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http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/Grad_Sch/McNair/Summer03/feifer.pdf.

The History of Black Feminism and Womanism: Their Emergence from the Modern
Womens Movement

Megan Feifer
Dr. Jennifer Maher

Introduction

Within the Modern Feminist Movement, white women have been accused of
focusing on oppression in terms of gender while ignoring issues of race,
class, and sexuality. Alongside defining all womens experiences in terms of
their own, this homogenizing excludes issues concerning the interlocking
oppressors of race, class, and gender. In resistance to this
marginalization, theories of black feminism and womanism were forged. These
two theoretical concepts were developed to call attention to the multiple
oppressions experienced by women of color, reflecting and defining their
everyday experiences in their own terms.

The intent of this study is to examine the history and origin of black
feminism and womanism, defining key issues affecting the lives of black
women and women of color. The study will examine the factors that contribute
to the makeup and development of the political consciousness of black women
and women of color. I will be noting the prominent distinctions between the
black feminist and womanist movement from the modern feminist movement, and
I will examine the specific causes for the separation of these ideologies
from one another. This research will identify key terms in the theoretical
body of knowledge available, and it will identify eminent concerns that
black women and women of color face in their everyday lives, these concerns
several authors argue, have been excluded from white modern feminist theory
and its movement. I would like to note that this outline is brief and in no
way is it able to comprise the entire richness of the history of black
feminist and womanist thought.

This literature review will examine six prominent issues affecting black
women and women of color. Of course these are just a select few, as again,
this project could in now way encompass all of the factors of the struggles
facing black women and women of color. This project instead will present a
brief historical background of some of the cultural oppressors of black
women. It will go on to examine what has been debated by several writers as
the exclusion of race from modern feminist ideological thought. Then, I will
define both black feminism and womanism, and explain their purpose. I will
then examine specific topics reflected in the literature read that are of
importance to both black feminist thought and womanist thought. These
concepts include the lack of women of color in Academia and specific issues
regarding sexuality. I will discuss what the various writers I have read for
this research, confer what is to be the future of black feminist and
womanist thought.

Literature Review

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I). Black Womens Cultural Oppressions

A). Race, class, and gender as interlocking oppressors in the lives of black
women and women of color.

The racism, classism, and sexism associated with each womans experience of
being black and female in the U.S. are critical measurements of their
oppression -- Gloria I. Joseph, and Jill Lewis in "Common Differences:
Conflicts in Black and White feminist perspectives"

As this quotation suggests, the black female experience is characterized by


the intrinsically linked oppressors of race, class, and gender. These
oppressors are interwoven into social structures, and work together to
define the history of the lives of black women and women of color. In the
introduction to Words of Fire: An Anthology of African American Feminist
Thought, by Beverly Guy-Sheftall, the author states, black women
experience a special kind of suffering in this country which is racist,
sexist, and classist because of their dual racial and gender identity and
their limited access to economic resources (2). According to writers like
bell hooks, the history of these cultural oppressors can be traced back to
slavery. Within her book, Aint I A Woman: black women and feminism, hooks
asserts that, As far back as slavery, white people established a social
hierarchy based on race and sex, that ranked white men first, white women
second, though sometimes equal to black men who ranked third, and black
women last (53). Due to the scope of these oppressors and the long history
associated with them, writers and theorists like hooks reason that black
women have developed a distinct perspective and cognizance that provides
them with keen survival skills, including utilizing everyday strategies of
resistance. In the article, Multiple Jeopardy, Multiple Consciousness: The
Context of a Black Feminist Ideology, Deborah King states, black womens
survival depends on her ability to use all the economic, social, and
cultural resources available to her from both the larger society and within
her community (298). In other words, the particular oppressions black women
and women of color face have lead to specific perspectives on reality; these
viewpoints are formed out of the linking oppressors of race, class, and
gender.

[1 The decision of whether or not to use the term black or African American
has been based on how the various authors read utilized either term. Also,
the decision to capitalize both black feminist, and womanist, was based on
the authors usage of capitalization.]

B). The social control of black women and women of color

Systematic devaluation of black womanhood was not simply a direct


consequence of race hatred, it was a calculated method of social
control ---bell hooks in "Aint I A Woman: black women and feminism"

The quotation above by bell hooks references the use of social structures
utilized to degrade black women as a means of social control. The specific
oppressions African American women have experienced have historically tried
to debase their characters. In the book, Women of Color in U.S. Society,
edited by Maxine Baca-Zinn and Bonnie Thornton-Dill, the argument is posed
that women of color are subjected to cultural assaults or systematic
attacks on the institutions and social organizations that are fundamental to
the maintenance and flourishing of a groups culture (5). In other words,
black women have been defined and categorized in dehumanizing terms, terms
employed to attack the essence of black womens sense of personal integrity
and self worth. Various writers argue that historically black women have
been stereotyped as sex objects and breeders and that black womens personal
growth has been impeded by the continuing myths of the black matriarchy, a
myth accusing black women of emasculating black men. These stereotypes and
myths have acted as modes of social control in their demotion of black women
s characters. In Linda LaRues article, The Black Movement and Womens
Liberation, LaRue argues that concepts like the myth of the matriarchy and
the emasculating black female have been utilized for the sole purpose of
making the black woman feel ashamed of her strength (171). Alongside the
defaming of the black womans character and esteem has been the systematic
attempt to discredit black womens ability to define their life experiences

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in their own words. Carol Boyce-Davies, in the book Moving Beyond


Boundaries: International Dimensions of Black Womens Writing, argues,
There have been systematic attempts to discredit us as credible
representatives of ourselves (4). Writers like Davies explain how black
womens lives have been defined by specific oppressions and social controls
aimed at libeling their characters, discrediting their voices, and
eliminating their personal strengths.

II). The Exclusion of Race from the ideology of the Modern Womens Movement

A). Critique of White Feminism

In addition to the cultural stereotyping black women have faced, various


authors suggest that women of color have dealt with the exclusion of the
issue of race from the Modern White Womens Movement. The modern womens
movement has been criticized as inadequately confronting the issues facing
black women and women of color. The womens movement has also been accused
of concentrating only on the perspectives and concerns of white middle-class
women. The various writers I read suggest that black women and women of
color have antithetically resisted what they have perceived to be the
disparaged treatment of their concerns by the modern womens movement. These
authors argue that women of colors concerns and struggles have been
marginalized, slighted, and even ignored within the agenda of the womens
movement. Therefore, black women and women of color have expressed
reluctance in aligning themselves with it. It has also been argued that
often times black women have avoided the movement based on fear of
interrogation by their own community members who linked racism with the
womens movement. The modern womens movement has been further criticized as
being irrelevant, and being only concerned with the class interests and
betterment of middle-class white women. In Michelle Wallaces article,
Anger in Isolation: A Black Feminists Search for Sisterhood, she belabors
the point that the womens movement, enlists the support of black women to
build credibility (225). In hooks article, Black women shaping Feminist
Theory, she contends that, the central tenet in modern feminist thought
asserts that women share a common oppressor (273). Within this article,
hooks goes on to describe the emphasis on common oppression as a strategy
less influenced by politicization, than by appropriation. According to
hooks, this form of appropriation minimizes factors like class, race, and
sexual preference, and gives conservative members in the movement a platform
to address their class interests.

Another key argument against the modern womens movement by the writers I
analyzed is that it defined and analyzed oppressions in insular terms,
meaning the womens movement defined oppression as stemming from unitary
factors rather than systemic factors. In doing this, the movement played a
key role in undermining and marginalizing black women and women of colors
struggles, struggles inherently linked as triple oppressors. Deborah K. King
states that this monist or individualistic approach of examining oppressors
tries to minimize important social relations that act as oppressors,
breaking them down and dealing with them in solitary terms like, the
economy, state, culture, or gender, terms that view oppression singularly,
rather than systemic (299-300). This monistic approach refuses to recognize
the interplay of various oppressions, a concept vital to the black female
experience. Finally, hooks, in the book, Aint I A Woman, arrives at the
conclusion that, the womens movement had not drawn black and white women
closer together, instead it exposed the fact that white women were not
willing to relinquish their support of white supremacy to support the issues
of all women (136). What this means is that white women are accused of
refusing to let go of their white privilege in order align themselves with
the struggles of all women.

As I have demonstrated, these various writers suggest that the modern women
s movement has excluded the issues of crucial importance to the lives of
black women and women of color. Therefore, out of this marginalization black
women forged their own terms and ideologies, the black feminist movement.
Black feminism was created in order to focus on the specific issues that
affect and shape the lives of women of color.

B). Defining Black Feminism

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Black Feminism is not White Feminism in Black Face---Audre Lorde in


"Sister Outsider"

1). Simultaneity of Oppressions

As we have examined so far, black feminist thought was conceived out of


resistance to the exclusion of race issues from the agenda of the modern
womens movement. The basis of black feminist thought focused on pertinent
issues that defined the black female experience that had been previously
disregarded by the womens movement. According to the literature, black
women came together to form their own organizations, these organizations
focused on the issues of immediacy in their lives. They established agendas
dealing with several themes, according to Gloria T. Hull and Barbara Smith,
in the introductory chapter, The Politics of Black Womens Studies, in the
book, All the Women are White, All the Blacks are men, But Some of Us Are
Brave; Black Womens Studies, These themes included the necessity of black
feminisms total commitment to the liberation of black women and its
recognition of black women as valuable and complex human beings (xxi).
Other important tenets of black feminist thought include the political
awareness of how race, class, and gender work together as oppressive forces.
Barbara Smith states in the article, Some Home Truths of the Contemporary
Black Feminist Movement, that the concept of the simultaneity of
oppression is the crux of a black feminist understanding of political
reality (260). In other words, the premise of black feminist thought
consists of the personal and political awareness of how race, class, and
gender work simultaneously as oppressors, not in the monistic terms
described by King.

C). Black Feminism and Life Experience

Black feminist thought functions as an ever changing and evolving theory,


encompassing the struggles and concepts of movements of resistance prior to
its inception. According to Joy James, in her text, ShadowBoxing:
Representations of Black Feminist Politics, Black women created and
continue to create feminisms out of militant national liberation and or
anti-racist movements (75). According to authors like Linda LaRue, women of
colors life experiences are linked to deeply threaded oppressional
institutions, and therefore are different than the struggles of white women.
In LaRues article, The Black Movement and Womens Liberation, she reasons
that it is impossible to analogize black oppression with the plight of the
American white woman. Instead, LaRue maintains that the, American white
woman has had a better opportunity to live a free and fulfilling life, both
mentally and physically, than any other group of people in the United
States (164). Black feminist thought in essence represents a multiple
state of lived consciousness. According to the various authors read, this
particular awareness or consciousness requires first of all, an exponential
wisdom and knowledge regarding the dynamics of race, class, and gender
oppression. Patricia Hill-Collins states in her book, Black Feminist
Thought, that Living life as an African American woman is a necessary
prerequisite for producing black feminist thought, because within black
womens communities thought is validated and produced with reference to a
particular set of historical, material, and epistemological conditions
(230). Authors like Hill-Collins, argue that these conditions formed by the
combination of race, class, and gender oppression mold the life perspectives
and experiences of women of color.

Therefore, black feminism is comprised of theory created by and for black


women and women of color. Black feminist theory provides space for black
women and women of color to express their concerns in validating
surroundings. Black feminist thought addresses the aspects according to
authors like Hill-Collins and hooks, that have been marginalized and
excluded within the white womens movement, and links them to personal
experience.

III). Womanism

A). Alice Walkers Definition

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Womanist is to Feminist as purple is to lavender ---Alice Walker In Search


of Our Mothers Gardens

The definition of womanism was created by the author and theorist, Alice
Walker, whom defines a womanist as a black feminist or feminist of color, an
outrageous and audacious woman who is interested in learning and questioning
all things. A womanist is a responsible woman who loves other women both
sexually and non-sexually, a woman who appreciates and prefers womens
culture, strength and emotional flexibility. The theory of womanism is
committed to the survival and wholeness of all people both men and women.
Rather than supporting separatism, womanism promotes universalism.

This particular theory of womanism, since several have been adapted from
this basic definition, created a space for black women and women of color
who found themselves incapable of identifying with both white feminism and
black feminism. The theory of womanism allowed women of color space for
dialogue and an opportunity for them to name themselves and their own
movement. Authors like Aduke Adebayo and Linda LaRue, discuss that fact that
even though black feminist thought emerged from the racism and exclusion of
white feminist thought, black feminist theory was still seen as elitist and
exclusive to some women of color, whether it is the inability to hear the
word feminist and not think of racist white women, promoting an irrelevant
movement, or the class hierarchies established in black feminist theory.
Womanism spoke in terms that are rooted in the particular culture of black
women and women of color, including the specific history of racial and
gender oppression. Womanism is given defining characteristics by Ula Taylor,
in her article, Making Waves: The Theory and Practice of Black Feminism,
she states that, womanism is a sweeping theoretical construct and black
women tend to select the most attractive parts of the theory to fit their
needs (27). Womanism, like black feminism provides a space for black women
and women of color to create dialogue in a non threatening environment. The
difference with the term womanist is that it does not carry the historical
connotations that the word feminist does. Womanism is seen as an
affirmative, embracing ideology that celebrates the lives and achievements
of black women and women of color. Alongside creating dialogue, authors and
theorists have examined specific issues from the standpoint of both black
feminism and womanism.

IV). Women of Color in Academia

A). Where are all the women of color in Academia?

Most writing on the topic of the lack of women of color in academia suggests
that academia has traditionally been a realm reserved for white men,
however,the field of womens studies initially provided a space to explore
issues affecting women. According to Patricia Hill-Collins, Womens
studies have offered one major challenge to the hegemonic ideas of elite
white men (7). However, these writers argue, the experiences of black women
and women of color have once again been marginalized and excluded. Authors
like Hill-Collins state that theories in womens studies that were thought
to be universally applicable to all women, upon closer examination revealed
that these theories only focused on the history and struggles of white,
middle-class woman. Authors like Hill-Collins and bell hooks assert that
women s studies needs to recognize the historical contributions made by
women of color to the various womens movements. Also, these authors content
that the black female experience must not be ignored, and that women of
color can and should stimulate a consciousness and awareness defined by
their experiences that could expand the scope of womens studies. As
Hill-Collins states, Black women remain outsiders within, individuals whose
marginality provides a distinctive angle of visions on the theories put
forth by such intellectual communities (12). In summary, authors like
Hill-Collins and hooks are stating that the particular perspectives black
women have will contribute and expand the theoretical and epistemological
field of womens studies.

Recognizing the unheard voices of women of color is as equally important to


theorists as making sure that feminist dialogue is understood in terms that
are easily identifiable to all people. According to bell hooks, in her book,
Talking Back, what is critical to academia is not only recognizing the needs

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and living contexts of other women, but also being aware of the fact that
Production and dissemination of feminist theory in forms that alienate

has promoted the continued growth of a feminist, anti-intellectualism (37).


She argues that academic ideas must be described in terms that are easily
understood, and in terms that can be applied at the grass-roots level of
activism. It does not make logical sense to create liberation ideologies
that are not utilized by all people. The argument of an elitist, racist
academia is a prominent theme of the various authors read, speaking from the
perspective of either black feminism or womanism.

V). Sexuality

A). Homosexuality and Feminism in the Black Community

Heterosexual privilege is usually the only privilege that black women have.
None of us have racial or sexual privilege; almost none of us have class
privilege: maintaining straightness is our last resort ---Barbara Smith
in "The Truth that Never Hurts"

According to authors like Cheryl Clarke, homophobia in the black community


is simply a reflection of the homophobic culture in which we live. In her
article, The Failure to Transform Homophobia in the Black Community, she
states, Like all Americans, Black Americans live in a sexually repressive
culture. Many Black Americans have assimilated and compensated the puritan
view that sex is for procreation, occurs only between men and women, and is
only valid within the confines of heterosexual marriage (197). Therefore
the issue of lesbianism is prominent to black feminist and womanist thought.
In the book Talking Back, bell hooks talks about the treatment of lesbianism
in the black community, stating that lesbians were talked about solely in
negative terms. The homophobia directed at lesbians was rooted in deep
religious and moral beliefs that women defined their womanness through
bearing children (121). Others, like Clarke, argue that the homophobia
evident in the black community is further reflective of a larger society
whose rigid sexual roles and gender roles have historically been set up
within the framework and confines of puritanical religious beliefs that
promote hegemonic heterosexism.

VI). Where We Stand: The Future

A). The future of black feminism and womanism

Womens liberationists, white and black, will always be at odds with one
another as long as our ideas of liberation is based on having the power
white men have ---bell hooks in "Aint I A Woman: black women and feminism"

In this quote, hooks is asserting that within the ideology of feminism,


whetherit is black feminism, white feminism, or womanism, there will not be
a joining together of the movements as long as the ideal goal is the
obtainment of accouterments within a system that is based on white
supremacy. She implies that feminist/womanist politics are revolutionary in
their basic definitions, and therefore cant be affixed to the condition and
status of society as is. Also vital in importance to the future of
feminist/womanist ideology is the willingness of each specific agenda
toaddress all issues affecting women, especially issues said to have been
previouslymarginalized. The progression of these movements will hang in the
balance by theirability to come together and work together to redefine basic
premises to include all womens struggles. Concurrent to hooks in theory are
authors Gloria Joseph and Jill Lewis. In their text, Common Differences:
Conflicts in Black and White FeministPerspectives, they state that the
underlying premise to any womens movement must be thought of in terms of
not being monolithic, homogenous or centralized in the organization
representing one set of attitudes and struggles, rather the movement [should
include] a wide range of groups operating in different contextswith
different priorities and political visions (49). In other words, womens
liberation ideologies and movements must be all encompassing and
continuously evolving.And that it is the responsibility of each scholar and
activist both within the movement and in academia: to continuously critique,
examine, and question the tenets and beliefs of both the feminist and

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womanist movements.

Methodology

The Methodology of this study has been based on reading various texts to
find the broad themes and perspectives on the topic of black feminism and
womanism. Once a basic foundation of knowledge was formed, I began
highlighting key terms and concepts that are vital to each ideology. These
selected terms focus on issues that are constant oppressors in the daily
lives of black women and women of color, issues that define their political
consciousness and personal experiences. These key terms were used in
comparing and contrasting the differences between black feminism, womanism,
and white feminism, and these terms were also utilizedto examine the key
agents that caused the ideological separation of black feminist and
womanist, both from each other and from what has been termed white
feminist thought.

Research Findings

The concepts of black feminism and womanism were created to address the
issues that the white feminist movement refused to, the issues pertinent
to the everyday lives of black women and women of color. Black feminist and
womanist ideologies were forged in resistance to the racism black women and
women of color experienced in the white feminist movement. Black feminist
and womanist thought is committed to the liberation of black women and women
of color from the oppressors of race, class, and gender, encompassing both
political cognizance and the action needed to achieve this liberation. Black
feminist thought and womanist thought represents multiple state of
consciousness, with evolving theories that recognize the resistance
movements of the past and their contributions to the foundations of black
feminist and womanist thought in the present and in the future. Finally, the
terms of black feminism and womanism celebrate black women and women of
color, recognizing a history, and validating it as being both valuable and
complex.

Works Cited

Adebayo,Aduke. Feminism & Black Womens Creative Writing: Theory, Practice


and Criticism. Agodi, Ibadan: AMD Publishers, 1996

Baca-Zinn, Maxine, and Thornton-Dill, Bonnie, eds. Women of Color in


U.S.Society. Philidelphia: Temple University Press, 1994

Boyce-Davies, Carol, and Ogundipe-Leslie, Molara. Moving Beyond


BoundariesVolume 1 : International Dimensions of Black Womens Writing. New
York: New York University Press.

Guy-Sheftall, Beverly. Ed. Introduction: The Evolution of Feminist


Consciousness among African American Women. Words of Fire: An Anthology of
African American Feminist Thought. Ed. Beverly Guy-Sheftall. The New Press:
New York. 1995.

Guy-Sheftall, Beverly. Ed. Words of Fire: An Anthology of African American


Feminist Thought. The New Press: New York. 1995

Hill-Collins, Patricia. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and


the Politics of Empowerment. Volume 2. Perspectives on Gender. New York:
Routeledge, 1991

hooks, bell. Aint I A Woman: black women and feminism. Boston, MA: South
End Press, 1981.

hooks, bell. Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory. Words of Fire: An


Anthology of African American Feminist Thought. Ed. Beverly
Guy-Sheftall.Ed. The New Press: New York. 1995. 270-282.

---.Talking Back: Thinking feminist, Thinking black. Boston, MA: South End
Press, 1989.

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Hull, Gloria T, and Bell-Scott, Patricia.eds. All the Women are White, All
the Blacksare men, But Some of Us Are Brave; Black Womens Studies. New
York. The Feminist Press, 1982.

James, Joy. ShadowBoxing: Representations of Black Feminist Politics. New


York: St. Martins Press, 1999.

Joseph, Gloria I, and Lewis, Jill. Common Differences: Conflicts in Black


and WhiteFeminist Perspectives. Boston, MA: South End Press, 1981.

King, K. Deborah. Multiple Jeopardy, Multiple Consciousnesses: The Context


of Black Feminist Ideology. Words of Fire: An Anthology of African
American Feminist Thought. Ed. Beverly Guy-Sheftall. The New Press: New
York. 1995. 294-317.

LaRue, Linda. The Black Movement and Womens Liberation. Words of Fire: An
Anthology of African American Feminist Thought. Ed. Beverly Guy-Sheftall.
The New Press: New York. 1995. 164-173

Lorde, Audre. Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches. Trumansburg, New York:
The Crossing Press, 1984.

Smith, Barbara. Ed. HomeGirls: A Black Feminist Anthology. New York: Kitchen
Table: Women of Color Press, 1983

Smith, Barbara. Some Home Truths on the Contemporary Black Feminist


Feminist Thought. Ed. Beverly Guy-Sheftall. The New Press: New York. 1995.
294-317.

Taylor, Ula. Y. Making Waves: The Theory and Practice of Black Feminism.
The Black Scholar. Volume 28, No. 2 (1998): 18-27

Walker, Alice. In Search of Our Mothers Gardens. San Diego, New York,
London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, 1967

Wallace, Michelle. Anger in Isolation: A Black Feminists Search for


Sisterhood.Words of Fire: An Anthology of African American Feminist
Thought. Ed. Beverly Guy-Sheftall. The New Press: New York. 1995. 220-227

Selected List of Works Consulted

Bobo, Jaqueline.Ed. Black Feminist Cultural Criticism Blackwell Publishers:


Malden, Massachusetts.2001.

Hernandez, Daisy and Rehman, Bushra. Ed. Colonize This! Young Women of Color
in Todays Feminism. Seal Press: New York, NY. 2002

hooks, bell. Feminist Theory From Margin to Center. South End


Press:Cambridge, Ma. 2000.

James, Joy and Farmer, Ruth, Ed. Spirit, Space & Survival African American
Women in (White) Academe. Routeledge: New York, NY. 1993.

Moraga L. Cherrie, and Anzaldua, E. Gloria, Ed. This Bridge Called My Back:
Writings by Radical Women of Color. Women of Color Series, Third Women
Press: Berkeley, CA. 2002.

---------------------
"The true focus of revolutionary change is never merely
the oppressive situations which we seek to escape,
but that piece of the oppressor which is
planted deep within each of us." Audre Lorde
http://lists.econ.utah.edu/mailman/listinfo/margins-to-centre

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