Rapid casting solutions: a review

Munish Chhabra
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Moradabad Institute of Technology, Moradabad, India, and
Rupinder Singh
Department of Production Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, India

Abstract
Purpose This paper seeks to review the industrial applications of state-of-the-art additive manufacturing (AM) techniques in metal casting
technology. An extensive survey of concepts, techniques, approaches and suitability of various commercialised rapid casting (RC) solutions with
traditional casting methods is presented.
Design/methodology/approach The tooling required for producing metal casting such as fabrication of patterns, cores and moulds with RC directly
by using different approaches are presented and evaluated. Relevant case studies and examples explaining the suitability and problems of using RC
solutions by various manufacturers and researchers are also presented.
Findings Latest research to optimize the current RC solutions, and new inventions in processing techniques and materials in RC performed by
researchers worldwide are also discussed. The discussion regarding the benefits of RC solutions to foundrymen, and challenges to produce accurate and
cost-effective RC amongst AM manufacturers concludes this paper.
Research limitations/implications The research related to this survey is limited to the applicability of RC solutions to sand casting and investment
casting processes. There is practically no implication in industrial application of RC technology.
Originality/value This review presents the information regarding potential AM application RC, which facilitates the fabrication of patterns, cores
and moulds directly using the computer-aided design data. The information available in this paper serves the purpose of researchers and academicians to
explore the new options in the field of RC and especially users, manufacturers and service industries to produce casting in relatively much shorter time and
at low cost and even to cast complex design components which otherwise was impossible by using traditional casting processes and CNC technology.

Keywords Additive manufacturing, Rapid casting solutions, Rapid investment casting, Rapid sand casting, Metalworking industry,
Foundry engineering, Sand casting, Investment casting

Paper type General review

Abbreviations RIC Rapid investment casting

RP&T Rapid prototyping and tooling
3DP Three dimensional printing RTV Room temperature vulcanizing
ABS Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene SL Stereolithography
AM Additive manufacturing SLS Selective laser sintering
BPM Ballistic Particle manufacturing ZCorp ZCorporation
CAD Computer-aided design
DMLS Direct metal laser sintering 1. Introduction
DSPC Direct shell production casting
EARP European action on rapid prototyping After nearly 20 years of research, development and use, the
EOS Electro optical system additive manufacturing (AM) industry continues to grow with
FDM Fused deposition modelling the addition of new technologies, methods and applications
IC Investment casting (Wohlers, 2007). In the early development of AM
IT International tolerance technologies, the emphasis was directed towards the
LENS Laser engineered net shaping creation of touch-and-feel models to support the design
LOM Laminated object manufacturing (Chua et al., 1998). But, because of frequent changing
MMII Model maker II requirements of manufacturing industry due to short product
MSFC Marshal Space Flight Center life cycles, fickle consumer demands, complex shaped
PS Polystyrene designs, higher quality, reducing the cost and time to
RC Rapid casting
RCT Rapid casting technique
The authors are thankful from the core of their hearts to Avi Cohen
(Head of Medical Solutions Objet Geometries LTD), Joe Hiemenz
(Stratasys, Inc.) and Ellen J. Kehoe (Senior Editor, Publications SME) for
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at granting permissions to use figures from their sources. The authors are
www.emeraldinsight.com/1355-2546.htm grateful to Management, Director General Prof. R. Yadav and HOD ME
Prof. Vineet Tirth of Moradabad Institute of Technology, Moradabad for
motivation and moral support.

Rapid Prototyping Journal Received: 6 December 2009

17/5 (2011) 328 350 Revised: 17 February 2010, 26 June 2010, 6 September 2010,
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 1355-2546] 4 November 2010
[DOI 10.1108/13552541111156469] Accepted: 7 November 2010

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 Rapid casting solutions: a review
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh
market for new product and shorter product development
times, industry has been searching solutions for fabricating
direct metal parts since the earliest day of AM. Presently,
direct metal fabrication AM technologies (also called as rapid
manufacturing) are used in a wide variety of industries, from
automotive and aerospace to electronics and dentistry
(Wohlers, 2006). There are only few AM techniques
available which can manufacture metal parts directly, but
they are just the tip of the iceberg.
Although, direct manufacturing of metal parts with AM is not
well developed, indirect methods have been found and shown
feasible through the combination of AM and traditional metal
casting (Detlef et al., 1999). The application of AM in metal
casting process to produce metal cast parts is regarded as rapid
casting (RC). The most important part for any casting process is
to design and produce pattern for the production of moulds into
which to cast metal. Further, for some casting processes
(like sand casting), designing and preparation of core boxes and
gating system upon which the overall quality of casting depends
are most time consuming and costly process especially in case of
complex design castings. The use of AM technologies in the
creation of casting patterns allows a foundry to manufacture a
metal part without the use of tooling for small quantities
(Rosochowski and Matuszak, 2000). In particular, patterns,
cores and cavities for metal casting can be obtained through RC
(Wang et al., 1999; Bernard et al., 2003; Chua et al., 2005). The
relevance of RC techniques consists, above all, in a short time
for part availability. Traditionally, in order to produce cast
prototypes, a model and eventual cores have to be created
involving time and costs that hardly match the rules of
competitive market (Bassoli et al., 2007). Now, it is possible to
fabricate a complex pattern and other tooling required for
casting in a matter of hours and provide a casting in a matter of
days.
The art of foundry is ancient, dating back to the dawn of
civilization. It is a revolutionary change in manufacturing
industry that one of the oldest metal manufacturing
techniques, which dates back to 4000-6000 BC , is being
used with one of the most modern technology-rapid
prototyping. The first use of AM-fabricated patterns as
sacrificial patterns in traditional investment casting (IC)
started in 1989 (Greenbaum and Khan, 1993). Since then all
major AM techniques have been used in different casting
methods to provide RC solution for producing metal parts.
The aim of this paper is to present valuable information
about the application of AM in investment and sand casting
technology. A little step has been taken to collect and review
the information available about commercialised RC solutions
invented by various researchers and technocrats in order to
provide information and implementation of concurrent
engineering approach in producing prototype, pre-series and
for customized production metal casting to manufacturing
industry. In order to explain how RC solutions may be
successfully used in foundry applications, a few examples and
case studies have also been included. A list of various major
commercialised RC solutions based on different AM
processes and their suppliers is presented in Table I.
2. AM applications in IC
IC is a precision casting process which employs wax pattern as
sacrificial pattern to produce solid-metal parts. These
sacrificial patterns are used to create a ceramic mould by
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Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350
investing refractory ceramic coatings on the patterns. On
completion of the coating, the expandable wax patterns are
removed at about 1408C and 200 KPa in a steam autoclave
(Groover, 1996). The mould is further hardened by heating,
the procedure called firing, and the molten metal is then
poured while it is still hot. When the casting is solidified, the
mould is broken and the casting taken out during the
knockout process (Jain, 2009). IC produces high quality and
geometrically complex near net shaped metal parts with tight
tolerances economically in case of mass production. The
economic benefits of IC are limited to mass production.
Limitations of traditional IC:
.
Traditional IC requires the production of metal tooling for
the injection of wax material to produce sacrificial patterns
which leads to cost justification problems for prototyping,
pre-series, customized and single casting and small and
medium quantity production.
.
Major part of the total lead time is consumed in
production of metal tooling required for wax pattern
generation.
. Before committing to manufacturing, numbers of design
iterations are performed by tool makers by evaluating
different mould design which further incorporate an
additional cost and lead time (Beaman et al., 1997).
2.1 Rapid investment casting (RIC)
The term RIC represents the employment of RP&T techniques
in IC (Cheah et al., 2005). The cost involved in designing and
fabrication of metal tooling for wax injection process can be
overcome by using AM techniques to fabricate sacrificial
patterns for IC. AM also facilitates to reduce the overall lead
time involved in production of prototype casting with excellent
quality. By employing AM-fabricated patterns to produce the
prototypes, there is no need to commit to production tooling for
single part or small quantity production (Chua et al., 2005). AM
techniques provide various cost effective solutions by which pre-
series casting can be produced very economically. Presently,
almost all commercialised AM techniques have been employed
to produce IC patterns with varying success and many RC
solutions in IC are being used by various industries and
researchers. The use of AM in IC is in three basic forms. Figure 1
shows the three basic approaches used as RC solutions in RIC.
3. Direct fabrication of IC sacrificial patterns
(approach1)
AM techniques have been employed to produce direct IC
sacrificial patterns in wax and non-wax forms for producing
investment cast parts.
Direct wax IC patterns
The selective laser sintering (SLS), Fused deposition
modelling (FDM), stereolithography (SL) and model maker
II (MMII) systems have been found capable of producing wax
patterns, which can be used directly in IC (Dickens et al.,
1995; Chua et al., 2005). The main problem of using direct
wax patterns is the brittleness of waxes and due to that there
are chances of damaging of these patterns while transport
them to foundry. These are also not recommended for thin
wall castings.
Direct non-wax IC patterns
The non-wax patterns are having strength, durability and
toughness by which these can be used to produce thin
 Rapid casting solutions: a review Rapid Prototyping Journal
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350

Table I Commercialised RC solutions & their application in metal casting

AM process Manufacturer RC solution and their applications in metal casting
Stereolithography (STL) 3D systems Quick Cast 1.0, Quick Cast 1.1 and QuickCast 2.0 patterns for IC
Epoxy patterns for sand casting and soft tooling
OPTOFOTM patterns for sand casting
EOS EOS-stereolithography (acrylate resin) patterns for IC
Selective laser sintering (SLS) DTM Corp. Investment casting wax, polycarbonate and TrueForm pattern for IC
(presently 3DSystems) Rapid tool for direct fabricating moulds for IC
TrueForm, composite nylon, polycarbonate for sand casting and soft tooling
CastForme PS patterns for IC
CRP Tech WindFormwPS patterns for IC
EOS EOSINT-S laser sintering AM to produce sand casting moulds and cores
directly from CAD solid model using polymer coated green sand
EOSINT P IC patterns fabricating using polystyrene material
Fused deposition modelling (FDM) Stratasys Wax & ABS patterns for IC
ABS patterns and core boxes for sand casting
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) Helisys Laminated paper master patterns for sand casting and IC
(Currently Cubic Tech.)
Drop-on-powder deposition inkjet Soligen DSPC for ceramic investment casting mould fabricated directly from CAD
printing technology(3DP) solid model
ExOne ProMetal RCT to produce sand casting moulds and cores directly form CAD
files
ZCorporation Starch patterns for IC
Plaster based material patterns for sand casting
ZCaste direct metal casting process for sand casting
Drop-on-drop deposition inkjet printing technology Objet PolyJete for photopolymer resin patterns for sand casting
3D systems Thermojet for producing wax patterns directly for IC
Solidscape MM II pattern for IC
(Sanders prototype)
Solid ground curing Cubital Wax patterns for IC
Ballistic particle manufacturing BPM Wax pattern for IC

Figure 1 Approaches used as rapid casting solutions in rapid investment casting

Rapid investment casting

RP-fabricated IC RP-fabricated moulds Direct fabrication of

sacrificial patterns for wax injection ceramic IC shell moulds
(approach1) (approach2) (approach3)

Wax patterns Non wax patterns

Indirect tooling Direct tooling

wall castings. Non-wax patterns also allow finishing operations
for improving the surface quality of patterns which further
improve the surface quality of final casting. The problem of
ceramic shell cracking and two other main problems related to
incomplete pattern burning out and residual ash have been
observed and reported by various researchers during the use of
non-wax patterns for IC. Case study 1 explains the project
performed by tooling and casting subgroup of the European
action on rapid prototyping (EARP) to investigate the
problems associated with using AM sacrificial wax and non-
wax patterns for IC. Introduction and practical application of
major commercial RIC solutions based on direct fabrication of
IC patterns are presented in following sections.
3.1 RIC using FDM technique
The Stratasysw FDM-AM system offers a different approach
as compared to traditional IC method practiced by thousands
of IC foundries across the world. This AM technique is used

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Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh
to create pattern directly from either acrylonitrile-butadiene-
styrene (ABS) or wax materials. Both wax and ABS patterns
constructed from the FDM process have proven to be suitable
for burn out from the ceramic shell with minimal modification
to the standard foundry processes (Grimm, 2003). The parts
produced by FDM-ABS have a much higher surface
definition than those produced in wax, owing to the good
powdering characteristics of the ABS, which allows final
surface finishing to be carried out[1]. The key strength of
employing FDM-fabricated pattern over MMII-fabricated
patterns includes short-built time for the process to build a
part. For the build of the benchmark model, MMII process
took more than 80 hours while the FDM process took only
16 hours (Chua et al., 2005). The use of this RIC solution is
presented as a case study in Section 3.1.1.
3.1.1 Case study: RIC using direct FDM-ABS patterns
Gouldsen and Blake (1998) reported the results of a program
in which six foundries had participated to evaluate the use of
ABS parts created from FDM-AM system as a substitute for
the injected wax patterns in RIC. In IC with this approach, wax
gates and vents are attached to the ABS pattern by the foundry.
The ceramic slurry is then invested on the pattern to make
ceramic shell similar to traditional IC process. Now the major
difference in this approach is that the shell is placed into a flash
fire furnace where temperatures reach upward of 1,0938C and
the pattern combusts, giving off gas possibly leaving a small
amount of ash in the hollow shell mould. The gates and vents
allow gas to escape the mould during burn out and allow
molten metal to be poured into the mould. An autoclave may
not be used, because the ABS thermoplastic does not melt at
those relatively low temperatures (approximately 3508C)
(Jain, 2009). The shells are removed from the furnace and
inspected for cracks and residual ash. If any ash remains, it is
removed by rinsing or high-pressure air. From this point on,
apart from having to reheat the moulds, there is no difference
in the process than if wax were being used.
Based on the results demonstrated by all participated
foundries, the authors claimed that the patterns built from
FDM-ABS offer a number of quality advantages over patterns
made by other AM processes, namely, clean burn-out,
robustness, the ability to be handled without damage,
dimensional stability and ease of pattern preparation. One
major disadvantage with this approach is that the surface layer
and built style produces a very rough surface condition. So,
surface finish preparation of the pattern is important to
achieve the best results.
Example: Hydro Quebec, an electrical power company in
Canada has been producing IC since 1997. Figure 2 shows a
set of six FDM-ABS patterns that were cast in aluminium at
Shellcast in Montreal, Canada.
3.2 RIC using MMII technique
Solidscapes MMII system based on drop-on-drop deposition
inkjet printing technology uses two drop-on-demand inkjets to
build patterns. One inkjet is used for build material
(thermoplastic) and the other is for support material (wax).
The supports are removed by washing it away with an ATOS
solvent (Chua et al., 2005). The important feature of MMII is
that it is the highest resolution additive process having capability
to build fine castings from wax patterns using 0.0125 mm thick
layers (Wohlers, 1995a). Each layer is milled resulting in very
precise models that are especially well suited for the precision
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casting of precision parts (Gebhardt, 2003). The feasibility of
employing MMII system to fabricate sacrificial IC patterns by
using direct and indirect tooling approach is presented as case
study in Sections 3.2.1 and 4.2, respectively.
3.2.1 Case study: RIC using MMII fabricated patterns
The feasibility of employing patterns fabricated by MMII as
sacrificial IC patterns to produce metal casting was studied by
Chua et al. (2005). The build material protoform is used in
MMII system having the properties similar to those of the
foundry wax material. Researchers investigated two casting
solutions by using MMII-AM system. The first is by using
MMII fabricated pattern directly as sacrificial IC pattern
(approach1) and second solution is an indirect tooling
(approach2) involving the utilization of room temperature
vulcanizing (RTV) silicon rubber moulding with an MMII-
fabricated master pattern to produce sacrificial IC-wax pattern.
The researchers claimed better accuracy by employing MMII-
fabricated patterns over FDM-fabricated patterns.
In the direct method, the MMII-fabricated pattern was
directly used as a sacrificial pattern in IC. Researchers
investigated this approach to produce aluminium alloy IC and
claimed that:
.
The microstructure of MMII part was built more densely
as compared to FDM or SLS.
.
There was no porous structure in MMII part and no
sealing or coating was needed on the MMII part surface.
.
The pattern produced in this approach melted off at
relatively low temperatures with little or no residual ash
left (due to similarity between material characteristics of
MMII patterns and foundry wax).
.
No sign of shell mould cracking was observed during the
IC process.
. By using direct approach, there is a significant amount of
time saving and cost saving can be achieved as compared
to the conventional metal tooling method for pattern
production.
.
This approach will be economical when only three to five
models are required and component having complicated
design.
3.3 RIC using QuickCast 1.0 technique
A problem of ceramic shell cracking has been reported by
various researchers while using non-wax AM patterns in IC.
One example is use of SLs acrylic patterns, which expand
during burn-out process and crack the ceramic shell during
IC. The latest method is the 3D systems QuickCast build
style (consisted of triangular geometry), which eliminates
95 per cent of the internal mass of a part made of epoxy resin
(Rosochowski and Matuszak, 2000). The concept of
QuickCast is based on the fact that hollow structures would
soften at lower temperatures and collapse inwards upon itself
before critical stress levels are developed (Jacobs, 1993). The
idea of QuickCast is to build the pattern such that it collapses
inwards under the influence of heat, rather than expanding
outwards and cracking the ceramic shell (Yao and Leu, 1999).
Using QuickCast, users can produce patterns for metal
castings in a fraction of time (Wohlers, 1995b). Aluminium,
titanium, stainless steel, tool steel and copper alloys have all
been cast successfully using IC with QuickCast patterns at
Ford (McMains, 1995) and QuickCast has also successfully
applied for building tooling required for production of plastic
parts, casting patterns, dies and other tooling item in Ford
motor company (Denton, 1994).
 Rapid casting solutions: a review
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh
Figure 2 Aluminium investment casting using FDM ABS patterns
(a)
Notes: (a) ABS patterns; (b) Al castings
Source: Gouldsen and Blake (1998)
3.3.1 Case study: project of EARP
EARP has carried out a project to find out the problems
associated with using AM models as sacrificial pattern for IC by
accessing the accuracy and surface finish of the models and
castings (Dickens et al., 1995). Models were manufactured by
different AM processes, namely, 3D systems-QuickCast 1.0,
DTM-SLS, Cubital Solider (waxes from acrylic mould),
FDM (wax models), laminated object manufacturing (LOM),
electro optical system (EOS)-SL and three foundries were used
to produce casting from a given set of models. The project was
completed in three phases: computer-aided design (CAD)
modelling, AM model productions and IC. The CAD modelling
was performed on pro-engineer and a stereolithography (STL)
file supplied to different AM machines to produce models for
IC. Some models received surface finishing to smoothing the
surface by abrasive bead blasting.
The most accurate sets of models were produced by 3D
systems QuickCast and from DTM Corporations SLS
among all AM processes. The greatest variation was observed on
SL models. Three foundries were used to produce aluminium
ICs from the model received from different AM processes.
Major findings of the project
. Most models did not suffer any damage during
transportation to foundries except those from FDM.
.
Owing to porous structure of SLS models, researchers
reported that a sealing with thin layer of wax must be
employed to SLS models before investing the shell
material. Figure 3 shows the results of casting produced
by using sealed SLS model and not sealed SLS model.
.
The great surprise from the results of this project was the
lack of accuracy observed in various models. Models from
all the AM processes were much less accurate than
expected. The 3D systems QuickCast models were
generally the most accurate and these models also
produced the most accurate castings.
3.4 RIC using QuickCast 1.1 & QuickCast 2.0
Ashley (1995) reported various problems of using patterns
fabricated with QuickCast1.0 in IC. Major problem is the
formation of pinholes during the removal of supports from
downward-facing surfaces, which led to the ceramic slurry
entering the casting patterns interior. QuickCast parts often
exhibited drainage and void-ratio problems, especially in thin-
curved sections. Finally, the less-than-optimal 80-per cent
yield of aerospace industry-acceptable castings attainable with
QuickCast 1.0 was found to be caused primarily by shell
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Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350
(b)
cracking due to solid, incompletely drained patterns with low-
void ratios. To overcome these problems 3D systems
introduced QuickCast 1.1 (Jacob, 1995). This involved the
change in the geometry of build style from triangular to
square. The build style features triple up-facing and down-
facing skins 27 times stronger than they were previously,
which eliminate pinholes and sag which further improve the
surface finish. With these features QuickCast1.1 produced
lower expansion stresses on ceramic IC shells; bringing
casting yields up to 95 per cent. QuickCast 1.1 is being used
to produce castings of unprecedented quality from an AM
pattern (Wohlers, 1995b). The another development in this
process is the development of QuickCast 2.0, which is the
result of the involvement of changing the build style from
square to an offset hexagon. QuickCast 2.0 patterns
produce less than one-third the shell stress of QuickCast 1.1
during pattern burnout, significantly reducing the probability
of shell cracking (Hilton and Jacob, 2000).
3.5 RIC using Thermojet technique
Thermojet modeller based on the drop-on-drop deposition
inkjet printing technique (Dimitrov et al., 2008) is the ideal
wax prototyping machine. Using 3D-CAD data files in STL
format, the part to be cast can be programmed for the current
shrink and orientation. This AM technique produces patterns
by additively spraying layers of tiny wax droplets on to a
platform surface, much like an inkjet printer. These wax
patterns are used directly in IC and having ability to be
autoclaved easily. This process has been accepted widely
within the industry owing to the ease of use within the
foundry (Tromans, 2004). Thermojet from 3D systems is
capable of producing parts very quickly, whereas the Model
Maker series from Solidscape produces fine detailed parts,
but is rather slow (Hopkinson, 2002).
3.6 RIC with three dimensional printing (3DP)
technique using Zp14 pattern material
Starch-based Zp14 material is introduced by ZCorp to
produce parts which after infiltration with wax are used
extensively as patterns for IC without using moulds[2]. This
Zp14 material is used to fabricate patterns for IC by printing
on ZCorps 3DP machines. Then a ceramic shell is invested
on the pattern using traditional IC method and then
evacuated to obtain the cavity for pouring metal. Figure 4
shows the process stages of producing 3,16l exhaust
manifold of a racing car using this RC solution at
 Rapid casting solutions: a review Rapid Prototyping Journal
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350

Figure 3 Aluminium casting

(a) (b)
Notes: (a) Using not sealed SLS model; (b) using sealed SLS model
Source: Dickens et al. (1995)

Figure 4 Investment casting of 316 l exhaust manifold of a racing car using Zp14 IC patterns

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Notes: (a) CAD model; (b) starch pattern; (c) shell moulds; (d) final casting[3]

University of Michigan[3]. Bassoli et al. (2007) has verified Table II AM processes with pattern materials used for MSFC project
the feasibility to produce thin-walled parts and evaluated the
dimensional accuracy of the patterns and the parts produced S. no. AM process Pattern material
by using this RC solution. 1 SLS Polycarbonate casting pattern material
3.6.1 Case study: project of Marshal Space Flight Center (MSFC) 2 SLS Trueform polyamide
(sponsored by NASA) 3 FDM IC wax
Copper and Wells (2000) have evaluated the capabilities of 4 LOM High performance paper
various AM processes and produced quality test hardware 5 3DP (ZCorp) Starch (cellulose)
grade IC models at MSFC, a sponsored project by NASA, 6 FDM ABS plastic
Washington, DC. The IC patterns of a selected propulsion 7 Stereolithography (SL) Epoxy 1570
hardware component, a fuel pump housing, were rapid 8 MMII IC resins
prototyped on several AM processes. Table II shows the AM
processes with pattern materials used to cast the selected
component for this study. The shelled models were fired and 15 times faster than FDM pattern (four hours verses
cast with NASA-2, a test hardware material. Researchers have 65 hours).
reported after this investigation that each AM processes were .
The least expensive model was the ZCorp pattern, which
of varying degrees of success and each proved a significant also was the fastest to complete at 3.5 hours, and also one
cost advantage over conventional manufacturing techniques. of the least accurate.
The major findings of this research
.
Researchers recommended that the ZCorp patterns will
.
The SLS-TrueForm model provided the most acceptable be more suitable for initial prototype casting, i.e. near-net-
casting followed by FDM-wax and SLS pattern built shape castings.

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3.7 RIC with SLS technique using CastForme
polystyrene pattern material
CastForme (CF) polystyrene (PS) is a polystyrene based
material developed by DTM Corp. in 1999 to fabricate IC
patterns by using SLS machines (DTM Corporation, 1999).
Presently, 3D systems Corp[4] is the supplier of CF material,
which acquired DTM in 2001. SLS system using CF material
is one of the fastest and most cost-effective techniques for
rapid fabrication of small quantities of wax-like patterns for
IC. CF is a low-ash pattern material that produces high-
quality castings, even with high-reactive alloy such as
titanium[5]. The pattern fabrication using this technique
involves two stages: first the building of green part, and second
its infiltration with wax (Dotchev et al., 2007). The main idea
behind this two-stage process is to fabricate a pattern with
properties very close to those of conventional wax patterns,
and therefore, and to be compatible with standard foundry
practices for IC. Post processes necessary for CF patterns
include dipping in liquefied wax to seal surface porosity and to
increase pattern strength (Cheah et al., 2005). Dotchev and
Soe (2006) analyzed experimentally all stages of CF pattern
fabrication process and reported that the cleaning and wax
infiltration are the main leading reasons for inferior quality,
part distortion and breakage. CRP Technology[6], a division
of the Cevolini Group, is the first to use CF material for
fabrication of IC patterns with DTM-SLS system for RC of
hard to cast shapes of Minardi F1 car components (uprights,
suspension supports, clutch box, steering box and gear box)
with the titanium alloy (Ti-6Al4V)[7]. With the combination
of SLS and CF formula, CRP saved cost and time to produce
components having very complicated shapes and geometries
and gained freedom to investment cast parts in the alloy of
choice (Titanium, Aluminium, Steel alloys or Super alloys)[8].
Figure 5 shows the CF disposable pattern fabricated for
F1upright titanium RC.
3.8 RIC with SLS technique using Windformw PS
pattern material
Windformw PS is a new PS-based material developed by CRP
Technology to fabricate IC patterns using SLS technique[9].
It is particularly suited for the foundry, since the main
Figure 5 CF disposable pattern (laser sintering and red wax infiltration)
fabricated for F1Upright Titanium rapid casting
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Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350
applications are fabrication of complex IC patterns and
casting with highly reactive alloys like titanium, in addition to
typical cast alloys. Compared to other polystyrene materials
available, Windformw PS has:
.
improved surface quality and details reproduction; and
.
very low-ash content suitable for highly reactive alloys,
namely, Ti, Al, Mg, steel and Ni alloys.
4. Fabrication of moulds for producing IC-wax
patterns (approach2)
For producing large quantity of IC-wax sacrificial patterns, it
is feasible to employ wax injection mould fabricated by
various AM techniques. For mould fabrication, further two
approaches, namely, direct tooling and indirect tooling
approaches are used which are further classified as soft and
hard tooling (Chua et al., 1999). In direct tooling approach,
the mould fabricated by AM techniques will not use any
intermediate steps. For improving the accuracy, strength and
surface finish of moulds, some post-processing techniques
may be used. In indirect tooling approach, AM fabricated
master patterns are employed to create the necessary moulds.
The materials used for fabrication of moulds in indirect
tooling are polymers and silicon rubbers, which result in
relatively weaker moulds. Different direct and indirect tooling
approaches for fabrication of moulds for producing IC-wax
patterns have been reported by various researches (Chua et al.,
1999; Rosochowski and Matuszak, 2000; Dickens et al., 2000;
Cheah et al., 2005).
Direct tooling. In this approach, moulds fabricated on AM
machines are used for fabricating multiple wax patterns (Pal
and Ravi, 2007). Some pioneering processes such as direct
metal laser sintering (DMLS), Rapid Tool, ProMetal, LENS
and DirectAIM have been used successfully for direct
fabrication of moulds for producing wax patterns. This
approach is employed in medium to high-volume production
and when reduction in time-to-market the product is major
goal for manufacturer (Karapatis et al., 1998).
Indirect tooling. This approach involves fabrication of mould
from an AM master pattern, which is used for fabricating wax
IC patterns. Silicon rubber tooling (RTV), Epoxy resin
tooling, Keltool tooling and Spray metal tooling as indirect
approach for mould fabrication have been applied successfully
for moulding wax patterns (Smith et al., 1996). All of them,
like the best-known called Silicon rubber tooling (RTV), do
not relate directly to AM, but are used for fabrication of
moulds by using AM master patterns. In silicon rubber
tooling process, the AM master pattern is equipped with
runners put in a frame and covered with silicon rubber. After
hardening, the solid block of silicon rubber is cut according to
the parting line and the master is removed, leaving the
required cavity. The resulting cavity is cast with wax, which
used as wax pattern in IC. Figure 6 shows the steps involved
in fabrication of IC-wax pattern using silicon rubber tooling.
Practical application of indirect tooling for mould fabrication
using FDM-ABS and MMII master patterns are presented in
Sections 4.1 and 4.2, respectively.
4.1 Case study: RIC using FDM-ABS pattern and wax
pattern moulded through RTV moulds, moulded by
FDM ABS master pattern
Lee et al. (2004) investigated the feasibility of employing
FDM process to built sacrificial IC patterns (using direct
 Rapid casting solutions: a review
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh
Figure 6 Steps involved in fabrication of IC-wax pattern using silicon rubber tooling
(a) (b)
Notes: (a) CAD model; (b) SLA fabricated master pattern; (c) RTV mould; (d) Wax pattern for IC
Source: Pal and Ravi (2007)
and indirect approach) by using ABS material to produce metal
casting rapidly. Researchers investigated and compared the
FDM system, FDM3000 for creating direct sacrificial IC
pattern in ABS material and by producing injected wax pattern
via silicon rubber moulding (indirect tooling approach). The
study showed substantial advantages when employing ABS
models as direct IC patterns or as master patterns for producing
silicon rubber moulds to cast wax IC patterns in terms of cost
and time savings, relatively accurate final castings with
reasonable surface quality and the complete elimination of
hard tooling required in conventional IC process. The
researchers claimed that it is much more beneficial for
foundries to employ FDM-ABS-fabricated patterns in IC for
single or small quantity production of castings (, 5) and to
employ the indirect approach of fabricating IC patterns via
silicon rubber moulding for medium quantity (tens of casting)
production.
4.2 Case study: RIC using wax pattern moulded through
RTV moulds fabricated with MMII master pattern
In this approach, researchers have employed an MMII-
fabricated master pattern to create RTV silicon rubber mould
(Chua et al., 2005). From the rubber mould, wax patterns
were cast and used as sacrificial pattern in IC. Researchers
claimed that this approach will be more economical to
fabricate a silicon rubber mould with MMII fabricated master
pattern and produce wax pattern from the silicon rubber
mould for IC when several tens of models are required.
5. Direct fabrication of ceramic IC shell
(approach3)
This RC technique fabricates the ceramic mould (negative)
with integral cores directly from the CAD model for the IC of
metals. This technique provides a greater advantage over
traditional IC method and other RIC techniques by removing
the steps of wax pattern generation, ceramic shell production,
autoclaving and firing of mould. An introduction of
commercialised RC solution Direct shell production
casting (DSPC) based on this approach is given in
Section 5.1. The major advantages of this technique are:
.
Reduction in cost and lead time (in traditional method,
making of metal dies for production of wax pattern are
typically expensive and time consuming, with lead time
ranging from two to six months).
.
Less risk of damaging of shells during transportation by
preserving dimensional tolerances.
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Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350
(c) (d)
.
No risk of core shifting in casting of complex shapes that
require core inserts, because shell and core are fabricated
as a single structure.
.
Furthermore, cores can be made hollow, leaving less
material to be leached out.
.
It is possible to adjust the ceramic shell thickness during
fabrication, which further helps to control the rate of heat
transfer from the casting.
5.1 Direct shell production casting
Soligen Technology Inc. (Northridge, CA) is one of the
licensees of 3DP AM technology developed at the MIT
(Cambridge, MA) and produced DSPC system in 1993[10].
By using 3DP AM technique, this system directly fabricates
the ceramic moulds (negative) with integral cores for IC of
metals. This eliminates the need for wax patterns and tooling
for cast metal parts (Wohlers, 1992). The DSPC process
utilizes the bonding approach and requires post processing
(Carrion, 1997). In this process, alumina (refractory)
powders are held together through the spraying of colloidal
silica binder with multi-jet print head. The unbound powder
is removed and the resulting shell is fired to create a rigid
ceramic mould prior to pouring the molten metal of any
castable alloy. DSPC can be used to produce parts of virtually
any shape. Diverse metals, including copper, bronze,
aluminium, cobalt chrome, stainless steel and tooling steel,
have been successfully cast in the ceramic shells produced by
this process. Metal parts can generally be produced in two to
three days (McMains, 1995). Sachs et al. (1991) reported the
use of DSPC-fabricated ceramic shells for production of
nickel super alloy casting. DSPC is used for fabrication of
prototype and small quantity of fully functional castings.
Figure 7 shows a metal casting of an automotive component
produced by using DSPC process. Figure 8 shows the
orthopedic knee casting using ceramic mould made by 3DP.
6. AM applications in sand casting
Sand casting is the most widely used casting process in
manufacturing industry in which components are cast by
pouring liquid metal into the cavity of sand mould. Among
the sand casting processes, moulding is most often done with
green sand, which is a mixture of sand grains, clay, water and
other materials, which can be used for moulding and casting
processes (Heine et al., 1997). The detailed process sequence
for sand casting is shown in Figure 9 (Groover, 1996). The
basic steps involved in sand casting processes are:
 Rapid casting solutions: a review Rapid Prototyping Journal
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350

.
preparation of the pattern; 6.1 Rapid sand casting
.
making the mould (ramming of sand around the pattern, Traditionally, for sand casting process, skilled workers used to
gating system for the entry of the molten metal); fabricate patterns and core boxes by taking design data either
.
core making and core setting in mould; from 2D drawings or from hand crafted prototypes of clay,
.
closing and weighting; and wood, plastic or other materials. This time consuming process
.
pouring liquid metal into the cavity; can now be performed by using a number of different AM
processes. This approach may also be referred to as rapid sand
Figure 7 Intake manifold casting produced by using DSPC[10] casting process because by using AM techniques, patterns,
cores and gating system can be fabricated in a relatively short
period of time. The use of AM process has proved to be a cost
effective and time efficient approach for producing pattern,
core boxes and gating system for sand casting (Wang et al.,
1999). AM helps to fabricate pattern with added cores by
disregarding internal cavities and designing core prints. LOM
is fairly popular for this application, since LOM moulds have
the feelings and look of wood, which is a traditional foundry
tooling material (Rosochwski and Matuszak, 2000). Pak and
Klosterman (1997) have documented the use of LOM AM
process to fabricate the tooling required for sand casting.
Pereira et al. (2008) have reported the advantages gained with
the application of FDM patterns in sand moulding. Many
commercialized AM techniques have been employed to
produce tooling required for sand casting with varying
success and many RC solutions in sand casting are
being used by various industries and researchers as shown
in Table I.
Figure 8 Orthopedic knee casting made of medical cobalt chrome alloy There are mainly three approaches by which application of
by using ceramic mold made by 3D printing[11] AM techniques can be used in sand casting technology
(Kouznetsov, 2004). Figure 10 shows the basic approaches
used as RC solutions in rapid sand casting. By using direct
tooling approach, AM generated objects can be utilized
directly as patterns in sand moulding in case of small or
medium volume casting production as a substitution for
traditionally employed wooden patterns. The objects
fabricated by almost all AM techniques can be used as
patterns. Indirect tooling approach in sand casting can be
efficiently employed in case of large-volume production and
when great durability of pattern is required. The most
common approach is the use of AM generated model as
pattern for moulding RTV and the pouring urethane into the
mould. The resulting plastic part can be used as a pattern for
sand moulding. Third and latest approach is the use of AM
technique to direct fabrication of sand moulds (pattern less
moulds). EOS DirectCastw , ProMetal rapid casting

Figure 9 Process sequence for sand casting

Fabricate Fabricate
core boxes pattern

Core Mold
material core

degate and
Prepare Build Break out clean
Sand
sand mold raw casting inspection

Raw Melting Pour Solidification Finished

metal metal casting and cooling casting
Source: Groover (1996)

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 Rapid casting solutions: a review
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh
Figure 10 Approaches used as RC solutions in rapid sand casting
Rapid sand casting
AM-fabricated pattern AM-fabricated pattern
and core boxes
(direct tooling approach) (indirect tooling approach)
technology (RCT), and ZCast501 processes have been used
successfully for direct fabrication of moulds in casting
industry.
Based on these approaches, introduction of major
commercially used rapid sand casting solutions and some
case studies and examples related to them are presented in the
next sections.
7. Fabrication of sand casting patterns using
direct tooling approach
7.1 Rapid sand casting using LOM technique
LOM is an AM process developed by Helisys Inc. (USA) and
currently, Cubic Technologies, successor to Helisys Inc., is
the exclusive manufacturer of the LOM-AM machines
(Chua et al., 2003) in which a part is built sequentially
from layers of paper, plastic, metal or composite sheets, all
coated with a thermally activated adhesive (Chua, 1994;
McMains, 1995; Upcraft and Fletcher, 2003). The slices of
material sheets are cut in required shape from roll of material
by using laser beam. The cutting material sheet is laid on
machine platform and bonded to the previous sheet using a
hot roller, which activates a heat sensitive adhesive. After
addition of all sheets, the solid part of the material is removed
from the platform. Surrounding material and material in
regions of the part that are hollow must be removed in a
Decubing post processing step (Wang et al., 1999). LOM is
allegedly five to ten times faster than other AM processes,
because the laser beam need only trace the outline of each
cross section, not the entire area (Chua, 1994). LOM
technique is widely used in fabrication of patterns for both
sand casting and IC. Castings produced by LOM patterns
were found to be well within the acceptable quality range and
gave 25 per cent cost saving (Mueller and Kochen, 1999).
LOM is fairly popular for sand casting, since LOM models
have the feeling and look of wood, which is a traditional
foundry tooling material. The paper patterns of the LOM
process also work well with IC. The paper can be burnt out
with little expansion, however, the ash residue may be
substantial (Rosochwski and Matuszak, 2000). A case study
proving time and cost savings in sand casting using LOM
technique is presented below in Section 7.1.
7.1.1 Case study
Wang et al. (1999) have investigated experimentally the specific
considerations that are relevant to using the LOM AM process
to fabricate patterns and core boxes for sand casting. Authors
have also proposed that to make high-quality patterns and core
boxes for sand casting using the LOM process, several important
issues must be considered, such as compatibility of the part
geometry, error source generation and propagation, shrinkage
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350
Direct fabrication
and core boxes of shell moulds
(Pattern less mould)
considerations, and deterioration due to environmental effects
and repeated use. The process flow for fabricating the sand
casting tooling using LOM process is shown in Figure 11. The
time and cost saving in fabricating a part by using this approach
has been presented as an example given below.
Example: casting of ballistic projectile by using LOM
technique. Authors of this investigation have also reported an
example of casting of 25 mm ballistic projectile by using LOM-
AM technique, which was provided by Lufkin Industries, Inc. of
Lufkin, TX. The CAD design of part, match plate, pattern and
core box shown in Figure 12. The final LOM pattern and core
box together with cores and sand cast part are shown in
Figure 13. Technical tooling details are given below:
.
part envelope dimensions (mm): 83.68 27.94 27.94;
.
match plate dimensions (mm): 431.80 304.80 76.20;
.
core box dimensions (mm): 203.20 127 44.45;
.
LOM machine: LOM 2030;
.
LOM paper thickness: 0.09 mm double layered;
.
finish material: sanding lacquer sealer and lacquer spray;
and
.
application: sand casting of ductile iron.
The authors have reported a 50 per cent saving in time and
cost compared to aluminium tooling by using LOM AM
technique in sand casting. Part geometry of thin wall may not
be suitable for LOM-based rapid tooling. The authors have
also mentioned that the LOM process introduces a variety of
errors into the pattern and core-box fabrication process,
which should be carefully understood and controlled to
ensure the realization of time and cost saving.
7.2 Rapid sand casting using OPTOFORM technology
SMC Colombier Fontain Company has carried out a study
based on tooling manufacturing with a new AM process in order
to reduce time to market and the cost of the product
development in the sand casting process (Bernard et al., 2003).
The study was based on tooling manufacture by integrating
CAD softwares and a new AM process OPTOFORM which
is a paste polymerization process. Part designing, assembly,
filling of molten metal and the solidification simulation was
done with the CAD software to validate the sand mould. The
pattern plates and core boxes were designed with the cluster
modelling. Master patterns were manufactured with a new
rapid tooling process, which was introduced by OPTOFORM
in 1998 and which was purchased by 3D systems in 2001.
This process, close to SL, brings into play material
exploitable in paste form, which allows a large-application
range. Indeed, the resin paste permits a high level of
additional material, which increases the mechanical
properties. The paste is set down into thin layers with
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 Rapid casting solutions: a review
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh
Figure 11 Process flow for fabricating the sand casting tooling using LOM
2D drawing of CAD solid model of
pattern and core box pattern and core box
Fabrication on Post processing (decubing,
LOM machine smooth and seal)
Figure 12 The CAD design of part, match plate, pattern and core box
Source: Wang et al. (1999)
Figure 13 Final LOM pattern and core box together with cores and
sand cast part
Source: Wang et al. (1999)
specific scrapers, and then solidified by a laser. This process
also uses a ceramic paste to obtain parts and cores. In this
research, ceramic component and tools and alumina and
metallic parts were manufactured for the validation of the
process. A total of 500 moulds were produced and the results
were very good. The OPTOFORM process for sand casting
was validated without any problem with the small production.
Researches claimed that there was 20 per cent improvement
in average time of all the operations that composed the
industrialization with the numerical channel (integration of
CAD and AM) then with the traditional techniques. But the
overall development costs were about 15 per cent more with
the numerical channel than with the traditional techniques.
This problem was due to the difficulty to realize the complex
moulding study with the CAD tools (CATIA, Pro-engineer,
etc.). SMC solved this problem by using the new user-friendly
CAD software SolidWorks. It introduced a new outlook
on the CAD. For the parts without core, it highlights
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Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350
Conversion of CAD
model in to. stl format
Traditional sand Final
casting process casting
the reduction of the design costs owing to a difference of
about 20 per cent cheaper with the numerical channel
(AM and SolidWorks) than with the traditional techniques.
By the achievements of this study, SMC has introduced a
new AM technology to manufacture the production tooling
for the sand casting process. The result proved the importance
in simulation reliability due to good metallurgical results, in
spite of wall thickness reduction (to 4 mm) under the process
limits. The successful introduction of SolidWorks reduced the
part design time and CAD hourly rate. Since then, all the new
products have been designed and industrialized using the
numerical chain and design methodology in SMC.
7.3 Rapid sand casting using PolyJete technology
Objets patented PolyJete technology based on 3DP system
provide high resolution RC solution to sand casting process.
The process provides a complete 3DP solution for virtually
any sand casting application by using Objet FullCurew
material (photopolymer resin) and Objet software (Cohen,
2008). The concept is based on the use of photopolymers as
building materials. A wide area inkjet head layer wise deposits
both build and support material. It subsequently completely
cures each layer after it is deposited with a UV flood lamp
mounted on the print head. The support material, which is
also a photopolymer, is removed by washing it away in a
secondary operation (Dimitrov et al., 2008). Sand casting
facilities use Objets PolyJete technology to create mould
patterns (solid and split) as they offer high-resolution printing
and utilize materials that fit the requirements of this
application niche. Both solid and split patterns can have
cores inserted to complete the final part shape[12].
The Figure 14 shows the rapid sand casting of brass
component with PolyJete technology.
8. Direct fabrication of sand moulds (pattern less
moulds)
8.1 Rapid sand casting using EOSINT-SLS machine
EOS GmbH, Munich, Germany have been marketed
EOSINT-S Laser Sintering AM machine in which sand
 Rapid casting solutions: a review
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh
Figure 14 (a) 3D model printed using PolyJete technology; (b) sand casting mould; (c) the pattern is removed from the mould; and (d) final casting of
brass component
(a) (b)
Source: Cohen (2008)
casting moulds and cores fabricated directly from CAD solid
model using polymer-coated green sand[13]. The process is
based on the powder-based laser fusion process. Lightman
(1997) reported that this machine is a modification of EOS
standard sintering machines, in which coated refractory sand
is used as the powder. Sand moulds and cores are produced
by using a CO2 laser that causes the sand particles to adhere
by heating and binding their coating. Moulds for complex
parts can be built quickly, and castings can be made directly
into the sand mould (Figure 15). EOS has named the process
DirectCastw (Freitag et al., 2003) which has been allowed
patent status in the USA in 2000[14]. Presently, EOS
producing two laser sintering machines such as EOSINT
S700 and EOSINT S 750, which use dual lasers to fabricate
complex moulds and cores using foundry sands EOSINT
Zircon HT and EOSINT Quartz 4.2/5.7 (Chua et al., 2003).
8.2 ProMetal RCT
ExOne (formerly Extrude Hone Corporation) has offered
three commercial 3DP machines R10, SR-2 and RCT S15
based on 3DP technique in 2005, which are used to perform
two processes, namely, ProMetal Direct Metal Printing and
ProMetal Rapid Casting [15]. Using the 3DP technology,
RCT S15 and RCT S-Max produce complex sand casting
Figure 15 Sand mould, sand positive, and aluminium casting produced
within one day by using EOSINT-S laser sintering
Source: Lightman (1997)
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Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350
(c) (d)
moulds and cores directly from a CAD model without using
any physical pattern or core box. RCT tends to cast
geometrically complex shapes which are often impossible to
create by conventional means. A layer of sand (bonded with
furan resin) mixed with the hardener is spread evenly on a
machine build platform and a binding agent is then applied
using print heads at the specified areas determined by the
CAD data. The hardening agent contained in the sand
hardens the binder and creates the objects one layer at a time
from top to bottom[16]. The sand moulds and cores
fabricated with this process are poured immediately without
using secondary operation. Figure 16 shows the mould of
automotive intake manifold manufactured by this process and
the final casting. The key advantage of this RC solution is that
it provides flexibility to produce complex and pattern less
castings. Multiple and unique moulds can be produced at the
same time while reducing production costs and time to
market. Table III provides the information regarding material
being cast with these processes and their application areas.
RCT process can be used to produce prototype castings
economically and to validate mould designs. In certain
applications, it could be used to eliminate core boxes or to
produce especially intricate cores.
RCT S15 is a factory-floor solution which provides
everything necessary to produce casting moulds and cores
directly form CAD files. This system includes a process
station, unloading station and a mixing unit that prepares and
stages sand for use during the process. The S15 system by
using 512 jets provides the maximum size of mould up to
1,500 750 700 mm and is the only system using foundry
grade materials (Wohlers, 2003). ProMetal RCT S-Max
machine is also in the market for the manufacturing of most
complex moulds and core with larger build size of
1,800 1,000 700 mm[17].
8.2.1 Example: use of ProMetal RCT for DiMoras1,200 HP
engine components of worlds most expensive vehicle, the Natalia
SLS 2
Car-designer Alfer J. DiMora has emphasized through an
article in 2007, the importance of using the RCT methods for
technically advanced engines[18]. He stated that the extreme
complexity of the 16-cylinder DiMora Volcano engine
requires the flexibility and precision that only RCT can
provide. Advanced Technology & Design Inc. president
Clifford Sands added in the same article that:
By removing the constraints of hard tooling, RCT allows extreme engine
design to become a reality. At 14 liters displacement and producing
1,200HP, the proprietary DiMora Volcano V16 is an extreme engine design.
We take DiMoras CAD data file and design the sand mould assembly which
will be used to create this cutting-edge engine.
 Rapid casting solutions: a review
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh
Figure 16 Automotive intake manifold
(a)
Notes: (a) Sand mould prepared with ProMetal RCT; (b1, b2) final casting[17]
Table III ProMetal RCT casting materials and application areas
S. no. Material Application areas
1 Al Automotive, prototyping
2 Cu alloys Marine, bearings, fittings
3 Ferrous alloys (grey iron, Automotive, general purposes
ductile iron, steel)
8.3 ZCast 501 direct metal casting
ZCast501 Direct Metal Casting is an RC solution developed
by ZCorp for sand casting of non-ferrous materials[19].
Conventionally, metal castings are produced by using sand
casting tooling, techniques and procedures as mentioned in
chart 2. Instead of utilizing this costly and time-consuming
process, the ZCast process creates the shell moulds directly
from CAD data by using 3DP-AM technology. It eliminates
the pattern creation phase of the traditional sand casting
process in a revolutionary way, resulting in a drastic reduction
of the casting lead time from weeks to days (Krouth, 2002).
ZCast provides three basic methods to fabricate moulds to
produce casting rapidly. Bak (2003) reported that the
accuracy and surface finish are consistent with sand casting
by using ZCast process. Singh (2010) reviewed the use of this
RC solution for generating prototype castings.
Material. ZCast 501 powder is a plaster-ceramic composite
suitable for non-ferrous materials. Various manufacturers and
researches have been produced successful castings in
aluminium, zinc, bronze, magnesium and lead. Zb56 binder
solution and Zc5 cleaning solution is commonly used for
making moulds.
Major features:
.
ZCast501 mould is recommended for non-ferrous metals
with pouring temperature below 1,1008C.
.
The recommended shell mould wall thickness range is
minimum 13 mm and maximum 25.4 mm[20].
. Before pouring, ZCast moulds must be baked in an oven
from 1808C to 2308C for between four and eight hours
(based on volume), until it is bone dry.
.
Customers cast metal into these 3DP moulds for
prototype evaluation or fully functional parts.
8.3.1 ZCast methods
Direct pour method. The process is based on 3DP using ZCast
material to fabricate a complete mould set including cores and
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350
(b1) (b2)
gating system and provides facility of casting directly by
pouring molten material into the mould.
Shell method. This method is used to manufacture larger
mould than used in the direct pour method and when the
gating system would require very large ZCast components.
If the size of the mould exceeds the working volume of the
printer, the shell method is recommended[20]. The mould
cavity is formed by a shell of ZCast material and is held in place
by backing it with conventional sand. The gating system is
constructed in the foundry sand by using traditional foundry
tooling. In this method, designer is allowed to mount ZCast
pieces on a pattern board, which align them with respect to the
rest of the mould. The ZCast shells have to be so designed that
they provide connections to the gating system vents and risers,
and they must have features that anchor them to the backing of
foundry sand. The printed mould pieces consist of cores and a
uniform shell that surrounds the mould cavity. A flange
(containing vent holes, core prints and alignment pin) of
similar thickness extends out on the parting line. The mould
pieces are built in sections and aligned together on a blocking
board. The blocking board assembly is placed in a moulding
box. Standard gating forms are provided in moulding box and
foundry sand is placed around the printed parts.
Combination method (production intent casting). In this
method, only cores are printed with the ZCast material and
used in conventional sand moulds for producing hollow
castings. The sand mould can be created with traditional
machined pattern or AM fabricated pattern. The main
advantage of using this method is that cores and inserts can be
made without any special tooling (e.g. core boxes) that would
lengthen the time to produce the prototype casting.
8.3.2 Research based on ZCast process
Dimitrov et al. (2007) have presented the results obtained from
the experimental studies on different RC solutions (all three
methods of ZCast and fiber glass tooling) based on 3DP
technology in order to improve the design and manufacture of
foundry equipment that is used for sand casting of prototypes in
final material. Based on this research authors have suggested
that in cases where up to four cast components of high
complexity are required, the ZCast-Direct pour method
process should be used. On the other hand, in cases, where
more than 15 parts or higher runs are needed, or if the tools are
expected to undergo heavy handling, the production intent
casting or even the Fibreglass Tooling process is recommended.
Bassoli et al. (2007) have investigated through experiments
to verify the feasibility and evaluation of the dimensional
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Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh
accuracy of two RC solutions based on 3DP technology.
The first solution was IC starting from 3D-printed starch
patterns and the second solution was ZCast process for the
production of cavities for light-alloys castings. For the second
solution, a design of manufacturing analysis was performed
on the selected benchmark with SOLIDCastw software.
Starting from the CAD model of the casing, complete with
feeding runners and riser, the mould was modelled with a
wall thickness between 12 and 25 mm, minimizing the ZCast
material to limit production time and cost. Researchers
reported that the ZCast technique provided satisfactory
results, limited at present to the field of light alloys. In a
latest research, the mechanical performances of parts
produced by ZCast process were also optimized by varying
thermal treatment parameters (heat treatment by varying
temperature and time) and proved that in the heat treatment
of ZCast parts time has a negligible effect on the compressive
strength, whereas temperature has significant effect for best
mechanical response (Bassoli and Atzeni, 2009).
Kaplas and Singh (2008) performed experimental study to
investigate the feasibility of decreasing the shell wall thickness
of mould from 12 to 2 mm thickness using ZCast process to
evaluate the dimensional accuracy and mechanical properties
of castings of zinc-alloy produced by this RC solution.
Dimensional tolerances and mechanical properties were
compared to verify the suitability of castings and further
results were supported by radiography analysis.
Singh and Verma (2008) verified the feasibility of
decreasing the shell wall thickness of shell mould from 12 to
2 mm thickness using ZCast process in order to evaluate
the dimensional accuracy for aluminium castings. Further
consistency with the tolerance grades of the castings has been
checked as per IT grades along with mechanical properties of
the aluminium castings.
Singh and Singh (2009c) investigated the feasibility of
decreasing the shell mould wall thickness using ZCast RC
solution for brass and lead alloy castings. The study suggested
that the production of sound casting for minimum wall
thickness depends upon pouring temperature and weight
density. The results suggest that for small castings below a
mass of 10 g, shell thickness can be reduced from the 12 to
0.5 mm for lead alloy and 12 to 2 mm for brass alloy castings.
Singh and Singh (2009a,b) also reported the investigation of
this process under statistically control for the best shell wall
thickness in case of low brass (2 mm) and lead (0.5 mm).
Based on the results of these researches, it has been found
that it is feasible to reduce the shell wall thickness of moulds
prepared by using ZCast501 from the recommended
thickness (13 mm)[20] and to save the cost and time for
the production of various non-ferrous material castings.
The information in this regard is presented in Table IV.
Table IV Optimum minimum shell wall thickness achieved and reduction in cost and time in comparison to recommended 13 mm thickness using
ZCast501by various researches
Optimum minimum shell wall
Researches Casting material thickness achieved
Kaplas and Singh (2008) Zinc alloy
Singh and Verma (2008) Aluminium alloy
Singh and Singh (2009a) Lead alloy
Singh and Singh (2009b) Brass alloy
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The researches have proved that the investigated ZCast
solution is effective in obtaining cast technological prototypes
in short times and with low cost, with dimensional tolerances
that are completely consistent with metal casting processes.
The previous major research accessed the feasibility of
decreasing the shell wall thickness of mould obtained using
ZCast solution to evaluate the dimensional accuracy and
mechanical properties of castings of various non-ferrous
alloys. The literature is still lacking in finding the reasons or
factors for obtaining the minimum shell wall thicknesses of
mould by using ZCast solution for a particular material.
An attempt has been planned by the authors of this paper to
investigate the means for generating cost effective RCs using
3DP technique[21]. To achieve this objective ZCaste Direct
Metal Casting RC solution will be used to produce shells for
casting to verify the feasibility of decreasing shell wall
thickness from 12 to 2 mm (12,11,10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2 mm) as
shown in Figure 17d in order to reduce the cost and time for
the production of Al, Cu and brass castings. Starting from the
identification of benchmark, component and shells have been
modelled using UNIGRAPHICS version NX5 and materials
(Al, Cu and brass alloy) have also been selected to produce
technological prototype castings at different shell wall
thicknesses using 3DP (Z Print machine, Model Z510) with
ZCast501e powder. Consistency of the tolerance grades of
the castings (IT grades) will be evaluated as per UNI EN
20286-I (1995) standards for casting process. Measurements
on a coordinate measuring machine (CMM) with GEOPAK
v2.4.R10 CMM software will be used in calculating the
dimensional tolerances of the castings. Microstructure
analysis and some important mechanical properties will
be compared to verify the suitability of the castings. Further
the dependence of optimum shell wall thickness on change in
volume of casting, pouring temperature, weight density and
heat transfer rate of molten material will also be evaluated.
The specific objectives of this proposed research study
include:
.
effect of change in volume of casting for obtaining
optimum shell wall thickness;
.
effect of pouring temperature of molten metal for
obtaining optimum shell wall thickness;
.
effect of weight density of molten material for obtaining
optimum shell wall thickness;
.
effect of rate of heat transfer for obtaining optimum shell
wall thickness; and
. process capability study of optimum shell wall thickness of
materials, namely, Al, Cu and brass experimentation.
Figure17 shows a pilot experiment processing steps from
CAD design of shells to final aluminium casting of benchmark
Production cost Production time
saved (%) saved (%)
7 mm 41 37
5 mm 54.6 55.4
0.5 mm 45.75 43
2 mm 40.05 32.84
 Rapid casting solutions: a review
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh
Figure 17 Pilot experiment processing steps from CAD design of shells to final Al casting of benchmark using ZCast501 with Z510 printer
(a) CAD model of upper shell, component (b) Shells in stl. formet in
and lower shell
(d) Shells with different wall (e) Shell ready for pouring
thicknesses (12-2mm)
using ZCast501 with Z510 printer based on this current
research.
9. Discussion
The survey regarding RC solutions reported in this paper does
not present a complete picture of this incredible technology.
The result from this review is that there is still considerable
room for improvement and innovation of RC solutions.
Despite the invention of various RC solutions, many factors
need to be researched out for the implementation of RC
in traditional foundry practices. These factors are: AM
materials, AM systems, accuracy, surface finish, geometry
flexibility, build time, machine building size, mechanical and
thermal properties, cost and post processing of patterns,
moulds and cores. The major deciding factor to adopt RC
solutions is the cost, because AM systems and materials are
very much expensive when compared to traditional casting
tooling. Presently, RC is economical when the component to
be cast is in the initial stages of design cycle and required in
low quantity. Furthermore, RC is also economical when there
is a need to produce geometrically complex castings and
requirement of changes in design are high. Many researchers
and manufacturers are involved worldwide into the
development of potential new AM systems and materials
used in IC and sand casting.
9.1 Direct fabrication of IC patterns
Although generation of prototype is a natural application of
AM, it is proved that any AM generated component, which
can be flash fired without damaging the ceramic shell can be
used as a substitute of wax IC pattern. Since 1989, many AM
materials have been invented to be used commercially to
produce direct pattern for IC. The main stress has been given
on finding the new materials used for fabricating non-wax IC
patterns without creating the problems of ceramic shell
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350
(c) Printing of shells in Z510
machine software machine
(f) Shell poured with (g) Final casting obtained
molten metal using Zcast process
cracking, incomplete pattern burning out and residual ash
after autoclaving. Although many RC solutions are available
for the production of wax patterns (namely, FDM, MMII,
Thermojet and BPM) directly, non-wax AM patterns are
more popular due to the property of durability and strength
and can be employed for casting of thin wall structure.
Further, to improve the surface quality of patterns, finishing
operation can be performed on non-wax patterns due to their
toughness property. Many AM materials used to produce
non-wax patterns having capability to counter the problems of
ceramic shell cracking, incomplete pattern burning out
and residual ash have been introduced by various
AM manufacturers. The pioneers amongst them are FDM-
ABS, CastForm PS, WindForm PS and ZCorporations
starch patterns. As far as ZCorporations starch patterns are
concerned, no residual ash appears after burnout process.
Furthermore, starch patterns also have the capability to create
high-quality castings with excellent surface finish. Bassoli et al.
(2007) claimed after experimental investigation that the
feasibility of these starch patterns was proven even in the case
of thin walls. Table V presents the advantages and
disadvantages of various AM materials for producing IC
patterns. Mechanical properties and general properties of
some RIC pattern materials are presented in Tables VI and
VII, respectively.
9.2 Fabrication of mould for producing wax IC patterns
This approach utilizes direct and indirect rapid tooling
techniques to fabricate moulds for production of large
number of wax IC patterns economically and with better
accuracy. This approach further relieves the manufacturer
from the problems related to non-wax pattern and using
relatively costly direct AM wax patterns. The indirect tooling
technique is feasible and economical when usually 5-10 AM
patterns of complex shape are required in short period
(one to five weeks) which otherwise required machine tooling
342
 Table V Advantages and disadvantages of AM fabricated IC patterns
QuickCast FDM ABS FDM WAX Model Maker II TrueForm CastForm PS Windformw PS Thermojet
patterns patterns patterns patterns patterns patterns patterns patterns Zp14 patterns
Advantages Easy burnout No risks of Easy burnout Easy burnout Post finishing is not Low burnout Post curing is not Easy burnout
damaging during required temperature required
clean up process
Best surface finish Better surface Casting techniques Good surface finish Good surface finish Processing of CF High surface finish Excellent up-facing
as compared to finish as compared using FDM-wax patterns as normal surface finish
other non-wax AM to FDM-wax patterns are wax patterns Due to wax
patterns normal as without any materials, patterns
traditional wax changes in can be used
Rapid casting solutions: a review
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh

patterns without conventional IC directly in IC

any changes in the process
conventional IC
process
Low ash content Patterns can be No ash contents No support Low ash content Low ash content No separate
after burnout due transported easily structure is (,0.02%) after (,0.02%) after material required
to honeycomb due to high required burnout burnout for support
structure strength of structure

343
material
QuickCast build Less material is No risk of shell Less chances of Capable of being No risk of shell
style patterns are required to cracking shell cracking due autoclaved cracking
successful in produce patterns to low pattern Build material can
countering shell due to honeycomb expansion during be recycled
cracking during structure the shell firing
autoclaving
Enable to produce High accuracy as Better accuracy Patterns produced
casting with high compared to FDM with tight
accuracy patterns tolerances
Help to reduce lead Perfect for Al and Suitable to cast Cast with all cast Pattern can be Low production
time of casting as steel casting materials with alloys and highly produced quickly time and cost
compared to different melting reactive alloys
traditional IC temperature range
such as Al, Mg to
Rapid Prototyping Journal

titanium
(continued )
Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350
 Table V
QuickCast FDM ABS FDM WAX Model Maker II TrueForm CastForm PS Windformw PS Thermojet
patterns patterns patterns patterns patterns patterns patterns patterns Zp14 patterns
Ability to produce Facilitate in casting Enable to cast very Enable to produce Enable to produce Enable to produce
thin wall patterns of highly detailed thin wall sections complex casting castings of complex casting
components like with internal complex geometry with varying
Rapid casting solutions: a review
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh

jewellery cavities having thin thickness

wall thicknesses
Disadvantages Casting with Poor surface finish Slow build speed Not suitable for Down- facing
QuickCast patterns as compared to of system titanium alloy surface finish is
require more wax patterns poor
experience and fabricated with
special processing traditional wax
as compared to tooling process

344
other non-wax AM
patterns
Removal of Furnace is required Weak patterns Support material is Takes large casting Patterns are fragile Presently, very few Patterns are brittle Dimensional
support material for autoclaving due Transportation to a different from build time as compared and can be broken industries have in nature and variance induced
requires more time to high melting foundry requires material to CF patterns as it during cleaning experienced difficult to during wax dipping
and special care temperature of special care Solvent is required requires totally dry and wax WindFormPS transport to stage
Costly processing ABS material for cleaning the ceramic shell infiltration stage foundry
support material before autoclaving Wax infiltration Difficult to remove
increases support structure
manufacturing Expensive build
time and material
introduces further
dimensional errors
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350
 Rapid casting solutions: a review
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh
Table VI Mechanical properties of RIC pattern materials
CastForm PS
Tensile strength 2.8 MPa
Elastic modulus 1,604 MPa
Elongation
Impact strength ,11 J/m
Hardness (shore D-scale)
Table VII General properties of RIC pattern materials
WindForm PS
3 3
Density 0.43 g/cm (ASTM D4164)
Ash content ,0.02% (ASTM D482)
Glass transition temp 87.5oC (DSC)
which take six-25 weeks to build. Furthermore, indirect
tooling requires very simple processing and post processing
technique and less equipment and material cost as compared
to direct tooling technique.
Direct tooling technique for mould fabrication requires post-
processing steps like infiltration, de-binding, sintering and
finishing operations to fabricate mould with high accuracy and
quality. The major constraint to use this technique to generate
wax IC pattern is the lead time require for mould production.
Even though some pioneering processes such as DMLS, Rapid
Tool, ProMetal, LENS and DirectAIM have been used
successfully for direct fabrication of moulds for injection of
wax patterns, which result in relatively strong moulds and
suitable for large volume production.
9.3 Direct fabrication of IC ceramic shells
In continuation to progress made in RIC, a novel casting
solution DSPC is moving with a stunning pace in
manufacturing industry to facilitate direct fabrication of the
IC ceramic moulds (negative) with integral cores to produce
parts of virtually any shape and material. This technique
provides a greater advantage over other RIC techniques by
removing the steps of wax pattern generation, ceramic shell
production, autoclaving and firing of mould.
9.4 Sand casting
Similar to RIC, extensive worldwide research is being
undertaken by various organizations to improve the existing
RC solutions for sand casting. All AM fabricated patterns
having strengths to bear the pressure of moulded sand and
ability to withstand the chemicals in the sand can be used as
sand casting patterns. As far as dimensional accuracy is
concerned, it is not a critical issue for rapid prototypes to be
used as concept models for visualization purpose. However,
for producing AM-fabricated patterns and core boxes for sand
casting, any error in these casting tooling will be conveyed to
the final cast components. Wang et al. (1999) mentioned in an
investigation that the LOM process introduces a variety of
errors into the pattern and core box fabrication process for
sand casting and further the part geometry of thin wall may
not be suitable for LOM-based rapid tooling.
A great need of RC solutions having capability of
fabricating ready to pour moulds (pattern less casting) has
been raised by the manufacturers worldwide. Presently, EOS
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Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350
FDM ABS Zp14
34.45 MPa (ASTM D638) 10.8-15 MPa
2,495 MPa (ASTM D638) 3,000-4,000 MPa
.10% (%at yield)
107 J/m (notched Izod test) 12-13 J/m
78 68-74
Thermojet88 CastForm PS
0.846 g/cm 0.46 g/cm3
0.00-0.01% (gray wax) 0.02% (ASTM D482)
85-95oC 89oC
DirectCastw, ProMetal RCT and ZCast501 are being used
successfully to produce patternless casting by producing
direct sand casting moulds and cores directly from a CAD
model. The introduction of these systems eliminated the
thousand-year-old requirement of physical patterns used to
create sand moulds. Using this system highly complex and
intricate designed component can be cast very quickly and at
low cost, which was earlier impossible for the traditional
foundry practice. This feature also motivates foundries to
produce spare parts of any product whenever demanded by
the customer. These systems also help to make job shop type
of production economical and feasible for an industry by
producing different designed components with fast
production rate. Table VIII presents the technical features
and Table IX presents the advantages and disadvantages of
these direct sand mould RC solutions. The ProMetals RCT
S-max machine with largest build area amongst other
available RC solution is a revolutionary invention in the
field of RC to produce large-size component of any geometry
of any castable material. The EOS DirectCastw and ProMetal
RCT are also capable produce functional metal casting
in batches.
Available AM materials and machines used to fabricate
patterns, moulds and cores for sand casting are being improved.
3D-printed sand used for RC is a latest development in rapid
sand casting. A recent study has been performed to investigate
the behaviour of 3D-printed sand in contact with molten metal
(at elevated temperature) in order to measure the thermal
distortions of the chemically bonded sand binder systems used
to print cores and moulds (Rebros et al., 2007).
Based on applications of various RC solutions, case studies
and examples as discussed above, the major benefits of RC to
foundrymen and challenges amongst the AM manufacturers,
researchers and developers of RC solutions are summarized
below.
9.5 The benefits of RC to foundrymen
1 Cost saving. Cost is saved due to the elimination of
traditional casting tooling required to cast prototype or low
volume production castings. The cost involved in
modifying a poor-designed component and iterations
required before finalization of design is also reduced by
using RC solutions. Casting tooling does not need to be
ordered until the design is finalized and frozen.
 Rapid casting solutions: a review

Table VIII Technical features of direct sand mould RC solutions

Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh

Core Build envelope Additional supports Building Infiltration Layer thickness Prices
RC technology Machine Company technology (X,Y,Z) (mm) required? material Binder agent (mm) Build speed (base price)
ProMetal RCT RCT S15 Ex One Sand 3DP 1,500 750 700 NO Sand Resin N/A 0.15-0.4 15,000 cm3/h $1.4 million
technique RCT S-Max (Drop-on-Bed) 1,800 1,000 700 0.28-0.5 59,400- $1.3 million
108,000 cm3/h
ZCast direct metal Z Printer Z Corp 3DP 203 254 203 NO ZCast 501 Zb56 N/A 0.089-0.203 2-4 layers/min $19,900

346
casting 310plus (Drop-on-Bed) 254 356 203 2 layers/min
Spectrum
Z510
DirectCast EOSINT S EOSINT EOS Sand 720 380 380 NO Quartz N/A N/A 0.2 2,500 cm3/h e690,000
S750 LS 700 380 380 4.2/5.7
EOSINT
S700
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 Rapid casting solutions: a review Rapid Prototyping Journal
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350

Table IX Advantages and disadvantages of direct sand mould RC solutions

DirectCast with EOSINT S700/750
Advantages Minimum post processing is required
Cast any type of material from Al,
Mg to high alloy steel
Same sand material is used for support
structure
Enable to build large size castings
Patternless
Ability to make high quality fully functional
castings in small series
Enable to generate cost effective prototype
castings rapidly
Disadvantages Relatively large space is required to install the
system
Consume high power due to use of lasers to
sinter the sand
System is dedicated to fabrication of sand
moulds and cores only
ProMetal RCT S15/SMax
No post processing is required
Suitable for ferrous and nonferrous castings
No support structure is required
Larger build area for producing large moulds
Patternless
System is provided with automatic loading
and unloading conveyors
Online mixing of sand and hardener
Ready to pour moulds
Large space required to install the system as Suitable only for non-ferrous castings
compared to other two processes
ZCast501 with Zprinter501
Ability to cast relatively low volume part with
good degree of complexity
Geometry independent process
Support is provided by the build material itself
Suitable in office environment just like office
printer
Patternless
Z510 printer is fastest 3D colour printer
Cost effective castings can be produced in a
short time
Suitable for small size prototype castings
Costly build material and binders used as
compared to other systems

2 Gating system optimization. The major effort involved in
foundry is to optimize gating and runner system design.
The use of AM patterns for trial run castings facilitates
the optimization of gating system before placing the order
of production tooling.
3 Concurrent engineering approach. AM facilitates the
implementation of concurrent engineering approach by
creating a communication link between designers, pattern
makers, foundry men and customer simultaneously. This
approach helps to study the problems associated with
every stage of casting a product and also to analyze
product modification options by using AM models which
result in short time to market the product.
4 RC allows the foundry to cast components with complex
geometry and intricate cavity which are either too
expensive or impossible to cast by conventional casting
methods.
5 Process optimization. Before manufacturing the production
tooling, the perfect positioning of parting lines, ejecting
pins and inserts can be analyzed with prototype casting
produced by using RC solution. Optimization of
moulding parameter and evaluation of mould and
pattern can be conducted effectively.
6 The use of RC solutions is found more economical and
feasible in emergency especially if quantities of castings
are required before the production tool is ready.
9.6 Challenges amongst AM developers for RC
1 The claim of available RC solutions to produce
dimensionally accurate, smooth surface finish and
durable casting with shorter time to market needs to
be further addressed, verified and improved.
2 Although RC tends to generate complex casting, some
RC solutions require additional post-processing steps
which increase the cost and lead time required to cast
components.
3 From the above discussion, it is obvious that each RC
solution possesses its own set of qualities. The real fact
is that some RC solutions are in their initial
development stages, and there is no clear evidence
that the use of these RC solutions will be beneficial in
terms of cost and lead time required to produce a unit of
final metal casting.
4 Development of low cost RC materials and AM
machines for small scale foundries.
5 Need to familiarize the casters and pattern makers with
available RC solutions, processes, parameters and
techniques to implement RC in the traditional foundry
practices.
6 Development in AM machines to reduce the build time
required to produce casting tooling.
7 Fulfill the requirement of mass production of metal
casting at commercial level.
8 Development of new AM material and machines to
produce casting in metals, ceramic and composites
directly.
9 Solutions for problems associated with application of
non-wax patterns in IC.
10 Enhancement in work volume of AM machines to
produce large-size cast components.
10. Future trends in the development of RCT and
their application
Rapid casting has gained acceptance worldwide by the
manufacturers and is expected to become one of the
important applications of additive technology in future. RC
solutions discussed in this paper are being improved
continuously, and new casting solutions are being
developed. It is anticipated that a number of new systems
dedicated to provide casting solutions directly (without using
any intermediate step) like DSPC, ProMetal RCT and
EOSINT S will be on the market in the next few years.
An important constraint to incorporate RC in foundry is the
high cost of AM machines, building materials and
consumables. Foundry industry requires cheaper machines
with low-cost building materials and consumables to produce
patterns or direct moulds for IC and sand casting.

347
 Rapid casting solutions: a review
Munish Chhabra and Rupinder Singh
The worldwide ongoing research in various fields of RC
and AM will give momentum to the following developments
in RC:
.
New wax like materials will be invented for IC patterns
which will produce patterns with high accuracy, surface
finish and without producing ash contents and shell
cracking during autoclaving.
.
Invention of material to produce pattern less moulds for
sand casting for ferrous and nonferrous material having
high melting temperature.
.
Invention of material having high strength for production
of patterns which can produce large number of moulds for
mass production of casting.
.
New AM machines will be available in the market with
large working platform to produce large-size patterns and
moulds for casting of large-size components.
.
With the development of AM machines having features
such as fast build speed, high resolution and capability of
producing parts with thin layer thickness, the mass
production of geometrically complex casting with desired
material will be possible.
There will be a great change in the attitude of foundry men by
adopting RC solutions in their foundries. Although various
RC solutions like EOSINT S and ProMetal RCT are
available to produce moulds and cores directly using
conventional foundry sand, invention of new AM material is
possible in future, which will enhance flowability of pouring
metal and will also help to improve the microstructure of
casting. In addition, transparent material will also be
invented, so that the proper filling of cavity can be judged
on the spot. The possibilities seem limitless. One future
application is the development of expert system and
intelligent AM systems, a combination of AM, RT, RC and
artificial intelligence. Several expert systems based on RC will
be available in market for the selection of RC solutions, AM
systems and suitable materials for the required casting. RC
industry will also move toward standardization. All these
future developments will be possible only when foundry
industry will be willing to be an active partner in the
development and use of these RC solutions.
11. Conclusion
Based on the survey presented in this paper regarding RC
solutions, a conclusion can be drawn that the RC which has
evolved from AM, extends from its infant stage and is ready
to play a mature role in achieving the goal to produce fully
functional AM products in the required material. The main
aim of this review is to present the various commercialized RC
solutions in investment and sand casting technologies. One of
the most important contributions of RC in manufacturing
industry is the facilitation of concurrent engineering approach
in design, development and production of any type of casting.
The RC solutions reviewed in this paper for both IC and sand
casting will serve the purpose of researchers, academicians,
users, manufacturers and service industries to explore the new
options and further development in the field of RC.
The various approaches and techniques explained of using
AM in investment and sand casting processes may serve the
purpose of foundrymen in different working conditions.
The paper ends with a hope that in future, RC solutions will
emerge with the capability to provide dimensionally more
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Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 17 Number 5 2011 328 350
accurate and better surface finish castings of any size, shape
and material with more speed and at low cost. In order to
strengthen the manufacturing capabilities, especially for
developing countries to cope up with the impatient global
customer demands, RC solutions and AM machines should
be within the financial reach for small-scale foundries.
Notes
1 Project-Innovative production machines and systems
(2006), available at: www.iproms.org/system/files/
iproms_D4.9_APM_updated_State_of_the_Art_8_8_06.
pdf
2 Z Corporation ZP14 investment casting processing
guide, ZCorporation, available at: www.zcorp.com
3 http://um3d.dc.umich.edu
4 www.3dsystems.com/products/sls/index.asp
5 Italian Formula 1 Race Team Turns to Rapid
Prototyping and Manufacturing to Create High-
Performance Titanium Parts Made from CastForm PS
Patterns PR Newswire 21 July 2000, available at: www.
thefreelibrary.com
6 www.crptechnology.com
7 www.crp.eu
8 Racers digs speed of rapid prototyping, MetlFax,
December 2000, available at: www.allbusiness.com/
manufacturing/
9 www.windform.it/sito/en/windform-ps-new-polystyrene-
based-material.html
10 Soligen Technologies Inc., www.soligen.com
11 www.mit.edu/, tdp
12 Sand Casting Applications, available at: www.2objet.com
13 www.eos-gmbh.de
14 US patent issued to EOS GmbH for sand-casting
application of laser-sintering: DirectCast, 13 October
2000, available at: www.thefreelibrary.com
15 www.exone.com
16 RCT takes layer-by-layer approach to mold, core
production, modern casting, 1 February 2005, available
at: http://goliath.ecnext.com
17 www.prometal-rct.com
18 Rapid casting technology is critical to worlds most
expensive production vehicle, Foundry Management
and Technology, 11 October 2007, available at: www.
foundrymag.com
19 www.zcorp.com
20 ZCast501 Direct Metal Casting, Design Guide,
September 2004, ZCorporation, available at: www.
zcorp.com
21 Three dimensional printing: shortcut to the final
product, technology transition: NSF-funded research to
market, 6 May 2002, available at: www.nsf.gov
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Further reading
Greul, M., Pintat, T. and Greulich, M. (1995), Rapid
prototyping of functional metallic parts, Computers in
Industry, Vol. 28, pp. 23-8.
Shan, Z., Yan, Y., Zhang, R., Lu, Q. and Guan, L. (2003),
Rapid manufacture of metal tooling by rapid prototyping,
International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology,
Vol. 21, pp. 469-75.
Wohlers, T.T. (1991), Rapid prototyping: an update on RP
applications, technology improvements, and developments
in the industry, available at: www.wohlersassociates.com
Corresponding author
Munish Chhabra can be contacted at: munishchhabra2000@
yahoo.com
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