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http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/Grad_Sch/McNair/Summer03/feifer.pdf.
The History of Black Feminism and Womanism: Their Emergence from the Modern
Womens Movement
Megan Feifer
Dr. Jennifer Maher
Introduction
Within the Modern Feminist Movement, white women have been accused of
focusing on oppression in terms of gender while ignoring issues of race,
class, and sexuality. Alongside defining all womens experiences in terms of
their own, this homogenizing excludes issues concerning the interlocking
oppressors of race, class, and gender. In resistance to this
marginalization, theories of black feminism and womanism were forged. These
two theoretical concepts were developed to call attention to the multiple
oppressions experienced by women of color, reflecting and defining their
everyday experiences in their own terms.
The intent of this study is to examine the history and origin of black
feminism and womanism, defining key issues affecting the lives of black
women and women of color. The study will examine the factors that contribute
to the makeup and development of the political consciousness of black women
and women of color. I will be noting the prominent distinctions between the
black feminist and womanist movement from the modern feminist movement, and
I will examine the specific causes for the separation of these ideologies
from one another. This research will identify key terms in the theoretical
body of knowledge available, and it will identify eminent concerns that
black women and women of color face in their everyday lives, these concerns
several authors argue, have been excluded from white modern feminist theory
and its movement. I would like to note that this outline is brief and in no
way is it able to comprise the entire richness of the history of black
feminist and womanist thought.
This literature review will examine six prominent issues affecting black
women and women of color. Of course these are just a select few, as again,
this project could in now way encompass all of the factors of the struggles
facing black women and women of color. This project instead will present a
brief historical background of some of the cultural oppressors of black
women. It will go on to examine what has been debated by several writers as
the exclusion of race from modern feminist ideological thought. Then, I will
define both black feminism and womanism, and explain their purpose. I will
then examine specific topics reflected in the literature read that are of
importance to both black feminist thought and womanist thought. These
concepts include the lack of women of color in Academia and specific issues
regarding sexuality. I will discuss what the various writers I have read for
this research, confer what is to be the future of black feminist and
womanist thought.
Literature Review
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A). Race, class, and gender as interlocking oppressors in the lives of black
women and women of color.
The racism, classism, and sexism associated with each womans experience of
being black and female in the U.S. are critical measurements of their
oppression -- Gloria I. Joseph, and Jill Lewis in "Common Differences:
Conflicts in Black and White feminist perspectives"
[1 The decision of whether or not to use the term black or African American
has been based on how the various authors read utilized either term. Also,
the decision to capitalize both black feminist, and womanist, was based on
the authors usage of capitalization.]
The quotation above by bell hooks references the use of social structures
utilized to degrade black women as a means of social control. The specific
oppressions African American women have experienced have historically tried
to debase their characters. In the book, Women of Color in U.S. Society,
edited by Maxine Baca-Zinn and Bonnie Thornton-Dill, the argument is posed
that women of color are subjected to cultural assaults or systematic
attacks on the institutions and social organizations that are fundamental to
the maintenance and flourishing of a groups culture (5). In other words,
black women have been defined and categorized in dehumanizing terms, terms
employed to attack the essence of black womens sense of personal integrity
and self worth. Various writers argue that historically black women have
been stereotyped as sex objects and breeders and that black womens personal
growth has been impeded by the continuing myths of the black matriarchy, a
myth accusing black women of emasculating black men. These stereotypes and
myths have acted as modes of social control in their demotion of black women
s characters. In Linda LaRues article, The Black Movement and Womens
Liberation, LaRue argues that concepts like the myth of the matriarchy and
the emasculating black female have been utilized for the sole purpose of
making the black woman feel ashamed of her strength (171). Alongside the
defaming of the black womans character and esteem has been the systematic
attempt to discredit black womens ability to define their life experiences
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II). The Exclusion of Race from the ideology of the Modern Womens Movement
Another key argument against the modern womens movement by the writers I
analyzed is that it defined and analyzed oppressions in insular terms,
meaning the womens movement defined oppression as stemming from unitary
factors rather than systemic factors. In doing this, the movement played a
key role in undermining and marginalizing black women and women of colors
struggles, struggles inherently linked as triple oppressors. Deborah K. King
states that this monist or individualistic approach of examining oppressors
tries to minimize important social relations that act as oppressors,
breaking them down and dealing with them in solitary terms like, the
economy, state, culture, or gender, terms that view oppression singularly,
rather than systemic (299-300). This monistic approach refuses to recognize
the interplay of various oppressions, a concept vital to the black female
experience. Finally, hooks, in the book, Aint I A Woman, arrives at the
conclusion that, the womens movement had not drawn black and white women
closer together, instead it exposed the fact that white women were not
willing to relinquish their support of white supremacy to support the issues
of all women (136). What this means is that white women are accused of
refusing to let go of their white privilege in order align themselves with
the struggles of all women.
As I have demonstrated, these various writers suggest that the modern women
s movement has excluded the issues of crucial importance to the lives of
black women and women of color. Therefore, out of this marginalization black
women forged their own terms and ideologies, the black feminist movement.
Black feminism was created in order to focus on the specific issues that
affect and shape the lives of women of color.
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III). Womanism
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The definition of womanism was created by the author and theorist, Alice
Walker, whom defines a womanist as a black feminist or feminist of color, an
outrageous and audacious woman who is interested in learning and questioning
all things. A womanist is a responsible woman who loves other women both
sexually and non-sexually, a woman who appreciates and prefers womens
culture, strength and emotional flexibility. The theory of womanism is
committed to the survival and wholeness of all people both men and women.
Rather than supporting separatism, womanism promotes universalism.
This particular theory of womanism, since several have been adapted from
this basic definition, created a space for black women and women of color
who found themselves incapable of identifying with both white feminism and
black feminism. The theory of womanism allowed women of color space for
dialogue and an opportunity for them to name themselves and their own
movement. Authors like Aduke Adebayo and Linda LaRue, discuss that fact that
even though black feminist thought emerged from the racism and exclusion of
white feminist thought, black feminist theory was still seen as elitist and
exclusive to some women of color, whether it is the inability to hear the
word feminist and not think of racist white women, promoting an irrelevant
movement, or the class hierarchies established in black feminist theory.
Womanism spoke in terms that are rooted in the particular culture of black
women and women of color, including the specific history of racial and
gender oppression. Womanism is given defining characteristics by Ula Taylor,
in her article, Making Waves: The Theory and Practice of Black Feminism,
she states that, womanism is a sweeping theoretical construct and black
women tend to select the most attractive parts of the theory to fit their
needs (27). Womanism, like black feminism provides a space for black women
and women of color to create dialogue in a non threatening environment. The
difference with the term womanist is that it does not carry the historical
connotations that the word feminist does. Womanism is seen as an
affirmative, embracing ideology that celebrates the lives and achievements
of black women and women of color. Alongside creating dialogue, authors and
theorists have examined specific issues from the standpoint of both black
feminism and womanism.
Most writing on the topic of the lack of women of color in academia suggests
that academia has traditionally been a realm reserved for white men,
however,the field of womens studies initially provided a space to explore
issues affecting women. According to Patricia Hill-Collins, Womens
studies have offered one major challenge to the hegemonic ideas of elite
white men (7). However, these writers argue, the experiences of black women
and women of color have once again been marginalized and excluded. Authors
like Hill-Collins state that theories in womens studies that were thought
to be universally applicable to all women, upon closer examination revealed
that these theories only focused on the history and struggles of white,
middle-class woman. Authors like Hill-Collins and bell hooks assert that
women s studies needs to recognize the historical contributions made by
women of color to the various womens movements. Also, these authors content
that the black female experience must not be ignored, and that women of
color can and should stimulate a consciousness and awareness defined by
their experiences that could expand the scope of womens studies. As
Hill-Collins states, Black women remain outsiders within, individuals whose
marginality provides a distinctive angle of visions on the theories put
forth by such intellectual communities (12). In summary, authors like
Hill-Collins and hooks are stating that the particular perspectives black
women have will contribute and expand the theoretical and epistemological
field of womens studies.
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and living contexts of other women, but also being aware of the fact that
Production and dissemination of feminist theory in forms that alienate
V). Sexuality
Heterosexual privilege is usually the only privilege that black women have.
None of us have racial or sexual privilege; almost none of us have class
privilege: maintaining straightness is our last resort ---Barbara Smith
in "The Truth that Never Hurts"
Womens liberationists, white and black, will always be at odds with one
another as long as our ideas of liberation is based on having the power
white men have ---bell hooks in "Aint I A Woman: black women and feminism"
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womanist movements.
Methodology
The Methodology of this study has been based on reading various texts to
find the broad themes and perspectives on the topic of black feminism and
womanism. Once a basic foundation of knowledge was formed, I began
highlighting key terms and concepts that are vital to each ideology. These
selected terms focus on issues that are constant oppressors in the daily
lives of black women and women of color, issues that define their political
consciousness and personal experiences. These key terms were used in
comparing and contrasting the differences between black feminism, womanism,
and white feminism, and these terms were also utilizedto examine the key
agents that caused the ideological separation of black feminist and
womanist, both from each other and from what has been termed white
feminist thought.
Research Findings
The concepts of black feminism and womanism were created to address the
issues that the white feminist movement refused to, the issues pertinent
to the everyday lives of black women and women of color. Black feminist and
womanist ideologies were forged in resistance to the racism black women and
women of color experienced in the white feminist movement. Black feminist
and womanist thought is committed to the liberation of black women and women
of color from the oppressors of race, class, and gender, encompassing both
political cognizance and the action needed to achieve this liberation. Black
feminist thought and womanist thought represents multiple state of
consciousness, with evolving theories that recognize the resistance
movements of the past and their contributions to the foundations of black
feminist and womanist thought in the present and in the future. Finally, the
terms of black feminism and womanism celebrate black women and women of
color, recognizing a history, and validating it as being both valuable and
complex.
Works Cited
hooks, bell. Aint I A Woman: black women and feminism. Boston, MA: South
End Press, 1981.
---.Talking Back: Thinking feminist, Thinking black. Boston, MA: South End
Press, 1989.
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Hull, Gloria T, and Bell-Scott, Patricia.eds. All the Women are White, All
the Blacksare men, But Some of Us Are Brave; Black Womens Studies. New
York. The Feminist Press, 1982.
LaRue, Linda. The Black Movement and Womens Liberation. Words of Fire: An
Anthology of African American Feminist Thought. Ed. Beverly Guy-Sheftall.
The New Press: New York. 1995. 164-173
Lorde, Audre. Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches. Trumansburg, New York:
The Crossing Press, 1984.
Smith, Barbara. Ed. HomeGirls: A Black Feminist Anthology. New York: Kitchen
Table: Women of Color Press, 1983
Taylor, Ula. Y. Making Waves: The Theory and Practice of Black Feminism.
The Black Scholar. Volume 28, No. 2 (1998): 18-27
Walker, Alice. In Search of Our Mothers Gardens. San Diego, New York,
London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, 1967
Hernandez, Daisy and Rehman, Bushra. Ed. Colonize This! Young Women of Color
in Todays Feminism. Seal Press: New York, NY. 2002
James, Joy and Farmer, Ruth, Ed. Spirit, Space & Survival African American
Women in (White) Academe. Routeledge: New York, NY. 1993.
Moraga L. Cherrie, and Anzaldua, E. Gloria, Ed. This Bridge Called My Back:
Writings by Radical Women of Color. Women of Color Series, Third Women
Press: Berkeley, CA. 2002.
---------------------
"The true focus of revolutionary change is never merely
the oppressive situations which we seek to escape,
but that piece of the oppressor which is
planted deep within each of us." Audre Lorde
http://lists.econ.utah.edu/mailman/listinfo/margins-to-centre
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