Large-Scale Measurements of the Physical

Characteristics of Round Vertical Bubble Plumes in Liquids

MARCO A.S.C. CASTELLO-BRANCO and KLAUS SCHWERDTFEGER

The hydrodynamics of air/water plumes in a large-scale model of a metallurgical ladle were

investigated. The dimensions of the cylindrical vessel were 1600-ram ID and 2250-mm total
height. The air was injected through a centered nozzle. Axial and radial profiles of gas con-
centration, bubble frequency, and liquid and gas velocities were measured using electrical re-
sistivity probes and a propeller flowmeter. It was found that the bubble plume is not at a fixed
position but wanders away from the vertical vessel axis. This causes difficulties in the mea-
surements, and special methods have to be designed to define and deduce reproducible values
for the characteristic plume quantities. In the analysis of the data, the various physical char-
acteristics were related to zo, the distance from the nozzle where the axial gas concentration is
50 pct. The maximum values of the radial profiles are presented in nondimensional correlations.

I. INTRODUCTION
A L T H O U G H gas injection has been practiced in the
steelmaking industry for about 130 years, there is still
no complete quantitative understanding of the dynamics
of these gas/liquid systems. Consequently, more re-
search is needed to find suitable correlations with which
flow velocities, gas fraction, and bubble size can be pre-
dicted. In the present work, the behavior of center-injected
gas jets in the system air/water has been investigated in
pilot scale. One of the goals of this research was to ex-
amine whether the correlations for the gas concentration
which are available from bench scale experiments are
valid in a system of much larger dimension. Another aim
was to establish correlations for the velocity of both
phases. The dynamic behavior of the system received
special attention.
II. GENERAL DESCRIPTION
OF GAS STIRRED GAS/LIQUID SYSTEMS
When a gas jet is discharged into a liquid at the bottom
of a vessel, there are two main flow regimes along its
trajectory3 ~ Immediately above the nozzle, there is a
transition zone in which the disintegration of the gas
stream into bubbles takes place. At some distance up-
ward, the disintegration of the gas stream is completed
and the bubble zone becomes fully developed. The bub-
ble zone may be subdivided into a lower region, where
the gas still has some of its initial momentum, and into
its main part, where the motion of the gas relative to the
liquid is buoyancy driven. In terms of physics, the upper
part is similar to a one-phase plume driven by density
differences and should be called a plume (bubble plume)
rather than a jet. The motion of the liquid phase is caused
by momentum transfer from the gas jet to the liquid in
MARCO A.S.C. CASTELLO-BRANCO, formerly Scientist, Institut
fiir Allgerneine Metallurgie, Technical University of Clausthal, is with
M a n n e s m a n n S.A., 30,000 Belo Horizonte, Brazil. KLAUS
SCHWERDTFEGER, Professor, is with the Institut fiJr Allgemeine
Metallurgie, Technical University of Clausthal, 38678 Clausthal-
Zellerfeld, Germany.
Manuscript submitted January 22, 1993.
the zone close to the nozzle and by the buoyancy force
exerted by the bubbles in the region above.
A fundamental feature of bubble plumes in liquids is
the fluctuating character, both in time and space, of the
plume properties. This means that in the determination
of time averages for gas fraction, bubble frequency, and
velocity, due consideration has to be given to these fluc-
tuations, and that the methods of statistics may be used
for proper design of the experimental program and the
analysis of the data. tz 8]
III. E X P E R I M E N T A L TECHNIQUE
The experimental setup is shown schematically in
Figure 1. The polypropylene vessel size approximates
that of a 30-ton ladle for steel. It is cylindrical and has
an ID of 1600 mm and a height of 2250 mm. There is
a nozzle adapter at the bottom at the center of the vessel.
Cylindrical nozzles made of stainless steel or brass can
be inserted into the adapter. The upper end of the nozzle
is flush with the vessel bottom. The length of the nozzle
bore is 10 times its ID. Ten glass windows of about 25
x 25 cm 2 are distributed in the wall of the basin in order
to permit visual observation of the plume. An x-y tra-
versing table is mounted at the top of the basin to which
the probe holder is attached. The movement of the holder
in the x-y plane is driven by DC micromotors which are
controlled by a computer. The holder consists of a
stainless-steel lance of 25-ram external diameter into which
the measuring probe can be inserted.
Filtered air was supplied from pressure vessels, which
were fed by a screw compressor. The flow rate and pres-
sure were measured with a rotameter and a manometer,
respectively. The air temperature was taken as ambient
room temperature, 20 ~ The atmospheric air pressure
was 0.942 bar. Generally, gas was blown for at least
15 minutes to stabilize the plume pattern before starting
measurements. The experimental conditions are listed in
Table I.
The water was filtered. The height of the bath was
kept constant at 1800 mm. Some salt (0.35 pct
Na2C104-H20 in experiment 3, 0.145 pct NaC1 in the
other experiments) was added to the bath to increase its
electrical conductivity.

METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 25B, JUNE 1994--359

 2 t~
-- _L
3
21~.
I~ /9 I
--q o 10
o..o?

-- " 25 ~_~

~6 --

2- traversing lance I m nt. c'i

20. 3-motor of y-axis
t~-motor of x-axis M1.0 ~----
5-cenfric nozzle
6 - eccentric nozzle
15 16 17 (not used in this workJ
7- working stand 15- air compressor
8-signal amplifier for probe 16-pressure vessel
OQ 9- counter 17- manometer
10- timer/counter 18- valve
11- digital oscilloscope 19- filter
12-control unit for propeller 20-rofameter
13- computer 21- propeller flowmeter
14-graphic printer 22-electrical resistivity probe
Fig. 1iExperimental setup used in the present work.

Table I. Conditions of the Experiments Carried Out in the

Present Work; Axial Coordinate z0 and Maximum Liquid Velocity U](z0)
Nozzle Gas Flow Overpressure in Line Vertical Maximum Liquid
Experiment Diameter d Rate Q to Nozzle Coordinate z0 Velocity U] at z0
Number (ram) ( N c m 3 s -[) z~u~ (bar) (mm) (cm s -l) Symbol
1 2 2500 4 206 180 []
2 3.5 7222 4 318 200 A
3 5 5000 1 233 168 C)
4 5 6389 1.7 302 180
5 10 7778 0.4 245 ND* V
6 5 2500 0.4 145 (145) c~
ND = not determined.

A . M e a s u r e m e n t o f Gas Fraction
and B u b b l e F r e q u e n c y
The available measuring techniques for gas/liquid flow
systems have been adequately described by several au-
thors t9-1s] and will not be reviewed in this article. We
used a double-tip electrical resistivity probe for the
measurements of gas fraction, bubble frequency, and gas
velocity (22 in Figure 1). The principle of the technique
is to measure the electrical resistance between the elec-
trodes, which is low if the probe is in the conducting
liquid and high if the contact is interrupted by a bubble.
The lance to which the probe was attached served as
a counterelectrode. The probe was connected to a
Wheatstone bridge network. The current of high fre-
quency (15.6 kHz) was used to eliminate polarization
effects. The output of the sensor circuit was an amplitude-
modulated sine wave which was filtered and demodu-
lated. The final signal consists of a DC output of 5 V
when the tip meets a bubble and 0 V when it is in the
liquid. The output signal was fed to an analog/digital
converter (conversion time = 20/zs) of a computer pro-
grammed to give values of gas fraction and bubble fre-
quency. Because the probe does not always give ideal

360--VOLUME 25B, J U N E 1994 M E T A L L U R G I C A L AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B

 signals t13"~SJfor deciding in which phase the tip is (the
voltage does not always rise to 5 V or fall to 0), it was 25
necessary to define a threshold level So. That is, the probe
Q
tip is taken to be in air when the signal voltage is at or 29
above the threshold level; otherwise, it is taken to be in
_=
water.
A value of the gas fraction is obtained as the ratio
between the sum of the time in which the tip was in
contact with the gas and the total measuring time. Sim- le
ilarly, bubble frequency is evaluated by dividing the
m
number of intercepted bubbles by the time of measure- 5
ment. For obtaining information on the dynamic behav-
ior of the plume, it was necessary to subdivide the total
time of measurement t,, into small intervals of equal 90 200 406 500 809 1 9 0 0 1200 1466 1 5 0 9 lBOO
tine [s]
length, At. The computer then calculated the values for
gas fraction and bubble frequency in each interval At, (a)
producing time records for these quantities. With the ex-
i i I i i
ception of experiment 3, in which At was set as 3 sec-
onds, all the other experiments were carried out using 25
"7.
At = 1 second as the basic unit of time for the simul-
taneous measurement of gas fraction and bubble fre-
quency. Since the obtained values of gas and bubble
frequency are stored for each interval At, it is possible
to compute average values of gas concentration and bub-
ble frequency for any time interval ti which is an integer
multiple of At.
Before starting the experimental series, the appropri-
i201
ate total time of measurement was determined in a pre-
liminary test in which the probe was positioned in the
axis of the basin and 600 mm above the nozzle. The gas
fraction and bubble frequency were measured continu- 01500 w 1500 1550 1796 L759 luui
tine [s]
ously for each 1-second interval during 30 minutes.
Figure 2(a) shows that a strong fluctuation of the gas (b)
fraction around the mean occurs, which can reach some
Fig. 2 - - Example for time record of gas fraction measurement. Orig-
wave pattern, as is seen, for example, for the last 5 min- inal data obtained with time interval t, = At = 1 s.
utes of blowing in Figure 2(b). Such "waves" are due
to plume movements in the bath, whose origin is not
readily known. Some authors have already called the
plume movements "pendulum movements, "[j6] "aper- 3 or 4 minutes. Afterward, the average values become
iodic inclinations with rotation, "(m and "jet lateral wan- rather steady. Consequently, the time of measurement t,,
derings. "[t8'19] By increasing the integration interval ti, was chosen to be 300 seconds in most subsequent
the time resolution of the measurements becomes coarser, experiments.
and rapid fluctuations are no longer observed, as dem- Other values which can be determined in a reproduc-
onstrated in Figure 3. ible manner are the maxima and minima caused by the
These plots were obtained from the same experiment short time movement of the plume. In order to deduce
as that in Figure 2; that is, the gas fraction was computed representative values, an integration interval ti must be
from the number of bubbles during 3 (instead of 1), 10, specified that is large enough to catch a sufficient num-
and 20 seconds. In Figure 3, a fluctuation with period- ber of bubbles but small compared to the cycle time of
icity of about 100 seconds becomes vivible. This reflects the short-term wandering. The time chosen was 9 or
the "short time" movements of the plume. ~Long time" 10 seconds. Hence, the data originally obtained using
displacements also were observed occasionally, some of the measuring time At (1 or 3 seconds) were smoothed
which lasted for half an hour or longer. using ti = 10 seconds (or 9 seconds) according to the
The movement of the plume makes it necessary to de- example given in Figure 3. Then the maximum and min-
fine conventions for deducing representative plume imum on the smoothed curve for each period of
properties in a reproducible manner. One such property 100 seconds (or 99 seconds) were taken, and the aver-
is the average of the quantity over a time which is much ages of their values for the total measuring time were
larger than the apparent cycle time of the plume move- computed. Hence, for a total measuring time of 300 sec-
ment. Measurements were performed to determine the onds, there were three maxima (or minima) to be av-
proper total time t,, of measurement needed to obtain the eraged; for larger measuring times, there were
representative averages. Figure 4 shows the develop- correspondingly more. Figure 4 also shows the devel-
ment of average gas fraction and average bubble fre- opment of these extrema as a function of time for the
quency as a function of time for the experiment of experiment of Figure 2.
Figure 2. Strong changes occur mainly during the first Of particular interest are the maximum values of gas

METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 25B, JUNE 1994--361

 25 [(i= 5.~'s) _. '
28 - - - = fine auerage of 1888 s laverae of naxina of f|uctuationsl

15

18 i 5

S | | m m I | e m m | | | I m | I i I
i 4
2 laverae of ninina of fluctuations[
-~
0
8
i
Q.
'' 25 9 , , , I ~ , , , , , , , , , , 1 ,

Z9- , , , , , , ', , , , , , , , ,

28
zs
E laverage uf ~a+<;na of f+uctuationst
o 15
i 26

15'
r
r
19

5 [average of ninina of fluctuations I

~ 25 t~i = 2 8 . 9 s
i i i i i i i 1
zee 4ee 6ee e~e le'ee ' lz~e ' t4'ee ' l~'ee ts'ee
29 total neasurJng time, t n [ s ]

Fig. 4 - - Explanation of averaging procedure. The line of data points

15 in the middle of the diagrams [~(av), n(av)] reflect the averages of
all the data (obtained with At = 1 s) up to the total measuring time
t,. The upper and lower lines of data points [e(max), e(min) or n(max),
n(min), respectively] retlect the averages of the maximum and min-
imum values in each 100-s period.

9 of experiments were carried out to deduce the suitable

1598 . . 1688
. . . 1788 1ai 9
fine, L [s]
Fig. 3 - - S m o o t h i n g of original data by increasing the integration in-
terval tz to 3, 10, or 20 s. The data are the same as in Figure 2(b).
fraction and bubble frequency in the axis of the plume.
An average axial value can be taken from the radial pro-
file of the time averages of the property, but it is lower
than the real axial maximum existing momentarily. The
momentary axial value may approximately be given by
the maximum of the fluctuations measured, if the probe
is positioned at the center (r = 0) of the vessel or close
to it. This is so because it may be assumed that these
maxima arise when the plume axis passes through this
measuring position. The "real" axial values were also
measured using an alternative technique in which the
momentary position of the plume was observed by two
experimentators through the windows in the wall of the
vessel located at right angles to each other, and the probe
was driven (by activating the motors) to be always in the
plume axis.
The last parameter to be chosen was a suitable thresh-
old level So. At present, an overall accepted rule for set-
ting the threshold level does not exist. I8-z51Several series
threshold value. [15]The fact that near the nozzle the vari-
ation of the mean value with threshold voltage is sub-
stantially larger than the natural spread resulting from
the time fluctuations is important. There is a systematic
dependence on the threshold value close to the nozzle
where gas fraction approaches 100 pct. For sufficiently
large distances from the nozzle, however, the influence
of the threshold level on the average values is within the
standard deviation. We used a threshold level of 2 V for
measurements at 100 mm and of 3 V for all the other
distances from the nozzle.
B. Measurement of Gas Velocity
In the measurements of the gas velocity, the shorter
electrode, which was 2 mm vertically displaced from the
longer one (22 in Figure 1), was also activated. Assum-
ing that the gas/liquid interface is horizontal and is inter-
cepted by both tips in the same manner (no differences
in deformations at both tips), the two output signals will
be separated by a time delay which is directly propor-
tional to the bubble velocity. A two-channel timer/counter
with a sampling rate of 120 MHz was used to measure
this time delay. The trigger level to start and stop the
time counting was adjusted to about 2.5 V, at which the
rising slopes of both signals are nearly parallel.

362--VOLUME 25B, JUNE 1994 METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B

 I I I I. I I I I I
It is well known that sometimes either two different
bubbles reach the tip almost at the same time, or that % ! Experiment No. 3
the bubble is intercepted at its periphery where the inter- 15 (a) Q = 5000Ncm3s-1
face is not horizontal. Both cases lead to the computation td
/ ~ ~ d = 5mm
of incorrect velocity values. For minimizing such mis- z = 600mm
interpretations, limits for values of time delay were set,
10.
and only the values within these limits were further pro-
cessed. The limits chosen were 0.1 and 20 ms, corre-
%
OJ

sponding to bubble velocities between 10 and t-

O
2000 cm/s. A measurement was terminated when either
300 "good bubbles" were counted or after a measuring
time of about 5 minutes. Each measured time difference
was converted into the corresponding velocity value. A 0
population of velocity values was taken for calculating
the average. 50

(b) #
i

C. Measurement of Liquid Velocity -40-

r-

Liquid velocities in gas/liquid systems have been

measured satisfactorily with so-called propeller (turbine) o=30.
flowmeters, particularly in large-scale experiments.[ '6-n~ 7~*, i n(max)
OJ
The measuring principle is based on the direct propor- L
tionality between the liquid velocity and the rotational "-20.
speed of the propeller. This is so because the drag force
exerted on the blades of the propeller is essentially a re- ..~ 10.
sult of the flowing liquid, because of its larger density.
In the present experiments, a propeller flowmeter of
25-mm external diameter (21 in Figure 1) was em-
-260 -10'0 0 ' "I00 ' 200
ployed. It had been calibrated by the manufacturer for radial coordinate r mm
its application in water in the range of 0.04 to 7.5 ms -~.
Before it was used in the bubble plume, extensive tests Fig9 5 - - T y p i c a l radial profiles of gas fraction and bubble frequency 9
were carried out using a special setup involving a two-
phase flow of known liquid velocity. [~s]It was found that
up to a gas fraction of 70 pct, the velocity is determined
correctly. Beyond this limit, the measuring uncertainty 4.0 i i i

increases rapidly. Experiment No. 3

The radial profiles were measured just as the profiles 3.6- Q = 5000Ncm3sq
for gas fraction and bubble frequency were, using the d = 5ram
measuring interval At = 1 second and a total measuring I
time of tm= 300 seconds. The maxima and minima of 3.2" ! - z = 200ram
the fluctuations were determined after smoothing the time
record, in the same manner as described for the gas con-
centration and bubble frequency. '~ 2.8-
E

f f 2.4-
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

t
Typical examples for the radial profiles of gas con- 2.0- ' !
centration e and bubble frequency n are given in
Figure 5. Figure 6 shows examples for the radial profiles N I z = t+OOmm
of gas velocity ug and Figure 7 for the radial profiles of
liquid velocity ul (vertical component). The lower curves
in Figures 5(a) and (b) and the lower diagram in
Figure 7 reflect the average values e(av), n(av), and u~(av)
over the measuring time t,, of 300 seconds. The upper 0.8 v o6...,oc,
~
curves in Figures 5(a) and (b) and the upper diagram in z = 1600ram
Figure 7 represent the maximum values e(max), n(max),
and u](max) (averages of the three highest values in
300 seconds after time integration with tz = 10 seconds).
0.4
It was observed that the position of the maxima of the
plume properties did not usually coincide with the axis 0
of the nozzle, which is a result of the lateral wandering. -260 -160 260
The profiles of gas fraction and bubble frequency are radiat coordinate r , mm

qualitatively very similar, except at the distance z = Fig. 6 - - T y p i c a l radial profiles of gas velocity9

METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 25B, JUNE 1994--363

 I
moving the probe, which were usually close to the "max"
1.2 (a) values. They are denoted by E(visual), N(visual), and
Ul(visual).
1.0

e 0.8. [ V. N O N D I M E N S I O N A L
CORRELATIONS FOR AXIAL VALUES
06
The most important data of the bubble plume are the
momentary axial maxima and the momentary half-width
..-=~. 0./., i' t of the radial profiles of the various quantities. In pre-
vious literature, correlations have been deduced for de-
scribing these quantities. Usually, the measurements were
carded out with small vessels, in which the extent of the
lateral wandering of the jet is comparatively small. Hence,
the radial profiles do not fluctuate much with time and
I
are indeed identical to the "momentary" profiles or very
- o 2 ~ , , , : close to them. This is also true in a large vessel at small
12 i i i ~ i i i
heights over the nozzle. However, at larger height, the
l
Experiment No 6 average radial profiles contain not only the spatial shape
1.0 12:2500NEm3s_ , ~-z:200mm of the momentary profiles, but also the time function of
the lateral wandering. Consequently, they are more com-
d =Smm II plex than the momentary profiles. So, if a relationship
E 0.8.
(b) is to be established between the present data and pre-
vious data obtained in small-scale experimentation, it is
-~_0.6 deemed more appropriate to use the "max" values, which
are close to the momentary values, rather than the "av"
values. Correlations will be derived for these quantities,
?,
v're z =6~Omm and it will be investigated whether the previous non-
dimensional relationships deduced from the small-scale
experimentation can be extended to include the behavior
o-
of large-scale bubble plumes.
~ 0
A, Gas Fraction
-0.2
-800 -4bo-ioo o 260 460 660 800 Figure 8 gives the dependence of axial gas fraction E
radial coordinate r , mm on distance z from the orifice for experiments 3, 4, and
6 of the present work. Included are data from the pre-
Fig. 7--Typical radial profiles of liquid velocity.
vious work, ~u~ carried out on a small 445-mm ID vessel.
Near the nozzle, the gas fraction approaches 100 pct.
The gas fraction then decreases with increasing z. The
100 mm, where the bubble frequency usually exhibited data show that below about 50 pct, the decrease can be
a minimum around r = 0. HSI This is probably owing to represented by a power law E - z -v, which is indicated
the "gas core" still existing at this height. The radial by the straight lines in the double logarithmic plot. The
profiles of gas velocity and of liquid velocities show the curves cover ranges which depend considerably on the
usual maximum close to the center of the vessel. But volumetric gas flow rate Q and the nozzle diameter d,
negative liquid velocity values appear at large radial co- but they can be brought together by using the non-
ordinates, indicating that the liquid flows downward. This dimensional coordinate z/zo, where z0 is the height over
is a result of the recirculatory nature of the liquid flow. the nozzle at which E has a specified value. We have
The most important characteristic quantity of the ra- chosen z0 as the z value for E = 50 pct, as in the previous
dial profiles is their maximum value at the center of the investigation, t~3] Figure 9 shows that the data below
bubble plume. Table II contains the numerical values. E = 50 pct can be represented by the relationship
Three kinds of axial values can be read from the e, n,
and uj radial profiles. The first kind are the maxima on

(;00)-v
Z Z
the profiles of the average quantities e(av), n(av), and E=50 pct, with 3'= 1.22 for--= 1 [1]
Z0
ul(av) (e.g., average over t,, = 300 seconds). They are
denoted by E(av), N(av), and U,(av). The second kind
of axial values are the maxima on the radial profiles of There is no difference in this nondimensional plot be-
the maximum values e(max), n(max), and u~(max). They tween the recent and previous data 1~3~obtained in large-
are denoted by E(max), N(max), and U~(max). Third, scale or small-scale experiments, respectively. Also, above
there are the "real" axial values obtained by visually E = 50 pct, a unique relationship between E and Z/Zo

364--VOLUME 25B, JUNE 1994 METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B

 Table II. Values for Maxima of Gas Fraction E, Bubble Frequency N.
Gas Velocity Ug, and Liquid Velocity U~ in Plume Axis as Measured in the Present Work

Height z Gas Fraction Bubble Frequency Gas Velocity

Experiment over Nozzle E(max) E(av) N(max) N(av) U, Ul(visual) U1(max) U,(av)
Number (mm) (Pct) (Pct) (s -l) (s -I) ( c m s l) (cm s -1) (cm s l) (cm s -l)
100 94 91 (93) (80) (669) ND* ND ND
200 52 46.9 232 206 373 190 ND ND
400 22.2 17.7 85 66 172 100 106 80
600 12.2 8.5 37.5 26.4 151 82 87 68
800 9.7 6.2 27.0 17.9 136 83 79 59
1200 4.8 2.7 14.4 9.2 136 68 78 67
1600 3.5 1.4 9.5 4.3 124 63 73 54
100 98 96 (65) (49) (617) ND ND ND
200 70 65 217 206 553 (420) ND ND
400 38.3 32.7 188 150 281 190 161 133
600 24.4 19.6 105 83 186 125 120 80
800 15.8 12.3 65 46 169 100 96 72
1200 9.3 6.0 31 19.4 153 90 91 69
1600 7.0 4.9 23.3 15.9 150 90 86 56
100 93 92 (56) (51) (596) ND ND ND
200 60 57 171 158 367 ND 190 180
400 27.9 24.8 86 75 172 122 119 100
600 17.7 13.0 45.5 34.4 152 92 94 81
800 13.1 9.5 29.5 22.5 129 82 85 63
1200 8.4 6.2 21.l 15.9 135 76 85 59
1600 6.8 4.5 17.3 11.4 128 65 72 55
100 93 90 ND ND (591) ND ND ND
200 71 69 203 196 480 ND (303) (282)
400 36.5 31.5 158 128 217 140 145 110
600 20.5 16.5 68 55 135 105 114 90
800 15.1 10.8 49.8 33.7 131 95 103 84
1200 10.6 6.4 27.2 17.9 134 88 96 66
1600 7.0 4.6 20.1 13.4 141 82 80 43
100 86 84 ND ND (585) ND ND ND
200 57 53 111 103 374 ND ND ND
400 27.2 23 76 62 202 ND ND ND
600 18.1 13.7 45.1 34.1 190 ND ND ND
800 10.2 6.9 25 16.4 I65 ND ND ND
1200 5.8 3.0 13.8 7.0 186 ND ND ND
1600 3.2 2.1 8.3 5.1 140 ND ND ND
E(visual) N(visual)
100 75 80 ND ND ND ND
200 31.1 78 ND ND 122 112
400 14.8 81.3 ND 85 90 76
600 9.1 17.6 ND 70 83 67
800 7.0 14.3 ND 69 78 67
1200 5.3 11.5 ND 58 74 50
1600 3.3 7.6 ND 54 66 46
ND = not determined.

exists. F i g u r e 10 shows the data in this range. The an- The data o f other authors ll3'~3-251 also prove the valid-
alytical relationship ity o f z d e p e n d e n c e o f E according to the p o w e r law [1]
b e l o w a gas fraction o f about 50 pct. H o w e v e r , different
E= 100-50 +A 1 - pct, exponents have been found. Particularly, 3, is smaller in
liquid metals.[13] W e pointed out this fact p r e v i o u s l y , II31
and it can also be d e d u c e d from recent data o f Xie
Z et al. t26t for the n i t r o g e n / W o d d ' s metal system.
for0<--< 1 [21
Z0
The axial position z0 (at which E = 50 pct) is o f fun-
d a m e n t a l interest. It m a y be taken as the "penetration
was chosen, w h i c h is continuous in value and in slope depth" o f the j e t gas core, or as the distance from which
with Eq. [1] at Z/Zo = 1. The coefficient A and the ex- the b u b b l e / l i q u i d mixture is fully d e v e l o p e d . I131 Dukler
ponents a a n d / 3 were d e t e r m i n e d by a least-squares fit, and Taite, tzTl studying transition criteria for flow patterns
y i e l d i n g A = 150, a = 1.59, a n d / 3 = 2.73. in g a s / l i q u i d systems, explain this coordinate from the

METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 25B, JUNE 1 9 9 4 - - 3 6 5

l oo~ , = , ~ . i . . , ~_~." . . . . .

60-
. . . . . ." ". " %. - _ _ ~ , . ~ - \-\ . pet:_ . . . .
. . . . . 50
50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
z,a ', ",\ \N.
"5 ",,,,, -'I,, \" \ ! ~ E = 5 0 ( z / z 0 )-t2z
~. ", %,, \ ~ \
;,, ",\\\
o , ", " ~ \ ' ~ . tad
-20" Cl,Ncm3s -I d ,ram I r I
[] 25oo 203 !
-- . air/water ., X ~'oN,
='* ,. 0, , Ncm s-I d rnm ", ,, \\\ o 6389 5.0FIarge vessel
= .~
o 25oo
c~,~^ ~Lpresent
.
work,' \, 9 \ x
",. v 7778 10.01 , -~oo I
E o JUUU ~.qr"
"~ O 6389 5.0]largevessel "\, N o~ 5" ~ 2500 5.0] I t~\' t
E 9 58 o51 ',
" 58 0"5] previous work, .E 9 151 05Lprevious work, v ~ NI
9 703 I0 i" small vesset " 703 I"0 F small vessel
9 950 2.0]
2, 9 95o i0] :
I
10 ~0 4'0 6'0 160 2do t+do 660 '10bo 000 I
I
distance from nozzle z , rnrn
I
Fig. 8 - - M a x i m u m value in radial profile of gas fraction as a function 0.1 0'.2 0'.5 1 } 5 10
of distance from nozzle. (For present work, E values are E(max) val- dimensionless disfance from nozzle z / z o
ues for experiments 3 and 4 and E(visual) values for experiment 6).
Fig. 9 - - Maximum gas fraction as a function of nondimensional dis-
tance from nozzle. The data of the present work are the E(max)values
for experiments 1 through 5 and E(visual) values for experiment 6.
perspective o f a m a x i m u m allowable packing of the
bubbles. In their argumentation, bubbles are considered
as having a spherical shape and being arranged in a cubic
lattice. For such a geometry, the gas fraction can be
52 pct at most, which confirms the 50 pct boundary cho- "~ ,,
sen previously. 9 ~ - - E=50 (z--Yln
Table I contains the derived values of z0. From 90- I ~ 9 \ -~z0~
Figure 11, it is evident that the ratio zo/d can be cor- '
related with the modified Froude number Q~ p~.b/g d 5 P~ 9
.- E=I00-50( o
according to the equation
80- .iso(
115,(I_
Z 1.59 Z 2.73 ~ I.
2 ,0.272
z0 \
-- = 6.8 [3] o=
,:-- v r
d \g dSp,/ 70- k
This relationship is close to that proposed previously, t~31 air/water ~ ,
It covers our data on the small- and large-scale jets, and ~,~,o,<>,v.~ present work "_ NC,,,
the data o f other authors 123,e4,26,zsJ on several gas/liquid =E 60" Q,Ncm 3s-1 d,mm " N~,
systems, and thus appears by now to be well established. "~
E 9 58 05| ~ %,
By combining Eqs. [1] and [3], one obtains the follow- m ,, 151 015/ . " \_
- 273 1.0~ previous 50pcf 9
ing for E _-< 50 pct: S0---- 703 10|._ WOrK . . . . . . . . . . l,~_.
9 950 2.0|
E = 50" 6.8 ~ [ ~dbPb,g \~/ pct [4]
- 2452 2.0_I I ""
I
I
40 I
0 0'.2 0'.4 0'.6 0'.8 to u
where y depends on the gas/liquid combination. For air/ dimension[ess distance from nozzle z / z o
water with 7 -- 1.22, Eq. [4] becomes
Fig. I O - - M a x i m u m gas fraction as a function of nondimensional dis-
tance in the range close to the nozzle. The data of the present work
are the E(max) values for experiments 1 through 5, and the E(visual)
E = 518 \ g - - - ~ P t / pet [5]
values for experiment 6.

For the range close to the nozzle, for which Eq. [2] is
used in the present work, other authors 123,251also applied function applies and that, for z ~ 0, E will go to infinity
the Eq. [5] type relationship. So, they used two Eq. [5] rather than becoming 100 pct.
type equations with different values for the numerical
constant and exponents in the ranges with very high E
and lower E, respectively. However, the disadvantage
B. Liquid Velocity
o f using a function E ~ z -~ also in the high E range is The quantity o f most interest to the metallurgists and
that there will be an intermediate range where neither chemical engineers is the velocity o f the liquid.

366--VOLUME 25B, JUNE 1994 METALLURGICALAND MATERIALSTRANSACTIONSB

 o air/wafer, present work
300- i air/water l 9
nitrogen/mercury,> prewous
helium/water '] work
100- + air/water, [astillejos and Brimacombe _ ~
x air/wafer,lguchi et al.
| nitrogen/mercury, [astillejos, Brimacombe ~ 9I 9
N
| nitrogen/Wood's metal,Oeters et at. _~.~o [
30"

10-

ib 162 163 16' 1

modified Froude number Fr ~

Fig. 11 - - N o n d i m e n s i o n a l correlation for the gage length z0, the distance from the nozzle at which the m a x i m u m gas fraction E is 50 pct.

Figure 12 shows the dependence of axial liquid velocity an independent variable. In view of the functional de-
U~ (max values) on distance z from the nozzle. There is pendence Eq. [3], d can be replaced by z0. Hence,
a decrease of Um with increasing z, which is first strong U1 = f(Z,Zo,Qb,Pg.b,Pl,g)" The correlation cannot be sim-
but then very gradual, and an increase of U~ with in- ple, because close to the nozzle, the liquid velocity is
creasing volumetric gas flow rate Q. For the derivation due to momentum transfer from the gas jet and, at larger
of a dimensionless correlation, it may be assumed that distance, is induced by buoyancy. Previously, we cor-
U1 is determined (same as E) in an isothermal system by related Ul with the equation U~/Ul(Zo) = B(z/zo) -~ +
the distance z, the nozzle diameter d, the volumetric gas C(z/zo) -'7, in which U~(zo) is the liquid velocity at z = z0
flow rate at the nozzle exit Qb, the pressure at the nozzle (where E = 50 pct) ll5'291 and Ul(zo) is related to the Froude
exit Pb, the densities Pg.b and Pl, and gravity g; U~ = number. However, there is the disadvantage in this pro-
f(z,d,Qb,Pb,pg.b,pl,g). If only nitrogen and air are used cedure that the U~(zo) values are not so precise, contain-
as gases, which have almost the same molecular mass, ing the errors of the E measurements in addition to those
Pb is determined by Pg,b and, consequently, vanishes as of the U l measurements. It is more appropriate to form
a dimensionless liquid velocity from a combination
of Ul and Qb. We first used Uld2/Qb. This quantity
| I I I I
was plotted against dimensionless distance Z/Zo with the
6 Froude number Q2/gd5 being a constant parameter for
each experiment. Then Uld /Qb values at constant Z/Zo
~) air/water
4- were read from the Uld2/Qb - Z/Zo curves and plotted
"7 against the Froude number, finding U~d2/Qb
E (Q2b/gd5)-o with the exponent O being close to 0.4. From
Uld2/Qb = (Q2b/gdS!~L4f(z/zo) follows that Ul = g O.a
~- 2 QKf(Z/Zo) or U1/g ~ QK = f(z/zo).
Figure 13 shows the dimensionless liquid velocity
-4--
I_1
9
Ul/g~ ~ as a function of Z/Zo. The relationship rep-
0
resenting our data is
1 -2. o

gO8 gO.4QO.2 0.95

E06-
"'1
E
[]

13
2500
7222
2.0
3.5 + t.10
(zt-~176
- for z / z o > 0 . 8 [6]
X
~ 0~" o 5000 5.0 \ Zo/
E
0 6389 5.0
The first term is large only at a small distance from the
2500 5.0
nozzle since it decreases rapidly with increasing Z/Zo,
02 and far away from the nozzle, only the second term is
100 20b 40'0 'i0 0 2000 important. These two terms may be taken to represent
the contributions of the momentum transfer and of buoy-
distance from nozzle z , m m ancy, respectively. Eq. [6] is not valid very close to the
Fig. 12--Maximum value in radial profile of liquid velocity as a nozzle (z --> 0), where the liquid is accelerated from zero
function of distance from nozzle lU)(rnax) values]. (at z = 0) to some maximum value before it decays again

METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 25B, JUNE 1994--367

 d
l l i,. I i I I,,, I I
A I Ncm3s -i mm
\ t+- (~ ~ a~r/water 7222
I, / o 5000 ~51?presenf work,
\ ., ~ -2)0 -008m 5 Jair/wafer
u
o
\o _or :0951"--I +uo(L~ I = 2500
-~ 2" 9 5404
I 9 1211 I Kobus,
3 9 373 05~air/water
9 121 O5]
E 1.0- 1,6~ Milgram
d o 2341
._~ 0.8- 16~,and van Houfen,
x
Ncm~s-1 mm m 1171
?~ 06. | 6,99 1A[air/wafer
[] 2500 2.0 . . . . Ebnefh and Plusthkell
IIJ
A 7222 3.5 600 8 air/wafer
0t,- o 5000 50 x 800 8 ~Schneider and 0efers,
o
O 6389 5.0 + 500 B r air/wafer
o 2500 5.0 ~ 800 3 ~Xie and Oeters,
,- -.-, 500 3 J'Nz/Wood s metal
"~ 0.2
o16 ' i i. i k 20
dimensionless distance from nozzle z/z o
I | I I i I I
Fig. 13--Nondimensional correlation for maximum liquid velocity.
Same data as those in Figure t2,

with z. Also, Eq. [6] is not valid close to the meniscus, 2

where U~ decreases to zero. The relationship for Uj(zo) E
deduced from Eq. [6] by inserting Z/Zo = 1 is

U,(zo)
gO,~O~u; - 2.05 [7]

The experimental values of U~(zo) read from the U~ = z

5o- 04 ,-- . . . . . . . , . .f(,,)_-,~ '~"--- 1"
curves in Figure 12 are listed in Table I and are satis-
factorily in line with Eq. [7].
E
Experimental data on the liquid velocity in bubble jet
systems have been published by several au- .E
X
0.2
thors. [17"18'21'30'31] Figure 14 shows some of their data. The 13o
E
velocity values range from 0.3 to 4 ms -~. Some of the
data were obtained in large vessels, [tT,LS,2~Jsome in bench 1 --

scale vessels, 126,3~1 some with very high and some with 100 260 t,'00 600 ' llJ00 20'00 40'00
small gas flow rates. In the measurements of Kobus, tz~] distance from nozzle z mm
Milgram and van Houten, 1~8~ and of Ebneth and Fig. 1 4 - - D a t a of maximum liquid velocity obtained by other au-
Pluschkell, t~T1there is a gradual decrease of U~ with in- thors 1~7J8.21"26"31~in comparison with our data,
creasing z. In our results, the decrease is stronger. The
data of Xie and Oeters p~ and Schneider p~I show prac-
tically no variation of Uj with z. The data fall in a rather less important in comparison to the second term. For in-
wide range, but they can all be brought together fairly stance, for Z/Zo > 4, the first term in Eq. [6] becomes
well with correlation [6], as is shown in Figure 15. smaller than 4 pct of the second term. Hence, for suf-
The dependence of dimensionless velocity on the den- ficiently large z (z/z o > 4), our Eq. [6] approaches
sity ratio is not determined yet. The data of Xie and
Oeters p~ may indicate that Ul/g~ ~ decreases some- U, ( zt- ~ 176
what with decreasing Pg.b/P~. g0.4Q0.~ - 1. l 0 \20/- [9]
In the previous literature, [3~ equations of the type
which is equivalent to
Ut = K Q~ z -x [8] / \0.02~8
U, = 17.4Q~176176 z --~176 [10]
have been used to describe the liquid velocity Ut, with
\Pl/
K ranging from 0.24 to 0.34 and A either being zero (in-
dicating constant velocity over the liquid height) or very with Ut in cm s -l, Q b i n cm 3 s m, and d a n d z i n cen-
small. This equation is too simple to also cover the range timeters. The effect of d in Eq. [I0] is very small, and
of momentum transfer close to the nozzle. However, with (p~.b/pO~176 for air/water is 0.866. Neglecting d,
increasing z, the first term in our correlation [6] becomes Eq. [10] becomes, for air/water,

368--VOLUME 251"], JUNE 1994 METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B

 U~ = 15.1 Q0.2~4 z-O.08 [1 1] Figure 18 compares this relationship with data from
which is almost identical to the equation proposed by the literature, p3,24,26,28) including data on gas/metal sys-
Ebneth and Pluschkell. l~7] tems. All the measurements were taken with resistivity
probes. The data on the gas/metal combinations fall within
C. Gas Velocity the scatter band, indicating that the density ratio P~.b/P~
Figure 16 shows the dependence of axial gas velocity may have little effect on UJg~ ~ in addition to that
Ug on distance z from the nozzle. Again, there is a de- contained in z0. Again, there is considerable deviation
crease with increasing z. The scatter is comparatively
large, but still it is clearly evident that the gas velocity
increases with increasing gas flow rate Q and with de- 10 I l | I I I I

creasing nozzle diameter d. The dimensionless correla- c~

8 air/water
tion was determined in a manner similar to that used for
U~, finding the relationship
~, symbols see Figure 16
6-
5 o
1.6o To -i=-
t+-
O

+ 1.82 f o r z / z 0 > 0.6 [12] t/l 0 o

.
which is shown graphically in Figure 17. E
E
X
] eeo.
tO
E o,__ -o-o,
llJ 08 gO.4~o.z Z 0"
2-
06
t- (IJ
O.B-
-- 0.6- 0'.6 0'.8 h 10
dimensionless distance from nozzle z / z o
.-~
x 0.4- o present work
to
t= Fig. 17- - Nondimensional correlation for maximum gas velocity. Same
0.2-
r UI 0 9s(~) -~'~ 9 u 0 (~-)-~ data as those in Figure 16.
Zo Z0

~ 0.1
0',6 /, ~ ~ 4b 2/) ~o 6'0 1oo
dimensionless distance from nozzle z / z o t Z ~t-2.0~, Z

Fig. 15--Comparison of literature data I;7,~8.~'.~0.s~)on maximum liquid

.601 ) 182
-0.08

velocity with present data. For explanation of symbols see Figure 14.
~=5 /+"
l i i i i i m i i

air/water (1,Ncm]s -~ d,mm

20. o 2500 2.051 .m
7222 3. present work
o 5000 5.01large vessel 0

10 84 o 6389 5.~J
E 8' v 7778 10.
58 05]>previous work r
.,6 I~>l N : 151 0.5] small vessel
E 1-
/+.
,m
0.B" o present work -~
9 previous work _~air/wafer
> E 0.6- +
~, 2
[asfillejos and Brimacombe
o')
x Iguchi et aL
t- 0.4- 9
--~ 0efers et aI.,nitrogen/Wood's metal
E
O | [asti[Iejos and Brimacombe, nitrogen/
"~
E
0.8 t/1
r- mercury
OJ
0.6- E
0.t+ "~ 0.2 lb
20 ~'0 6'0 8'0 ioo 20'0 ~b0 ~8o '~o'oo 20'00 ~oo
distance from nozzle z , m m dimensionless distance from nozzle z/z o

Fig. 16--Maximum value in radial profile of gas velocity as a func- Fig. 18--Comparison of literature data123"24,26'281on maximum gas ve-
tion of distance from the nozzle. locity with Eq. [12].

METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B V O L U M E 25B, J U N E 1 9 9 4 - - 3 6 9

between the various sets of data, which is not surprising 10-
in view of the experimental difficulties with such 8- ? air/_wafer Ct , Ncm35-i d,mm
measurements and the different procedures used for 6-
o 2500 2.0
signal selection and signal evaluation. But, in total, the
z 4- 7222 35
correlation [12] represents all the data within A log o5000 5 present work
(Ub/g~176 2) = +0.12, corresponding to an uncertainty ta.J <>6389 5 1 large vesse[
of 30 pct in Uo, and this can be taken to be quite 'L 2- v 7778 I010]
satisfactory. t,o 9 58 05~ previous work
~._.~ " 151 015]"small vessel
to-
D. Bubble Frequency m 0.B-
o.6 o ~3
The relationship between axial value of bubble fre-
quency N and distance z from the nozzle is shown in
.~ 04 8
Figure 19 (Table II). Close to the nozzle, there are max-
ima on these curves; for larger distances, the decrease g o.2-
of N with z can be taken to be according to N ~ z-L
x
~ OA
E. Bubble Size 560 lodo 150'0 2000
distance from nozzle z , mm
The data of gas fraction e, bubble frequency n, and Fig. 2 0 - - B u b b l e size parameter Sb at center of plume as a function
bubble velocity ug can be combined to obtain a measure of distance z from the nozzle. The E and N values used are the E(max)
for the bubble size. el31 The ratio e/n represents the av- and N(max) values.
erage time Atg during which a spatial point in the flow
regime is in the gas phase. Multiplying this time
with the average bubble velocity, ag yields a parameter bubbles, t~31Previously, we called Sb the "bubble size pa-
Sb (= e fig~n), which is the average vertical length tra- rameter. "LI31The bubble size parameter is related to the
versed by the bubble during contact with the probe. This "pierced length" reported by other authors. 123'24'261 The
quantity also reflects the ratio Vb/Ab between the average pierced length of individual bubbles can be determined
volume 17b and the average horizontal cross-sectional area from double probe signals alone by multiplying the in-
94b of the bubble, which is equal to 4rJ3 for spherical dividual time lapse Atg with the individual bubble
velocity Uo of the same bubble. Hence, the time-averaged
pierced length is the time average of the product
1000 ' ' ' ' ' , Argue (= Ateu~), whereas our bubble size parameter-
800- air/wafer 13.,Ncm3s "i d,mm sb is the product of the time averages of Atb and
600- o 2500 2.0 Ug ( = Ate ag).
A 7222 3.5 The bubble size parameters Sb in the plume axis were
400- o 5000 5.0 computed according to

"7 E Ug
/" v 7778 10.0 & - I13J
200" '\' = 2500 5.0 N
z ,, ~ao,\ '\oN,X
using the max values for E and N (Table II). From
Figure 20, it is evident that Sb decreases strongly within
80, the first 300 mm above the nozzle and then stays con-
stant at Sb ~ 5 mm, which corresponds to an effective
~
& 60
spherical bubble radius of 3.75 mm.
='u t+O
VI. S U M M A R Y AND C O N C L U S I O N S
E
= 20- ~,x~X In the present work, the hydrodynamic characteristics
.g of bubble plumes have been investigated using a large-
x
t~ scale water model. The electroresistivity probe was ap-
E 10- plied to measure gas fraction, bubble frequency, and gas
0B- velocity, and a propeller anemometer was used to mea-
sure the liquid velocity. A complete set of data of the
06-
relevant properties has been obtained in the same inves-
0t, tigation, which hitherto was not available in the literature.
I01 2'00 ~,00 6'00'1d00 20bo t+ooo The nondimensional correlations are derived for the
axial values of the properties. Their structure reflects the
distance from nozzle z , mm different mechanisms of momentum transfer in the jet
Fig. ] 9 - - M a x i m u m value in radial profile of bubble frequency as a region above the nozzle with high gas fraction and in the
function of distance from the nozzle. region above where the bubble plume is fully developed.

370--VOLUME 25B, JUNE 1994 METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B

The height z over the nozzle is used in the correlations 2. J.O. Hinze: Turbulence, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY,
as a normalized quantity Z/Zo. The parameter z0 is a char- 1975.
3. O.C. Jones and N. Zuber: Proc. 5th Int. Heat Transfer
acteristic distance which depends on gas flow rate, noz- Conf. Tokyo, 1974, vol. 4, pp. 200-04.
zle diameter, and density and can be taken as some border 4. A. Serizawa, I. Kataoka, and I. Michiyoshi: Int. J. Multiphase
between the jet and plume regions. The derived non- Flow, 1975, vol. 2, pp. 235-46.
dimensional correlations cover wide ranges of the injec- 5. A. Serizawa, I. Kataoka, and I. Michiyoshi: Int. J. Multiphase
tion conditions and fit in with those previously derived Flow, 1975, vol. 2, pp. 247-59.
6. G. Carrard and T.J. Ledwidge: Proc. lnt. Syrup. on Two-
from small-scale experimentation. Phase Systems, Haifa, Israel, 1971, pp. 405-19.
Special attention has also been given in the present 7. O.C. Jones and N. Zuber: Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 1975, vol. 2,
work to the lateral wandering of the plume that occurs pp. 273-306.
in large vessels. 8. K. Akagawa: Bull. JSME, 1964, vol. 72 (25), pp. 123-29.
9. O.C. Jones: in Fluid Mechanics Measurements, Hemisphere
Publishing Co., New York, NY, 1983.
10. G.F. Hewitt: Proc. Int. Syrup. on Two-Phase Systems, Haifa,
LIST OF S Y M B O L S Israel, 1971, pp. 295-343.
2 vertical distance from the nozzle 11. H. Barthels: Chem.-lng.-Tech., 1968, vol. 40, pp. 530-37.
12. Y.Y. Hsu, R.J. Simoneau, F.F. Simon, and R.W. Graham: Proc.
Zo vertical distance from the nozzle where E(z) 11th Nat. ASME/AIChE Heat Transfer Conf., Minneapolis, MN,
= 50 pct 1969, pp. 1-23.
E local gas fraction 13. K.-H. Tacke, H.-G. Schubert, D.-J. Weber, and K. Schwerdtfeger:
E maximum on radial e profile Metall. Trans. B, 1985, vol. 16B, pp. 263-75.
14. A.H. Castillejos and J.K. Brimacombe: Metall. Trans. B, 1987,
n local bubble frequency vol. 18B, pp. 649-58.
N maximum on radial n profile 15. M.A.S.C. Castello-Branco: Dr. hag. Thesis, Technische Universi~t
Ul local liquid velocity (z component) Clausthal, Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany, 1988.
Ul maximum on radial u~ profile 16. B. Barczewski: Neue Messverfahren fiir Wasser/Luftgemische und
deren Anwendung auf zweiphasige Auftriebsstrahlen, Mitteilungen
Ug local gas velocity des lnstitus fiir Wasserbau, 1979, Heft 45, Universit~t Stuttgart,
maximum on radial Ug profile Germany.
Sb bubble size parameter (=EUg/N) 17. G. Ebeneth and W. Pluschkell: Steel Res., 1985, vol. 56,
& bubble size parameter at the plume centerline pp. 513-18.
[=EUJN] 18. J.H. Milgram and R. Van-Houten: Proc. 3rd Int. Conf.
BOSS (Behavior of Off-Shore Structures), 1982, vol. 1,
So threshold voltage pp. 659-84.
d nozzle diameter 19. J.H. Milgram: J. Fluid Mech., 1983, vol. 33, pp. 345-76.
Q volumetric gas flow rate at normal conditions 20. L.H.J. Goossens and J.M. Smith: Chem.-lng. Tech., 1975,
of temperature and pressure (NTP) vol. 47, p. 951.
21. H. Kobus: in Bemessungsgrundlagen und Anwendungen fiir
Ob volumetric gas flow rate at the nozzle exit Luftschleier im Wasserbau, E. Schmidt, ed., Springer-Verlag,
Pb absolute gas pressure at the nozzle exit Bietefeld, Germany, 1973.
At time interval 22. R. Nottenk~imper: Dr. Ing. Thesis, Universit~it Dortmund,
ti integration time (= iAt with i = integer) Dortmund, Germany, 1983.
tm total measuring time 23. A.H. Castillejos and J.K. Brimacombe: Metall. Trans. B, 1987,
vol. 18B, pp. 659-71.
P~ liquid density 24. A.H. Castillejos and J K . Brimacombe: Metall. Trans. B, 1989,
Pg,b gas density at nozzle exit vol. 20B, pp. 595-601.
25. S.C. Koria and S. Singh: Steel Res., 1990, vol. 61,
pp. 287-94.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 26. Y. Xie, S. Orsten, and F. Oeters: Iron Steellnst. Jpn. Int., 1992,
vol. 32, pp. 66-75.
This work was supported, in part, by funds from the 27. A.E. Dukler and Y. Taitel: in Multiphase Science and
Arbeitsgemeinschafl Industrieller Forschungsvereini- Technology, Hemisphere Publishing Co., New York, NY, 1986,
gungen e.V. through Grant No. AIF-6039, and, in part, vol. 2.
28. M. Iguchi, H. Tomida, A. Kawajiri, T. Uemura, and Z. Morita:
by funds from the Gesellschaft for Technische Proc. 6th Int. Iron and Steel Congress, Nagoya, Japan, Iron and
Zusammenarbeit. The authors wish to thank Dipl.-Ing. Steel Institute of Japan, Tokyo, 1990, pp. 469-76.
U. Kaeckenhoff for carrying out some of the 29. K. Schwerdtfeger: Proc. 6th Int. Iron and Steel Congress, Nagoya,
measurements. Japan, Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, Tokyo, 1990,
pp. 580-90.
30. Y. Xie and F. Oeters: Steel Res. 1992, vol. 63, pp. 93-104.
3l. S. Schneider: Dr. Ing. Thesis, Technical University Berlin, Berlin,
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METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 25B, JUNE 1994--371