NATSCI2 First Exam Notes

GEOLOGY
-”study of the earth”
-the materials of which it is made of
-the processes that act on these materials
-the products formed from these processed
-the history of the planet and its life forms since its origin

GEOLOGY WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF OTHER SCIENCES

BASIC SCIENCES
1. PHYSICS : energy
2. CHEMISTRY : matter
3. BIOLOGY: Living Matter
4. ASTRONOMY: Matter, energy OUTSIDE the earth
5. GEOLOGY: laboratory for these sciences

Interaction of these sciences with geology evolved in much more specialized branches of Geology
1.GEOPHYSICS
2.GEOCHEMISTRY
3.COSMOLOGY: Geology and Astronomy
4.PALEONTOLOGY: Geology and Biology

What does a geologist do?

35% mining and related fields
30% petroleum exploration
20% basic research/academe
10% volcanology/seismology
1% others

PROMINENT GEOLOGISTS
1.PIERRE DE CHARDIN: (1881-1955) Priest / Paleontologist
! -conflict between science and faith
! -studied remains of Peking Man (Neanderthal Man): homonids while maintaining priesthood
! -writings were banned by Catholic Church until 2009 (Pope Benedict)
2.EUGENE SHOEMAKER: (1928-1997) Astrogeologist
! -studied meteors (rocks), comets (ice), Jupiter Comet
3.DAVID JOHNSON: (1949-1980) Volcanologist
! -observed Mt. St. Helen’s (Washington)!
4.MAURICE AND KATIA KRAFT: (?-1991) Videographers of volcanoes erupting
5.Dr. PUNONGBAYAN: (1937-2005) Volcanologist
! -1991: Mt. Pinatubo eruption of the century: advised people to move out
! -died from landslide

HISTORY OF GEOLOGY
• Greatest motivation for learning about earth is PURE HUMAN CURIOSITY on how things work and how
they’re formed etc.
! -observed nature at work: natural calamities and what to do about them (PRACTICAL REASONS)
! -look for resources
• 17th/18th Century: religion and faith still had an overwhelming influence on how we see Nature
 NATSCI2 First Exam Notes

! -In GEOLOGY, the prevailing theory was the theory of CATASTROPHISM: earth’s landscape had
been shaped primarily by great catastrophes aka the GREAT FLOOD.
! -No scientific Progress during this time
• 1666: NICHOLAS STENO: was sent a head of a shark by a Danish duke, Ferdinand II
! -he looked at the shark’s teeth and quickly recognized similar things embedded in rocks in the
mountains
• JAMES HUTTON: “Father of Modern Geology”: farmer from Scotland who proposed the theory of
UNIFORMITARIANISM
! -explain the origin and formation of everything in earth by the forces and processes that we
currently see today
! -explain our existence by processes that exist today
! -present is key to the past
! -groundbreaking: took over Catastrophism

QUICK FACTS ABOUT THE EARTH

Highest Point ! MT. EVEREST, Nepal (8,848m above sea level): increases height 4.10cm/year
2nd Highest Pt! MT. K2, Nepal (8,611m above sea level)
Deepest Point! MARIANAS TRENCH, Philippines Sea (11,033m)
Tallest Waterfalls! ANGEL’S FALLS, Venezuela (979m)
Longest River! NILE RIVER, Africa (6,700km)
Largest Desert! THE SAHARA, North Africa (9.1million sq. km)

QUICK TOUR OF THE PHILIPPINES

Highest Point! MT. APO (3,143m)
! MT. PULOG/PULAG, Luzon mountain peak (2,922m): temp reaches 0 degress
Tallest Waterfalls! Ma. CHRISTINA FALLS, Iligan Mindanao (98m)
! CHOCOLATE HILLS (50 square km)
! EL NIDO, Palawan
! CALLAO CAVES, Cagayan

ASTRONOMY
Ancient Astronomy ! = curiosity + practical applications
! = Astrology
Mayan Lunar Calendar (200AD): Look at the moon as their basis
! -number of times moon has risen/changed

USE OF ANCIENT ASTRONOMY

1. TIMEKEEPING: clocks, sundials, hourglass, water bucket (Chinese), Stonehenge (know when summer/
winter starts as the sun passes through it)
2. SIGNIFICANT RESEARCH: discovery of Pluto (1930), comet cycles

UNIVERSE
-Milky Way is one of a billion galaxies in the universe
-some of the stars seen in the sky are actually galaxies
-different shapes of galaxies
! ex. Magellanic Cloud Galaxy: No shape

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

• PTOLEMY (200AD): GEOCENTRIC MODEL
 NATSCI2 First Exam Notes

! -everything revolved around the Earth

! *However, Greeks knew before that the sun was in the center
• COPERNICUS (1500s): HELIOCENTRIC MODEL
! -sun at the center
• MILKY WAY GALAXY
! -billion of stars, sun is just one of them
! -spiral, rotates, solar system is not at the center

BIG BANG THEORY

-infinitely compact state and has been expanding ever since
-started 15B years ago, Time=0
-widely accepted: TWO SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTIONS
! 1. EXPANDING UNIVERSE
! 2. BACKGROUND on RADIATION: diffuse/weak electromagnetic radiation that pervades the whole
! universe
-NOW: 13.7B years ago (when universe started)
! >nothing existed before then. Time only started after explosion.

THE SUN
-4.3 light years away from earth. 8 light minutes away (8 1/2 minutes for light to reach earth)
-average sized middle-age star known as YELLOW DWARF
! >half-way through it life, most stable point in its life
! >eventually increase in size (Red Giant Star), eating up the inner planets and heating up the other
planets

MERCURY
-life=impossible
-temp is either extremely hot or extremely cold (depends on which side is facing the sun)
-spins slowly: one side can be in complete darkness for 59 days
-revolution: 88 days
-large iron core (heavy for size)
-no atmosphere: sunlight reflects on surface (sunlight is not scattered)
-mercury’s speed is caused by sun’s gravitational pull

VENUS
-brightest object in the sky after the Sun and Moon
-thick CO2 cloud cover (never clears up to show surface)
! >hottest planet: Greenhouse effect 400’C
-rotates clockwise (sun rises in west and sun sets in east)
-axis hardly tilts
-more volcanoes (not known if they’re active)
-rotation 230 days !! revolution 224 days

EARTH

MARS
-red planet
-rotation 24 hours! ! revolution 678 days
-cold, dry, dusty planet with seasons
 NATSCI2 First Exam Notes

JUPITER
-largest planet
-rotation 10 hours! ! revolution 11.8 years
-own mini solar system (16 moons)
-liquid metal ocean (metallic hydrogen) at its center: extremely dense
-EUROPA (Moon): covered with ice (inside is water)
! >SEPI: Search for extraterrestrials
! >believes there are life forms here

SATURN
-rotation 10 hours! ! revolution 29.5 years
-most moons in the solar system
! >TITAN: similar to earth’s atmosphere billions of years ago
-has rings (particles of old moon smashed apart 50M years ago)
-low density: can float on an ocean
-lakes made of methane
-twice as far from sun as Jupiter

URANUS
-only one with an axis of rotation that’s HORIZONTAL
-rotation 15 hours! ! revolution 81 years
-gigantic pale blue ball of Hydrogen helium and methane gas
-no setting sun

NEPTUNE
-blue color: hydrogen, helium, methane

PLUTO
-planetoid
-own moon: Charon

KUIPER BELT
-area in the solar system that extends from the orbit of Neptune and outwards (including Pluto)
-has other planets (bigger than Pluto)
! >ERIS: Dysmonia (Moon)!! PLUTO! ! 2005 FY9! ! 2003 EL01! SEDNA
! ORCUS! ! ! ! ! ! QUAOAR! VARUNA
! >if we include Pluto, we have to include ALL these

MINOR MEMBERS
ASTEROID BELT: cluster of rocks between Mars and Jupiter
COMETS: cluster of ice that orbit the sun
METEOR: Streak of light
METEOR SHOWER: streaks of light
METEORITE: when friction doesn’t make it disappear and it lands on the ground (the rock that forms)

*Earth’s orbit will pass by clouds of dust in outer space every year which is witnessed as a meteor shower
on earth
! -due to gravitational pull (cause friction): “falling star” effect
 NATSCI2 First Exam Notes

CONSTELLATIONS
1. ORION
2. BIG DIPPER

EARTH
-distance from sun 150M km (1 AU/astronomical unit)
-8.5minutes for light from sun to reach earth
-speed of light: 300,000km/sec (1light year=10T km)
-diameter: 12,756km
-mass 5.9x10^24kg
-speed: 29.8km/sec
-71% of earth’s surface is covered by water
-atmosphere: N2 (77%), O2 (22%), Ar (0.9%), CO2(0.03%), others (0.07%)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! LAYERS
! ! ! ! ! ! ! Crust (Solid Al, Si, Ca, Na)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! Upper Mantle (plastic, Al, Fe, Si, O)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! Mantle Transition Zone (solid)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! Lower Mantle (Solid Mg, Fe, Si, O)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! Outer Core (Liquid Fe, S)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! Inner (Solid Fe, Ni)
*No one has ever reached the mantle through drilling
! >as you approach mantle (temperature increase)
! >thinnest part is in the ocean

EARTH’S INTERNAL FEATURES

Lithosphere: rigid, cool, brittle (From Crust to Upper Mantle)
Asthenosphere: hot, plastic flow (Upper Mantle)
Mesosphere: rigid (Lower Mantle)
Outer Core: Extremely Hot Liquid (5,500 degrees C)
Inner Core: Solid

SHAPE OF THE EARTH

-oblate spherical: somewhat flattened at the poles and bulging on its side (equator)
! >points in our history where we had believed the world was flat

*Most ancient civilizations have recognized that the earth is a spherical object. During 5th century BC,
Aristotle offered 3 ARGUMENTS in support of a spherical planet (disproved theory that the earth was
FLAT):
1. When watching a ship approaching the shore, the first observable part of the ship was the top of the
mast not the whole ship = curved path
2. During the eclipse, earth’s shadow on the moon is spherical
3. Changing pattern of stars isn’t flat
*FLAT EARTH THEORY? minimal exploration of land: afraid of falling off

ERASTOSTHENES (273-193BC)
-Greek mathematician: earliest attempt to measure the earth using geometry
-circumference: !! C! ! stadia = 360 deg
! ! ! 4900! ! ! ! 7 deg
! about 46,620
 NATSCI2 First Exam Notes

-Although quite accurate, the error came from several assumptions:

1. Pole and Well directly point to the center of the Earth
2. Earth is a perfect sphere
3. Sun’s rays are parallel
*Earths actual circumference: 40,676km
*Earth’s radius: 6,378km

THE DISCOVERERS
1. MARCO POLO: Venice, Italy
-travels going to China (known at the time as Cathay)
-16/17years old: father/uncle are traders: bartered with the Chinese
! >Europe - China (travelled on foot along the SILK ROAD)
! >goes through Gopi desert (took 1 year)
-travel to Silk Road and back took 24years
-11 Millione: journal of travels
-friends with Kublai Khan
2. BARTOLEMEW DIAZ: Portuguese
! -before him, never thought to circumnavigate Africa to reach Asia by boat (stayed close to the coast)
! -Cape of Good Hope
3. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS: Spain
! -travelled Westward to reach India but reached America instead (thought the native Americans were
Indians)
! -islands in the Caribbean
4. MAGELLAN: Portuguese
! -discovered the tip of South America (Cape Horn)
! -named Pacific Ocean
5. JAMES COOK: English
! -travelled without a purpose where people never travelled before
! -discovered Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand

MAPS

MINERALS

WHY DO WE STUDY MINERALS?

1. Basic building blocks of all rocks
2. Many minerals have economic values
a. INDUSTRIAL USE
 NATSCI2 First Exam Notes

b. COMMERCIAL USE
! *ex. sapphire: 35k dollars
! *gemstones: pretty minerals like Jade (found here in RP)
3. Important in modern industry and in health issues

A Mineral is...
1. Naturally Occurring
2. Inorganic
3. Homogeneous Solid: distinct chemical composition
4. With a definite range of chemical composition
5. With an ordered atomic arrangement (When X-rayed)

DIFFERENT MINERAL COMPOSITION

Au (gold): a native element
FeS2 (pyrite): a mineral with 2 elements of fixed ratio
(MgFe)2SiO2: Olivine: a mineral with a definite composition range

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION of MINERALS

Of the 88naturally occurring elements, only SIX (6) elements comprise over 98% of the EARTH’S CRUST
! Oxygen! ! 46.6%! ! ! ! ! Calcium! ! 3.63%
! Silicon! ! 27.72%!! ! ! ! Sodium! ! 2.83%
! Aluminum! 8.13%! ! ! ! ! Potassium! 2.59%
! Iron (Fe)! 5.10%! ! ! ! ! Magnesium! 2.09%

Consequently, minerals can be grouped by composition

! Silicates!! ! ! ! ! ! ! Halides
! Oxides! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Sulfates
! Hydroxides! ! ! ! ! ! ! Native Elements
! Carbonates

ALLOTROPES: varying internal arrangement but same

! -Different bonding arrangements between atoms result in different structures with different chemical
and physical properties
! Graphite! ! ! Composition of Atoms: only arrangement changes
! Diamond

IDENTIFICATION OF MINERALS
1. ! ! ! : chemical composition
2. X-ray internal structure

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES of MINERALS

1. COLOR: how light is reflected by the mineral
2. STREAK: color of the mineral in powdered form
3. LUSTER: shine or gloss: glassy, metallic etc
4. OPACITY: how much light enters the mineral: transparent, translucent, opaque
5. CLEAVAGE: presence of planes of weakness in the mineral
6. HARDNESS: ability of the mineral to resist being scratched
! softest !TALC! ! ! ! ORTHOCLASE
! ! GYPSIUM! ! ! QUARTZ
 NATSCI2 First Exam Notes

! ! CALCITE! ! ! TOPAZ
! ! FLOURITE! ! ! CORUNDUM-RULOY!
! ! APATITE! ! ! DIAMOND! hardest

METALLIC and NON-METALLIC MINERALS

! GOLD! -soft
! ! -hardness of 2
! NICKEL
! COPPER

5 MAJOR PLACES IN RP
1. Baguio
2. Camarines Norte
3. Masbate
4. Surigao
5. Davao

*MINE SPILL: environmental issue related to mining

*Money: Tumbaga gold, Pilonato (Spanish Time), Coins, Diamond (1 carat:300mg not karat)
*Gemstones: SAPPHIRE, RUBY, TOPAZ, EMERALD, GARNET

IGNEOUS ROCKS
-igneous minerals form igneous rocks
! >inexpensive and common
-form from molten materials that rise from magma (mantle) that reach the rust level as lava
! >through openings they come out (volcanoes)

SILICATES: building blocks (S104)

-silica tetrahedron
-comprised of silicon and oxygen
-the most common minerals in the earth’s crust
! PLAGIOCLASE
! QUARTZ: used to make glass windows
! POTASSIUM FELDSPAR
! BIOTITE: black mineral: common igneous rocks
! AMPHIBOTE
! PYROXINE
! OLIVINE

MAGMA
-silicate melt below mantle
-composed of silicon and oxygen
-1200’C: when 700’C solidifies
-cool down: igneous rocks
 NATSCI2 First Exam Notes

TWO KINDS of ROCKS

PLUTONIC ROCKS VOLCANIC ROCKS

solidifies BEFORE reaching surface solidifies AT or NEAR the surface

slow rate of cooling (years) rapid cooling

produce large visible minerals because they have microscopic size minerals
time to grow since its a slow rate of cooling
-can reach 1cm

granite basal

*Magma have a fairly HOMOGENOUS COMPOSITION. Yet, DIFFERENT IGNEOUS ROCKS form from it.
1. CRUSTAL MELTING: incorporates materials from crust to it through melting
! -”pure” magma from Basalts
2. MAGMATIC DIFFERENTIATION/ FRACTIONATION
! -starts as magma, cools down, new minerals form and then a part splits off, then the composition is
! different
! ! >if nothing happens to the magma from the cooling process, SAME composition of minerals
! ! prevails

Volcanic Plutonic Temp. of Magma

BASALT GABBRO High Temp

ANDESITE DIORITE Medium Temp

RHYOLITE GRANITE Low Temp (800’C)

!
BASALTS
-black rocks, most rocks in RP
-found in Sierra Madre mountain range
-written in Basalt: inscribed
! >ROSETTA STONE of Egypt: written in 3 parts (3 different translations)
! ! figured out how to read hieroglyphics
! ! 3 languages:! Hieroglyphics
! ! ! ! ! ! Ancient Egyptian
! ! ! ! ! ! Modern Egyptian
! >STELA of MESHA of Israel: first mention of god (Christianity)
! >ROMAN ALTAR
! >NUBIAN RED SPHINX

GRANITE
-pink/flesh in color
-found in Alps mountain range (Switzerland, Europe)
-softer than Basalts: easier to deal with for building or sculpting compared to Basalts
 NATSCI2 First Exam Notes

ANDESITE
-gray in color
-hybrid between granite and basalt
-found in Andes mountain range

VOLCANIC GLASS: OBSIDIAN

-formed from high temperature magma that was quenched (1500’C)
-very hot -> very cold
-rises so fast, encounters something cold like earth’s atmosphere or water/ice
-no minerals: just elements

VOLCANOES
Mt. Mayon, Albay: most perfect cone of a volcano in the world

TWO TYPES OF ERUPTED MATERIALS

1. LAVA FLOWS: magma, molten materials
2. PYROCLASTIC MATERIALS: ashes, boulders, sand-sized particles
! -Mayon erupts both kinds: frequently every 7 years
! -picture perfect materials

TYPES OF LAVA FLOWS

1. AA ! : viscous (thick), doesn’t flow very fast
! ! : top part solidifies, crust forms (jagged rocks)
2. PAHOEHOE! : less viscous, surfaces that are relatively smooth
! ! ! ! : Hawaiian terms

PYROCLASTIC ERUPTIONS
-flow, dense: more dangerous than lava flow (easier to outrun lava flows but upon contact...death)
1. AIR FALL: to the atmosphere
! Ash: 300’C
! Lapili
! Bombs: molten materials into the atmosphere: solidifies: falls and becomes aerodynamic and becomes
! sharp
2. PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
! Pyroclastic materials + magmatic fluids and gases
! -flows down like a stream water
! -most dangerous: flow down straight bringing gases
! *Mayon: first time volcanologists saw pyroclastic flows
! *79AD Mt. Vesuvius, Italy: devastated Pompeii (wiped out)
! ! >Pyroclastic Flow: like ash that sticks to you, end up preserved as “sculptures”
!
TWO FACTORS THAT CONTROL THE ERUPTION
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Gas Content
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! High! ! ! ! ! Low
Viscosity of!! ! High! ! explosive pyroclastic eruption! ! mild pyroclastic explosion
Magma Rising! ! Low!! ! Lava Fountains! ! ! ! Mild Lava Flows
 NATSCI2 First Exam Notes

TYPES OF VOLCANOES
-based on shape of volcano
1. SHIELD! : large volcanoes with low slopes
! ! ! : only erupt lava flows (scattered evenly)
! ! ! : most are in Hawaii (ex. Kilawea: tourist attraction to watch lava eruptions)
2. CINDERCONE! : only erupt pyroclastic materials (airfall deposits only)
! ! ! ! : flanks are made of ash
! ! ! ! : steep slope (like sand), quite small compared to shield
! ! ! ! : only erupt once, ash remains
! ! ! ! : not very dangerous, grow from places fast
3. COMPOSITE! : aka STRATOVOLCANO
! ! ! ! : sides are comprised of layers of alternating lava flows and pyroclastic materials
! ! ! ! : ex. Mt. Fuji, Japan: Covered in ice
4. CALDERA!: formed from composite volcanoes
! ! ! : large crater (caldera) borne out of large eruption of a composite volcano (“blew its top off”)
! ! ! : ex. Taal! : hosts other volcanoes, other craters around and underneath the lake
! ! ! ! ! ! : caldera within a caldera
5. MAAR! : low-lying cindercones, single eruption, just form lakes
! ! ! : ex. 7 Lakes of San Pablo
6. RIFT VALLEY : crust is separating: exposing magma (East Africa)
7. MID OCEAN VALLEY : if under ocean

SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING ERUPTION

1. Steam Rising
2. Temp in nearby lakes increase
3. Sulfur Dioxide in air increases
4. Mild earthquakes
5. Fractures in volcano
6. Bulging of flanks in volcano
7. Animals panic

NOTABLE ERUPTIONS
Nevado, del Ruiz, Colombia (1985)! ! 25,000 deaths! ! ! Lahar
Tambora, Indonesia (1815)! ! ! ! 92,000 deaths! ! ! Starvation
Mt. Pinatubo (second largest ever) (1991)! 300 deaths
Krakatau, Indonesia (largest eruption)! 30,000 deaths! ! ! Tsunami
! >used to be an island
Lake Nyos, Cameroon (1956)! ! ! ! ! ! Excreted CO2: suffocated

INDONESIA: 79 active volcanoes: Volcano Capital of the World

PHILIPPINES: 23 active volcanoes, 200 inactive volcanoes (possible to erupt)

LAHAR DEPOSITS: ash materials deposited at the flanks of the volcano

-happens AFTER the eruption where rain water washes them down
-consistency is like slurry of cement
1. DEBRIS FLOW
2. HYPERCONCENTRATED FLOW
 NATSCI2 First Exam Notes

THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS

-started late 1800s, early 1900s
-discovered peculiar things about earth’s surface:
! 1. COASTLINES OF CONTINENTS FIT LIKE JIGSAW PUZZLES
! ! *ALFRED WEGENER! : proposed CONTINENTAL DRIFT theory (1900s)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! : continents are moving
! ! ! ! ! ! ! : wasn’t accepted by scientific community at the time
! ! ! ! ! ! ! : reason they fit was that before they were just one big land mass
! ! ! ! ! ! ! : didn’t propose a mechanism for it = REJECTED
! ! ! ! ! ! ! : proposed that tides of ocean pushed it but he was wrong
! ! *CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
! ! ! PANGEA : Supercontinent that was split in 2
! ! ! 1. LAURASIA (northern): today N.A, Europe, Asia
! ! ! 2. GONDWANA (southern): today S.A, Africa, India, Antarctica
! 2. MOUNTAIN RANGES CONTINUE ACROSS OCEANS
! ! -underwater mountains
! 3. ROCK TYPES AND STRUCTURES MATCH WHEN CONTINENTS ARE FITTER TOGETHER
! ! -coal deposits in antarctica
! ! -GLACIAL STRIATIONS: scratches: evidence of glaciers in the past
! ! ! >found in Southern Australia, S. America, India (no glaciers here): proof that they were
! ! ! connected
! 4. FOSSIL EVIDENCE
! ! -understandable when all continents are fit together
! ! *MESOSSAURUS: swimming aquatic reptile kind of like an alligator (280M yrs. ago)
! ! ! >found only in 2 places: S. America and Southern Africa (Split by Atlantic ocean)
! ! ! >no reason to start another population across the ocean
! ! *Glossopteris Fern Fossils found in S. America, India, Australia, Antarctica

ONE EXPLANATION: CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

! !
LAND BRIDGES?
! -how animals supposedly crossed oceans but IMPOSSIBLE in long distances (ocean wide)
! -True only: only occur in small scales, between islands near each other
! -small narrow strips of land, when low-tide will be exposed
! ! >ex. Stegodon: elephants found in Antipolo
! ! ! Teeth of tigers in Palawan
! -Large-scale Land bridges? ATLANTIS (supposedly between S. America and S. Africa): MYTH

MAURICE EWING and the RV Atlantis

-discovery of the mid-oceanic ridges through seismic imaging
-founder of the Lamont-Doherty Earth observatory, Columbia University

SEA-FLOOR SPREADING
-mid-ocean ridge (mountain)
-tall, long mountain range, in the middle there’s a crack/ fracture
! >evidence that earth’s crust is spreading: magma dries up and solidifies and pushed continents apart
! >10cm/year
 NATSCI2 First Exam Notes

TYPES OF PLATES
1. CONTINENTAL PLATES : thick (40-70km) plates, made of granite
2. OCEANIC PLATES : thin (10km) plate, heavy, made of basalt

PLATE BOUNDARIES
1. DIVERGENT: 2 plates avoid each other
! -cause birth of new oceans
! -RIFT ZONE: Cont-Cont
! -MID OCEAN RIDGE: Oceanic-Oceanic
2. CONVERGENT: approach/collide
! -Collision: RISE
! -Cont-Cont Collision: India & Asia created Himalayan mountain range (Asia used to have a coastline)
! ! >India is still moving northward (rising Himalaya)
! -Cont-Oceanic: oceanic (since thinner and heavier) will dive under continent: SUBDUCTION
! -Oceanic-Oceanic: one will dive underneath, melting will occur - MAGMA: underwater volcanoes and will
! eventually get exposed from underwater = ISLAND ARC
! ! >ex. Philippines: Island Arc
3. STRIKE-SLIP: neither collide nor avoid, glide past each other
! -San Andrews Fault: Pacific sliding past California
! -earthquakes result when intense sliding past

MANTLE CONVECTION
-Mantle: fluid: circulates because of variations of temp
! ! higher mantle: cooler than lower mantle

*Pacific Ring of Fire: Pacific plate is subducting (Philippines is part)

*Earthquake Ring: Palawan only part of Philippines without earthquakes
! -due to SUBDUCTION: Plates diving under Philippines
! -Luzon: Philippines plate, South China Sea plate
! -Negros: Sulu Sea Plate
! -Mindanao
! -these plates are squishing the Philippines