailing arms is that the axis of the former is at right angles to
the car centre line; this implies that there is no change, in end view, of the angle of the wheels with suspension
movements. The semi-trailing arm, so far confined to examples where in plan view the axis of oscillation of the arm
meets the vertical plane of the wheel axes towards or beyond the other rear wheel, necessarily introduces some swing
axle effect. Although it is generally considered that the instantaneous centres are where the arm axis intersects the
vertical planes of the rear wheel axes across the car and fore and aft, this is not strictly true. The actual path of any
point on the wheel, in side or end elevation, is an ellipse and the instantaneous centre for that part of the ellipse can
be found by known methods.

The knowledge that roll-steer effects are at a minimum when the semi-trailing arm axis is parallel to the ground is
useful but we need to know more. For this we must study how toe-in changes on bump and rebound vary with
changes in position of the semi-trailing arm axis, in plan view and in the angle which the axis makes with the ground. A
basic case has been chosen in which the semi-trailing arm axis is at road wheel centre height, meets the rear wheel
 axis of the car at one wheel plane, point 2, and intersects the plane of the wheel whose movements are being studied
400 mm forward of its centre, point 1. Figure 6.19 shows this. An alternative plan position shows the semi -trailing arm
axis meeting the rear wheel axis at twice the car track from the wheel being studied, point 2A. Points 3, the wheel
centre, and 4, 100 mm away along its axis, are for calculation purposes to obtain the toe-in changes. The heights of
points 1 and 2 in Table 6.1 define the axis changes studied, in height and inclination to the ground: rising to the front,
dropping to the front, high or low; and parallel to the ground but above or below the original position. The resulting
roll centre heights are also shown; they indicate the amount of sideways 'scrub' of the contact patch with bump and
rebound movements.

Anthony Best Dynamics Ltd. has kindly computed the results and its co-operation is gratefully acknowledged. The
results are summarised in Fig. 6.20(a). Figure 6.20(B) shows the camber changes.

Fig. 6'20 (a) Here the results of the calculations in terms of change of toe-in with bump and rebound movement are
shown. There are effectively no differences between cases 1, 7 and 8 where the axes are parallel to the ground but
at different heights. Cases 2 and 4, axes up towards the front but at different heights, are also effectively the same as
each other but now favour bump at the expense of rebound. The converse applies to cases 3 and 5, where rebound is
favoured. Case 6, axis parallel to the ground and more nearly so to the rear wheel axis, halves the toe-in changes.

Fig. 6.20 (B) The camber changes depend only on the distance from the affected wheel to the intersection of the axis
and the vertical transverse plane containing the wheel axes

Within the limits studied, i.e. axis height::l: 20 mm parallel to the ground, and a height change of 20 mm in sloping
axes, nose high and nose low, and bump and rebound movements each of 75 mm, axis height does not affect the
results (to two significant figures). The nose high axis position favours bump movements, and vice versa. Camber
changes depend only on the distance from the studied wheel to the intersection of the semi-trailing arm axis, point 2,
with the transverse vertical plane containing the undefIected rear wheel axes. From the trends within the range
studied, we see that a sufficiently large nose-high axis angle wilI give toe-out on bump and toe-in on rebound; and
again vice versa.
If the distance between wheel arches is important it must be remembered that the introduction of any swing axle
effect has to be accompanied by an increase in the track to maintain that distance between wheel arches.

How to adjust static Toe:

Frame implications of Semi-Trailing arm: Narrow spacing gives high forces on ~poorly braced inner pivot. Wide
spacing give low forces.
One solutions to inner point forces: big tube.
Another solution: get inner points close to CL of car, then triangulate floor pan to there.
Need FEA to really design it.
Hub/Spindle/Bearings

Suspension Load analysis

Lateral loads on AA-arm
Longitudinal loads on AA-arm

Lateral loads on 4-link rear

Longitudinal loads on 4-link rear

Lateral loads on semi-trailing rear

Longitudinal loads on semi-trailing rear

5g bump is typical worst case. (5x corner weight vertically)

Horizontal suspension loads! https://youtu.be/ytP0VkVZgEc?t=5m23s

Example: Good lower arm/spring mount. Good double-shear at upright (required for their alum upright, not
required for steel). LBJ is just a rod-end in bending. Tiny brake disk. Lightweight upright but narrow spacing.
Steering
Front-steer vs Rear-steer
Top-steer vs Bottom-steer
Ackermann: steering arm shape

Ride
http://www.offroadxtreme.com/engine-tech/brakes-suspension/off-road-suspension-101-an-inside-look/

https://youtu.be/-s1JGFjzqUo?t=16m7s

https://youtu.be/vcmuJBPE7yY?t=19s
Ensenada: https://youtu.be/JXMyZ929lpY?t=1m35s
Practical Structure Design

Goals: Stiff, Light, Cheap, Easy to Build, Durable.

Chassis (Frame or Monocoque) Design Principles

A. Goals:
1. High bending and torsional stiffness
2. Integrate all components (packaging)
3. Low weight
4. Low cost
5. Easy to fabricate
--> High stiffness + low cost + low weight = ???
B. Space Frame Design Principles
1. Tubing: cross sectional properties
2. Triangulation vs. Bending
3. Examples
C. Monocoque Design Principles
1. Panels and Materials
2. Closed vs. Open sections
3. Examples

Truss/Frame Definition: All Tension/Compression, joints carry no moments.

A. NO BENDING! Inefficient use of material.

B. 2D Cantilever
1. Want ALL Triangles
2. 2 DOF total: need 2 tubes minimum
3. 1 DOF vs 0 DOF: Bending vs. Triangulated
C. 3D Torsion (bending is 2D)
1. Want ALL Triangles on o/s faces
Building Block: Tetrahedron *Model
 Joints are only for forces, not moments.

3. Even 1 open face causes drastic loss in stiffness (10x)

a) symptoms *Models
b) fixes: Pyramid*, Big I on open face*, Minimize face size

4. 6 DOF total: need 6 tubes minimum *Model

5. Improvements:
Better angles on the triangles (>30): e.g., Double Diag.*
6. Simple Frame: 1 or 2 BIG tubes *Model

II. Monocoque
A. Truss Equivalent; All Shear
B. Sheets replace Triangulated Faces *Model
C. Open faces fixed with Big I and J tubes
III. Real Life
B. There is not one answer for a problem. Some combination of Truss, Frame and Monocoque depending
on application, performance, cost, weight.
C. Pure Space Trusses are usually costly to make.
D. Some strategic bending is ok if you design for it. How?:
C. Choose the Tube Size which suits the problem:
I and J = D^4, Hollow tubes for bending/compression, torsion
Small change in D Big change in I and J
solid bars are ok for tension.
D. LAYOUT of structure more important than Material! DONT THROW CARBON FIBER at the problem!
Tubing Spreadsheets: https://drive.google.com/open?id=0ByMYcemnSot-ZGlSUThHZTlZY2c
Allowable stress = M/S.
Calc M based on geom and load.
Calc S = M/stress
Look up suitable S for lightest choice
Round vs Square vs Rect: props and mitered ends
A513 DOM (1020-1026 Type 5)
Yield: 72 ksi
Elongation: 10%
MIG and TIG weldable

4130 Normalized
63 ksi
Elongation: 25%
Very often MIG welded, but NHRA specifies TIG

TIG vs MIG

Solidworks Large Assemblies: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v0ctp8UCvOM

Solidworks SAE frame design: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nN_00HcEPls

Manikin (Todd): http://www.3dcontentcentral.com/download-model.aspx?catalogid=171&id=12347

Powertrain
F=ma
a=F/m
Power= F*v, so F=P/v
a=P/(m*v) acceleration must decrease with speed (for constant power)

a=F/m
F at contact patch: Torque on halfshaft = F*r, F=T/r
a=T/(r*m)
Fchain = Td/Dd = Te/De (driveshaft, engine) (same as force between gear teeth)
So Td = Te *(Dd/De) = Te * ReductionRatio
a=Te*Reduction/(m*r)
So more Reduction gives more accel, BUT, more reduction limits max speed.
So: change the reduction as you increase speed, so you get max accel at every speed.
Very flat power curve:

Due to peak torque occurring at fairly low RPM: (I think this is the 11HP engine curve?):

How a CVT works:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y25x6gJ08i4
https://youtu.be/jffePCHt11A?t=46s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3yRskb0BYwE
later: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMnnTaAYREo

CVT and constant speed engine: https://youtu.be/AmTFr1P9XfQ?t=2m15s

https://youtu.be/FOr978kmyEk?t=2s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IaRl-UK9HqM

Hillclimb analysis: Power = Force * Velocity. predict max speed up hill, ensure CVT is in right range for reasonable
efficiency.
 Fxr = W*sin
P = Fxr*v
v = P/ Fxr = P / (W*sin)
Design gear ratios so CVT is in good efficiency range during hill climb

Accel analysis: complex due to integration -- Excel numerical integration

Research CVT: shaft centerline distances for given belt lengths. Weights, ramps, springs. How does the darn thing
work.

Transmission and engine mount reaction forces from drivetrain loads. I think assume an input shock of 2g torque
load, tires at max grip on pavement (u=1.0).
II. Suspension and Vehicle Mechanics
A. Vehicle Parameters
1. Center of Gravity (CG) position
2. Track
3. Wheelbase
4. Sprung mass
5. Unsprung mass
6. Polar moments
7. G's: A
B. Weight Transfer = A*(Sprung Weight)*(CG Height)/Track
1. Lateral and longitudinal: minimize
2. Diagrams
3. Combined cornering and braking/acceleration
C. Suspension Bump Rates
1. Spring only: Kwh = Ksp * M.R.2
2. Anti-roll bar only: Kbr = F/d = J * G / (L * r2)
3. Single Wheel Bump Rate (SWBR)
D. Suspension Roll Stiffness (RS): %due to bar and springs
E. Chassis Roll Angle (degrees per G)
1. Roll Center
2. Roll Moment = A * Wsp *(CGH - RCH)
3. Roll per G = RM / RS (A = 1 G)

IV. Vehicle Balance

A. Oversteer / Understeer / Neutral
1. Front and rear slip angles
2. Qualitative description
B. Effect of Static Weight Distribution on Balance
C. Roll Couple Distribution: Effect of Bar, Spring, RCH, Track
1. Assumes Infinite Chassis Stiffness
2. RSfront, RSrear.
3. RCD = 100% * RSfront / RStotal
D. Effect of Dynamic Weight Distribution on Balance
1. Shock (Damper): Bump (Jounce) and Droop (Rebound)
2. Downforce
E. Effect of Overall Grip on Balance
F. Rear Differential
1. Purpose
2. Effect of Open vs. Spool (Locked) vs. Torsen on Balance

V. Suspension Kinematics
A. Terms: RC (Roll center), IC (Instant Center), Camber, Toe,
Caster, Kingpin, Scrub Radius, Precession/Recession.
B. Suspension Kinematic Requirements: Control Camber,
Toe and RC under vehicle roll and pitch.
C. RC: point where all forces are transfered between sprung
and unsprung masses.
 D. Jacking
D. Double A-Arm Example (a.k.a. AA Arm, Double Wishbone,
Short-Long Arm (SLA)). Best compromise: non-parallel, unequal length arms.
E. Anti-Squat and Anti-Dive
1. Side View Instant Center
2. Precession (Fore) / Recession (Aft) wheel movement
F. Bump Steer: Typically want toe-in with bump in a rear
suspension, and toe-out with bump in a front suspension.
G. How to design the points --> office hrs

VI. Steering Kinematics

A. Ackermann and Anti-Ackermann
B. Caster, Kingpin and Scrub Radius Effects on Camber and
Corner Weights: Minimizing all is safe.

VII. Chassis Tuning

A. Alignment
B. Brake Bias
C. Camber and Pressure from Tire Temps
D. Balance from Springs and Bars
E. Aero
F. Damping
G. Tire Compound
H. Vehicle Balance and Tuning Summary: Iterative Process

VIII. Component and Frame Design ?

IX. Driver Interface