SKELETON ACHAEMENID ARAMAIC GRAMMAR INTRODUCTORY BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Grammar Muraoka, T. & B. Porten, A Grammar of Egyptian Aramaic (2nd ed.; Leiden, 2003). Segert, S., Altaramdische Grammatik (Leipzig, 1975). [Includes Imperial Aramaic]. Ribera Florit, J., Gramdtica del arameo clasico (oficial). (Barcelona, 1993). Leander, P., Laut und Formenlehre des Aegyptisch-Aramaischen (Goteborg, 1928 ; rpr. 1966). Folmer, M., The Aramaic Language in the Achaemenid Period (OLA 68; Louvain, 1995). Gzella, H., Tempus, Aspekt und Modaliteit im Reichsaramaischen, (Wiesbaden, 2004). Bauer, H., & Leander, P., Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramaischen (Halle, 1927; rpr. Hildesheim, 1962). Rosenthal, F., 4 Grammar of Biblical Aramaic (7™ ed,; Wiesbaden, 2006). [Useful pocket grammar.] 2. Lexiea Hoftijzer J. & K. Jongeling, Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions (2nd ed., 2 vols.; Leiden 1995). [The standard work. Semitic words transliterated. ] Koehler, L., Baumgartner, W., Stamm, J.J., The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (Leiden, 1994-2000); vol. 5, Aramaic (2000). 3. Texts Porten, B., & A. Yardeni, Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt, I. Letters (Winona Lake 1986); II. Contracts (1989); Ill. Literature, Accounts, Lists (1993); IV. Ostraca and assorted inscriptions (1999). [Standard critical edition of all the texts, with ET]. Porten, B., & J.A. Lund, Aramaic Documents from Egypt: A Key-Word-in-Context Concordance (Winona Lake, 2002). Driver, G.R., Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century BC (Oxford, 1954; abridged edition 1957). Donner, H. & W. Rollig, Kanaandiische und aramdische Inschrifien, 3 vols 2nd ed.; Wiesbaden, 1966-9; Sth ed. (texts) 2002.) Schwiderski, D., Die alt- und reichsaramaischen Inschriften / The Old and Imperial Aramaic Inscriptions. Bd, 2. Texte und Bibliographic. (Berlin, 2004), Elliger, K., & W. Rudolph (eds), Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia (Stuttgart, 197). [Standard Bible text.] 4. Bibliography Fitzmyer, J.A., & S.A. Kaufman, dn Aramaic Bibliography, Part I: Old, Official and Biblical Aramaic (Baltimore, 1991). [For more recent additions see http://cal,huc.edw/bibliography | ARAMAIC AMONG THE SEMITIC LANGUAGES T 24 0“ oT [Map and diagram from: bp). 2stenturyfogey comilanguagelsemitclangs him)THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARAMAIC The earliest definite mention of Aramacans occurs in Akkadian texts of the late 12th century BCE E.Turkey, Syria, Iraq, NW Iran urkey, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Saudi Arabia Turkey to Afghanistan, Caucasus to Egypt and Saudi Arabia; South Shields! Spain to China, but mainly E.Turkey, Syria, Israel/Palestine, Iraq, Waran E.Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, diaspora. OLD ARAMAIC C.10-C.8 BCE, [inscriptions in various local dialects] IMPERIAL ARAMAIC C.7-C4 BCE [Standardised dialect, obscuring local dialects; inscriptions; documents; a few literary texts (Ahigar; Ezra)] MIDDLE ARAMAIC C3 BCE-C.2CE WESTERN DIALECTS — LITERARY DIALECTS: [inscriptions] [literary texts) NABATAEAN BIBLICAL ARAMAIC PALESTINIAN ARAM. QUMRAN ARAMAIC LATE ARAMAIC WESTERN DIALECTS [literary texts, inscriptions] JEWISH PALESTINIAN ARAMAIC SAMARITAN ARAMAIC CHRISTIAN PALESTINIAN ARAMAIC [VERNACULAR SYRIAN ARAMAIC?) NEO-ARAMAIC C-C.21 [Modern spoken dialects] WESTERN DIALECTS CENTRAL DIALECTS MA‘LULA, TUROYO BAKICA MLAHSO JUBB ‘ADIN EASTERN DIALECTS [inscriptions] PALMYRENE HATRAN PROTO-SYRIAC EASTERN DIALECTS [literary texts, inscriptions} ‘SYRIAC (still in use) MANDAIC JEWISH BABYLONIAN ARAMAIC EASTERN DIALECTS MODERN MANDAIC CHRISTIAN NEO-ARAMAIC [NENA] JEWISH NEO-ARAMAIC [NENA]EE 000000241 @jsopuny From Segert, S., Altaramdische Grammatik (Leipzig, 1975).Ay Anon. eB Hepes -ABAMAIC DOCUMENTS In THe Nue VALey Guinn Pore an Tagenpnon, Tormstone- ‘Swimstove SARCOPHAGUS Prague | se Swipstone Sravuerte CaRrouRne SEAL. Cenasuc Sarcopmgus Cree Dascrsp rion, Suen Bows @DkOo>jgokpaephe eer Bence FROM: Porten & Yardeni, Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt, IV. Ostraca and assorted inscriptions (1999) aMpeKr2010 ‘THE ALPHABET ; ; alecl&/) | | lot a Bx | BE g g-l23| Blas] = u|¢ tlals o|FiRSS) jeg) ElEe a) | abet Fee) Fle) b]4) [2] 2a ay2 summer} 2 |b eeu re eles elael & s[ Pia ad a) S|ER gs). |2 | 2 a* e[. |e \F° | Elf) a] |] 2|2/.| 2] 2] ~|8s) 8] & ° = a = -wo| <|2)4)=| 12 Gd =< i5|2 |= Blot a Bie ee om 2 rex «2 —_— | ~ xe wet daiaicld| oO] iN iz ° -|eiKizjziKjo E # BIE) |pexsa8s PR < (a lola mle |N |m -|ulals|zlxjo a ole} lala 7 ie —— = _ , e o o wan | | ele -| a) Pl Al Yel ata fae] fale wma, zie) le eel ela fe Sitlejal (BB lnirls ale “Br | sles elel=/4j/cle eo ele Ria ° wleleleivicl alt ale sana cre ee] olan oo vate | acl c) ir) x >) el >| >) a «| <) Ww] sr] «| 0] &| o| 0 [=|] vioieclal omf> yf} o| ef | el als ris) ve felr | 3x aa) A be fae fe lit fee] AE) | tf] >| ff] tigl@lAl aly fur | Se x Joxi-fE] >] 3] 3 -Jole) 3) 0] +)3 anaene 9044 a o-| =| Alexfe| &] x] 8 3 3 | | wondussamay 2) wo) ol) Be] NN] | ol H+) | me) ell oe aeTHE ARAMAIC/ HEBREW ALPHABET Name | Old | Sama- | Imp. | Square | Rashi | Mod. | (Syriac) | (Arabic) | Origins of Aram. | rian | Aram. | Seript Cursive Letter Names Script | Script | > |eArpt | K | Aw | we | RL A] ee | ew 1 | rap ox b | Bat s 3 a 2 s| 2] s S| beyt= house : eloimi | A | 1) Al 3 Ate XN ze [ea dfoue | 4) t | 4 7 7 >|3 |. [aes | |b | ns a q n m8 D o eee lwiww |Y | * |» | ad fats fo 5 | waw-pee z fen fT] 9 | 4 | tft fs fo. | 5 [Mame | h | net" a q f n D Y ss Te | bet fence tle |® |) 6 | @) eal] pl oe | x |b fevspinn y|yor | © | a ‘ . yt Se | yed=handarm fk fet | Y | 4 | y [F2/72] 72] «| os [rae i frsmea! € | 2 | C | 5] S] A] oa ] ys ones Jmfaem |) 4) 9 | OMlDM| pw] se | pe |oin-vter [otro |4]2ls ftaleloulelo fer s |samex"| $= ¥ | y ofp ° | © eae — “teayn | 8 | Viol vy | BLD] ow] s | ge June alle 2) 2) pg ABI qel fal] =o | GS [pencome Jsiswe | ©) mM) p ps ps] e Ftc |S | ncn | «| | aon" ? eg | ? P Pp P aul Sau? ries | 4 | 9 | 5 4 4 2 i ’ t= bead slo | | we] elo] pe sim |W wm | wl ele fle |]. | as ES t | Taw cS x f n dD | » db ne DGRT 010ntalax “ant 1 DIA7 1pxdv nw LJRAMAIC NUMERALS ocx 01 imp. Aram. | Nabatasan | Palmprene | Flan] Syriac “Alphanumeric (Elephantine) Syriac | Hebrew | Greek | Arabic 1 1 ' 1 1 \ © x w ‘ 2 N N nl WW r 2 3 B ~ | 3 W " w w " NX > Jy 4 au WM or X wu m wr a 7 a > 5 ww s - Tory Yor> =~ nr a € ° 7 6 mo wo y y e oe a s ’ 7 {1mm fomm Ww wf os vtor feds 8 vw wow Wy wy re » bl nv t 9 | mmm fmm | omy my re | XM o [ols 10 7 = ° 7 Tor a . al 6 12 — a we mn 7 =f]oxr |e fo 20 3 3 Sort 3 ° a «| 30 73 33 33 a3 7 i [els | 40 | 33 33 33 33 ce | =) 2 50 733 733 333 733 yee 3 2 [vo 60 333 333 333 333 eee 2 > fel. | 7 | 7333 | 7333 | 7333 | 7333 | ee | = >» jole so | 3333 | 3333 | 3333 | 3333 | ce | = » |x| o 90 | 73333 | 73333 | 73333 | 73333 | eee | 5 x [ele 100 ne 4 > A w 2 ? elo 200 ml Ww = A) v i > lol, 300 | mm w a an | ow = » [ele 400 nn au >i Au wr a n v |e | 500 Sy All | es [apn] oe | es 600 wl @am| x 700 : : 2h] eon | yw A 800 my ps | @mlo |» 900 | ; shh | (pm | oy | + 1000 be & |@am| « é 2000 | aM 3 os fel | Unlike Arabic numeral, the symbols are read from right to left (ie. inthe usual direction of reading). Examples: Elephantine 55 = 1 M733 ; Nabataean 25 = 53 ; Palmyrene $38 = IY>3™Y ; Syriac 27-2 or ta ; 286 = N°P°°TY or aad ; 1887 = Ere ; 5637 = wide. Hebrew avoids Mand 1 for 15 and 16, because of their resemblance to the divine name, and so uses 10) and TD instead. Greek stigma (6) was a ligature for cr that came to replace similar cursive form of digamma,INTRODUCTORY NOTES: GENERAL, 1. Aramaic is written from right to left. 2. Aramaic texts and grammars are usually printed in the Hebrew square script (borrowed from Aramaic around the C.6 BCE), and so this will be the script employed at first in this course. 3. Achaemenid Aramaic texts were written without vowels, but these are included in editions of Biblical Aramaic texts, based on the vocalisation of Jewish scribes known as ‘massoretes’, active after the C.6 CE. Later Jewish and Christian Aramaic texts are also vocalised. These enable reconstructions of Achaemenid Aramaic vocalisation. But these remain tentative! 4. Many of the paradigms which follow contain both Egyptian Aramaic [EA] and Biblical Aramaic [BA] forms, though these are usually separated. ALPHABET AND PHONOLOGY 1, Aramaic has 22 consonantal letters. In Achaemenid Aramaic these were used to represent at least 26 consonantal phonemes. (see below.) 2. Five square script letters have a modified form which is used at the end of words, four with a descender: JD, D1, ]2, “IB, 7'S. (These were not used earlier than the C3 BCE.) 3. Indication of approximate pronunciation will be given in class. For the linguists, there is the following table. (For everyone else, DON’T PANIC ! ): plosive | fricative | lateral | lateralised? | rolled nasal | frictionless continuant bilabial p o28 | m wood b inter- ton dP dental dt dna& )t nfs of/1 5] s w]r 7 alveolar | ¢ 3 | 2 ols 3 palato- 3 2 | alveolar velar > 23 qf pharyngal noni > | Taryngal ad [non palatal | y 4, Several letters represent more than one phoneme. These can only be distinguished by knowledge of other semitic languages and Aramaic dialects. a. T represents both /z/ and /d/. In EA (from 483 BCE on), “ starts to be used to represent /d/ (as well as original /d/). This use of 7 remains far less common than f, and many texts contain examples of each. Some scribes occasionally hyper-correct so that even words with T= /d/ are written with T ! b. @ represents both /s/ and /8/ (in BA & and t). (Very rarely in EA, /S/ is represented by ©.) represents both /t/ and /¥.4. P represents both /d/ and /q/. 9 can also represent /d/, as well as /'/. In EA the use of P is more frequent than , but in BA this is reversed. e. It is possible that 2 represents both /"/ and /fy. It is impossible to prove from EA in Aramaic script, but papyrus Amherst 63 (late C2 BCE, from Thebes, written in demotic Egyptian script) distinguishes the two phonemes. (cf. Heb. 7422, LXX ouoppa, Gomorrah.) £ Similarly, it is possible that FT represents both /h/ and /h/, but this also is only evident from papyrus Amherst 63. 5. Six letters (BeGaDKePaT, M2793) have in BA (as in Hebrew and other Aramaic dialects) a soft, aspirated, pronunciation if they follow a vowel (b> v ; g> gh; d>dh;k> kh; p>ph;t> th). In BA the hard, non-aspirated, form is indicated by a central dot (dages): A B D133 Iti possible that this spirantisation was already operating in EA. ‘VOWELS 1. There are no dedicated vowel letters in EA. However, 4 consonantal letters may sometimes also be used to indicate vowels. a. N=aore (e.g. NOD mata, ‘he arrived; SMM titmals ‘she will be full). Usually word-final. b, M=aore (eg. M3 dona, ‘this’; TON ille, ‘these’). Rarely = o. Usually word-final ¢c. 1 =ooru (eg. 135 bond, ‘they built’; 177 hd, he’), Word-medial, and word-final. d. > =i (ory) (e.g. ODM hakim, ‘wise’; “7 ht, ‘she’). Word-medial, and word-final. 2. Vowel length is not clearly indicated by the use of these letters. 3. In some texts the dipthong /ay/ seems to have contracted to /é/. (e.g. 113 bét for M2 bayt, ‘house’). The dipthong /aw/ is very rarely contracted to /0/. (e.g. NID1* yawma and 812" yOma, ‘day’). 4. In printed BA texts, the consonants are ‘pointed’, that is, they are accompanied by the Tiberian vowel signs (one of several systems of small dots and lines developed by Hebrew scribes in Late Antiquity to indicate the vowels, inspired by East Syriac vowel signs). This vocalisation represents the contemporary reading tradition of BA ‘TimeRIAN (HEBREW) VOWEL SIGNS SHORT, LonG VERY SHORT A a patah (2) a games (2) a hatef-patah (a) E e sogal (2) & sere 2 Sowd : é & hatef-sagal I i hireq (2) i hireg oO 0 games-hatiif (2) 3 hélem 8 hatef-qames ()) js U u_ gibbiis (2) yo Stireg 1. Every syllable must begin with a consonant. Syllables can be open (Cv) or closed (CvC).2. The same sign (Q) is used to indicate /@/ and /o/. In a Closed, Unaccented Syllable it is Short, [:CUSS"] 3. The sign Sowd can also indicate the lack of a vowel under a letter at the end of a syllable or word, and thus is not pronounced. (When two Sowds occur together in the middle of a word the first closes a syllable, and so is silent, and the second opens a syllable and is pronounced. Under a doubled letter it is pronounced.) OTHER SIGNS AND MARKS IN BA 1, At first sight the number of dots and dashes surrounding the consonants in a printed BA text can be ‘overwhelming. You will soon learn to filter them out. (And EA texts are dot-free!) eg. Daniel 2.13: :PowENTS “Tam Deez iar poweNp NPM NPB kT) 2. The dots in the centre of letters, known as dagés, indicate: a. EITHER the hard, non-aspirated, form of the BeGaDKePaT, NDD733, letters. (Daj b. OR the doubling of a letter in pronunciation. (Dagés forte.) 3. A dot (known as mappig) in the centre of a final 7 , indicates that it is not silent, but audible. 4. The other small signs are a complex system of accents (sometimes called ‘cantillation marks”) which originally served to indicate: a. the tone syllable, to be stressed in pronunciation. b. the relationship of a word to those around it (conjunctive, disjunctive accents). lene.) c. punctuation (note especially sillig © under the last word of every verse, and anah © at the main central break of a verse). 4. and at a later date they were used as musical notation for chanting in synagogues. Wor SEPARATION In ancient Aramaic documents there is virtually no punctuation. However, from the C7 BCE on Aramaic scribes introduced the practice of separating words with blank spaces, replacing the earlier practice of separating words with three dots arranged in a vertical line—a practice that spread to archaie Greek— or with a short vertical line that steadily reduced in size until by the C8 BCE it was replaced by a single dot. (Jewish scribes using the old Hebrew script continued to use the dot even in the Dead Sea scrolls, and so also Samaritan scribes. But when using the Aramaic square script they also took over the Aramaic practice of using spaces. From the C4 BCE Phoenician and Punic scribes abandoned dots for scriptio continua —a step repeated by Latin scribes in C2 CE.) STRESS / ACCENT IN BA The main stress normally falls on the last syllable ofa word. Penultimate stress is found in certain forms with the endings T= / ¥- , eg. MMS. AY. nah: wahp. mao. TiSy Also in syllables where a vowel has been introduced to break up a consonant cluster. e.g. YB (cf. Syr. B'B), NEO (cf. Syr. NBO). SEMITIC ROOTS 1. Most Semitic words are derived from a triliteral ‘root’ formed by three consonants, e.g. VKTB, MLK, VQTL. [Linguists argue about whether the triliteral root was a development from a primitive biliteral root.] 2. Each root has one or more specific semantic ranges. e.g. VKTB > ‘writing’; MLK > ‘kingship’, ‘counsel’. \QTL > ‘killing’. 3. All forms of nouns, adjectives, verbs etc are produced by changing the vowels attached to these root letters, or by adding prefixes, suffixes, or infixes to them. 4, These vowel patterns and the use of prefixes/suffixes are often highly regular, and so linguistic function can often be predicted. For example: a, 192a3 = S3M perfect (KoTaB, ‘he wrote’);b. 18283 = SM act. participle (KaTEB, ‘he is writing’); ¢. 192438’ = definite noun (KoTABa’, ‘the document, book’); d._yil2a3an = P3M imperfect (yiKToBin, ‘they will write’). 5. Unfortunately this is less visually obvious in Achaemenid Aramaic, since the vowels are not written. The first, second, and third root letters are referred to in grammars: EITHER by the notation 1, Hl, II OR by the names of the letters in a paradigmatic verb common in early Arabic and Hebrew grammarians, \P'L (Arabic VF'L), pronounced in Hebrew as Pé - ‘Ayin — Lamed. Thus a verb whose root begins with an N may be referred to as a IN verb, or as a Pé-Nun verb; a root with a final Y is noted as III Y, or as Lamed-Yod; a root with an identical second and third root letter may be described as a ‘geminate verb’, or as Double-’ Ayin or “Ayin-" Ayin, etc.