Radioactive Isotopes

There are some isotopes of elements that tend to break down spontaneously, these are considered
radioactive isotopes. Some radioactive isotopes have important roles and functions in todays society:

Carbon-14 is used from carbon dating

Cobalt-60 is used for radiotherapy
Iodine-131 and Iodine-125 as medical tracers

Mass Spectrometry

Figure 2.1 Diagram of a Mass Spectrometer

In order to measure the characteristics of individual molecules, a mass spectrometer converts them to
ions so that they can be moved about and manipulated by external electric and magnetic fields. The
three essential functions of a mass spectrometer, and the associated components, are:

1. A small sample is ionized, usually to cations by loss of an electron. The Ion Source
2. The ions are sorted and separated according to their mass and charge. The Mass Analyzer
3. The separated ions are then measured, and the results displayed on a chart. The Detector
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Figure 2.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Some relevant equations/formulas:

= = 2
= =


=

Atomic Emission Spectra

Continuous spectrum Contains all the wavelengths of light.

Line (discrete) spectrum Contains only some of the wavelengths of light.

Absorption spectrum is fully colored with black lines, emission spectrum is fully black with
colored lines.

Figure 2.3 Absorption and Emission Spectrum for Hydrogen

Note: there are a cluster of lines

around 400 nm (blue) and one like out
towards 650 (red)
Electron Configuration

The electrons in an atom fill up its atomic orbitals according to the Aufbau Principle; "Aufbau," in
German, means "building up." The Aufbau Principle, which incorporates the Pauli Exclusion Principle
and Hund's Rule prescribes a few simple rules to determine the order in which electrons fill atomic
orbitals:

1. Electrons always fill orbitals of lower energy first. 1s is filled before 2s, and 2sbefore 2p.
2. The Pauli Exclusion Principle states no two electrons within a particular atom can have identical
quantum numbers. In function, this principle means that if two electrons occupy the same orbital, they
must have opposite spin.
3. Hund's Rule states that when an electron joins an atom and has to choose between two or more
orbitals of the same energy, the electron will prefer to enter an empty orbital rather than one already
occupied. As more electrons are added to the atom, these electrons tend to half-fill orbitals of the
same energy before pairing with existing electrons to fill orbitals.

Figure 2.4 Energy Levels of Orbitals

When naming it is important to follow the order from

top to bottom as you write.

For example, the electron configuration of Vanadium:

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3
[Ar] 4s23d3
Shapes of Orbitals

Figure 2.5 shape of s-orbital

Figure 2.6 shape of p-orbitals

Figure 2.7 shape

of d-orbitals
Quantum Numbers

The relation of a particular electron to the nucleus can be described through a series of four numbers,
called the Quantum Numbers.

1. Principal QN (n = 1, 2, 3 . . .) - related to size and energy of the orbital.

2. Angular Momentum QN (l = 0 to n - 1) - relates to shape of the orbital.
3. Magnetic QN (ml = l to -l) - relates to orientation of the orbital in space relative to other
orbitals.
4. Electron Spin QN (ms = +1/2, -1/2) - relates to the spin states of the electrons.