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I THE ARUP JOURNAL

3/1997
THEARUP. Front cover:
American Air Museum, Duxford (Photo: Peter Mackinven)
Back cover:
Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. Wellington
(Photo: Michael Hall)

JOURNAL
Vol 32 No 3 Editor:
3/1997 David J Brown
Art Editor:
Published by Desmond Wyeth FCSD
Ove Arup Partnership Deputy Editor:
13 Fitzroy Street Beth Morgan
London W1 P 6BQ
Editorial:
Tel : +44(Ol171 636 1531 Tel: +44 (0) 171 465 3828
Fax: +44 (0 171 580 3924 Fax: +44 (0) 171 465 3675

Museum of New Zealand The national treasures of New Zealand are now housed in this
Te Papa Tongarewa 3 new building on a prime waterfront site in the nation's capital.
Pippa Connolly Ove Arup & Partners' design responsibilities embraced both a
wide range of structural applications - including all of the
building steelwork, several internal and external bridges ,
structural support for the large areas of glazing, and the
precast concrete cladding system - and the civil engineering
design. The latter included dynamic consolidation and the
requirements to accommodate the interface between a base
isolated building designed to withstand the earthquake forces
anticipated in this seismically unstable region .

The American Air Museum, The new permanent home for the Imperial War Museum's
Duxford 10 collection of American aircraft consists of a 90m span double-
David Andrews skin precast concrete shell , designed to accommodate the
Gabriele Del Mese giant 852 bomber plus 20 other aircraft. Several of them,
Kevin Franklin weighing up to 10 tonnes, are hung from the roof. The design
Chris Wise team's concept aimed to combine visual calmness of form with
effective passive environmental control and use of natural light,
all within a very tight construction and maintenance budget.

Control Techniques' R&D The client's brief was for a research & development
HQ, Newtown, Powys 16 headquarters and administrative centre separately
Dick Lee accommodated within a single building. Arup Associates' two-
Declan O'Carroll storey design met these requirements in a curved plan shape
that exploited the natural contours of the greenfield site.

New materials The question is often asked 'What new materials are available
for construction 18 to designers and constructors?' To develop a meaningful
Simon Cardwell response, this article takes a fresh look at how materials used
Bob Cather in construction may be categorised , and sometimes
Steven Groak re-categorised , as their properties and capabilities become
more thoroughly understood and in some cases developed
and enhanced by materials scientists.

The Observational Method This article , based on a report by Arups for the UK
in ground engineering 21 Construction Industry Research & Information Association
Che-Ming Tse (CIRIA), describes the continuous process of predicting,
Duncan Nicholson monitoring , reviewing , and modifying geotechnical designs
which has come to be known as the Observational Method.
The OM is shown to have a number of advantages over the
alternative method of a fully developed and predefined design,
as demonstrated through several practical applications on
Arup projects.

2 THE ARUP JOURNAL 311997


Museum of New Zealand
Te Papa Tongarewa
Pippa Connolly

1. Wellington waterfront reflections viewed from the Marae in the new Museum.

2. Site location.

Introduction
New Zealand's National Museum and Art Gallery Further approval for design and construction
opened in 1936, and is the repository of the was granted in early 1990. In the same year an
nation's treasures. However, because the original international two-stage competition was won by
main building was reduced in size during its JASMAX Architects. supported by a team of
design phase it was always too small, which consultants including Ove Arup &Partners in joint
forced the unsatisfactory compromise of the venture as structural, civil , and fa9ade engineers
collection being housed in several locations with Holmes Consulting Group. In May 1992 the
around the capital city, Wellington. Government authorised construction.
A series of consultations with groups throughout A distinctive characteristic of New Zealand is
New Zealand led to the proposal to build on the the two mainstreams of cultural heritage: that of
Wellington waterfront the Museum of New the Tangata Whenua (those who belong to the
Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa ('Te Papa') - the land by right of discovery) and the predominantly
Maori part of the name loosely translates as European Tangata Tiriti (tho~e who belong to
'treasure house' (Fig 2). In 1986 the Government the land by right of the Waitangi Treaty). The
approved the project in principle and directed Museum's fundamental concept is to integrate
the then Minister of Internal Affairs to continue the essence of these two cultures. expressing
consultations. The concept was given the their interaction, while at the same time revealing
go-ahead for planning purposes in April 1987. and retaining their diversity.

THE ARUP JOURNAL 311997 3


4.
350-seat auditorium Ove Arup & Partners were
responsible for structural design of the extensive
limber acoustic panelling and raised/tiered seating.
3.
Carvers at work in the Marae.
0 20 60

10 30 90m Marina

A unique feature of this philosophy is the


positioning of a Marae (Maori Meeting House)
within the Museum (Fig 3). Traditionally Maraes Wellington Harbour
are focal points for individual Maori tribes, but this
new Marae is open to every tribe and culture, and
all New Zealanders will be able to use it for their
festivals and events.
The Museum's total floor space of more than
36 ooom2 accommodates - apart from the Marae
and the permanent exhibition spaces - a children's
learning centre, a touring exhibition gallery, a
temporary exhibitions hall, purpose-designed
storage facilities, visitor viewing rooms, visible
collection storage areas, a library, a resource
centre, a 350-seat auditorium (Fig 4), a 'theatrette'
for 50 people, demonstration areas, classrooms,
a restaurant and cafe, the Museum shop, work-
shops, and offices for Museum staff. Incorporated Exhibition space
in the lowest level is a car park for 250 vehicles.
The final design 1s geometrically unusual with
many sculptural forms linked to interpretation of
the building incorporated in the structure (Fig 5). Natural light gallery
External landscaping enhances the spectacular

[_____
site with an external exhibit area known as the
Harbour Park (Fig 6). This aims to give visitors
the chance to explore New Zealand's varied
environment and experience at close hand a
selection of its unique flora, fauna, and geology,
an effect achieved by incorporating different
areas of vegetation and rock displays, including a 5. Site plan
recreated limestone cave and simulated fossil dig.

6.
The Harbour Park

4 THE A RUP JOURNAL 311997


Project responsibilities
Arups was responsible for the structural design of
all the steelwork - comprising mainly sculptural
roofs, bridges, and glazing restraint - the civil
design of all external works, and the design of the
precast cladding system. The project involved
staff from many Arup offices: fai;:ade expertise
came from Sydney, as did much technical advice
on specifications; Arup Research & Development
in London provided further input, and Arup Fire
gave advice after a fire during construction
caused some damage. The Brisbane office
provided peer review for civil works, while the
Advanced Technology group in London peer
reviewed the seismic design parameters for the
structure and verified the base isolation system.
The site
The waterfront site for the new Museum is
spectacular: surrounded by hills, it faces down
the harbour towards the Rimutaka hills (Fig 7).
It also has several features that significantly 7.
affected the building design. Located mainly Looking down the harbour from the touring exhibition gallery, during construction.
on land reclaimed post-war, the Museum site
could be susceptible to flooding , like all the
Wellington waterfront. Of particular concern
was the likelihood of seiching (the immediate
wave in the harbour due to earthquakes on
the nearby Wellington or West Wairarapa
Faults), as well as tsunamis from more distant
earthquakes. Wellington is one of the most
highly seismic regions in New Zealand, and as
well as everything else, wind gusts there have
a legendary strength. 8.
The brief Moving the
The extensive brief prepared by the Museum Museum Hotel.
incorporated the specific performance require-
ments of a 150-year design life; in particular:
the probability of less than 50% significant
damage in 150 years, corresponding to a
250-year return period for seismic design
a less than 7% probability of collapse in
150 years, corresponding to a 2000-year
return period for seismic design.
Site preparation
Work began on the site in mid-1993. After
demolition of some basic warehouse structures,
a five-storey reinforced concrete hotel was moved
off the site (Fig 8) and across the adjacent main
road (Cable Street). With the hotel out of the way,
the inherently unstable site was dynamically 142 hysteretic damping base isolators, consisting
consolidated by dropping up to 30 tonne weights of layers of steel plates and rubber with central
from a height of up to 30m at regular intervals cores of lead, were supplied to the site (Fig 10)
(Fig 9). The process of consolidation lowered and installed with simple bolt fixings to the pad
site levels by up to 1m, improving its capacity foundations. They dampen horizontal seismic
sufficiently to found the whole structure on pad accelerations generated during an earthquake to
footings. It also reduced the risk of liquefaction and such a extent that it was possible to detail the
potential for the site to slide on an existing marine structure for a 1 in 2000-year earthquake without
interface layer. collapse. Inter-storey deflections are minimised,
typically to 40mm for a 150-year design life.
Base isolation
Movements at the level of the isolator are up to
The basic building structure is a five-storey 500mm, requiring the detailing around the building
reinforced concrete frame, with shear walls in perimeter to take into account movements of non-
one direction and frame action in the other; most isolated adjacent structures so that there is only
of its beams and slabs are precast. The decision minor damage to either.
was made to base-isolate the whole building as
this offered the best compromise between initial
cost and optimum performance in the case of 10.
earthquakes. The principal advantages of seismic Base isolator on pad footing
base isolation are: with formwork being installed
around it to cast the protruding
a significant reduction of seismic design forces bolts into the ground floor beams.
much-reduced ductility demand in the structure
a reduction in the anticipated level of structural
and non-structural damage
reduced floor accelerations, limiting potential 9.
damage to both the artifacts housed 1n the Dynamic consolidation.
building and to its services
reduced floor-to-floor drifts, which simplifies
detailing of cladding, stairs, etc.

THE ARUP JOURNAL 3/1997 5


12.
These bearings were not suitable for wall locations Coefficients for ultimate and serviceability design, depending on the calculated period of the structural
where high compression and tension forces element; coefficients vary depending on the element orientation as a result of the varying building stiffness in
occur, so here PTFE ( Teflon) sliding bearings each direction. Vertical accelerations are unaffected by the base isolation system.
were used (Fig 11 ).
2000-year 250-year
ultimate service
2.50
- Horizontal north/south
seismic coefficients
2.25
_ Horizontal east/west
2.00 seismic coefficients
"'
.,
E 1.75 Vertical seismic
'6 - coefficients
:
2l
u
1.50
Ductility = 1.0
11 . c:
Two sizes of sliding bearings, .,
~ 1.25 Damping= 5%
awaiting installation below walls. 0
.ll
E 1.00
"'
.;
U)
Site-specific earthquake acceleration time 0.75
histories and response spectra were generated
0.50
for each of the return periods, and appropriate
damping was used to generate design spectra 0.25
specific for the Museum. These spectra were then
used as design criteria for every element of the 0.00
structure (Fig 12). 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Period (seconds)
Precast concrete cladding
As base isolation techniques protect the building
from earthquake damage, so Wellington's extreme
weather is kept at bay by the 15 OOO unreinforced
precast concrete cladding panels that cover the The blockwork walls are built off the perimeter It was unavoidable that the precast cladding
exterior. These are all 70mm thick and mostly floor beams at each level and are secured only would span all the movement joints between the
1.87m x 865mm, though on some the long at their heads by shear fixings which can slide blockwork and the concrete frame (Figs 14a & b),
dimension is extended to 1.95m. The panels form horizontally. Gaps of 40mm to adjacent columns and creating the building's complex geometry
the outer layer of a double skin which operates as allow for inter-storey deflections under peak while catering for those movements presented
a pressure-equalised rain screen system. The seismic loading; these joints incorporate flexible one of the most challenging aspects of the
uniform 15mm joints between panels are partially waterproof 'bandages' and fire-preventing material. design. The principle of the movement is that the
filled with a purpose-made gasket. Each panel is cladding moves with the blockwork, not the con-
supported at its corners by stainless steel kerf crete frame. To achieve this, across the move-
brackets; these are bolted to stainless steel 14a. ment joints the secondary brackets are replaced
secondary brackets which in turn are supported Blockwork jointing by stainless steel rolled hollow square sections.
off reinforced blockwork walls built around the at the south end of These are fixed to the blockwork, but have a
building perimeter between the concrete frame. the Wall. The black sliding joint on the adjacent concrete (Fig 15).
The face of the blockwork is coated with a stripes are the
waterproof membrane with a layer of insulation flexible waterproofing 15.
installed across 40mm Bridging steel across seismic joint.
incorporated in the gap between the wall face
movement joints
and the rear of the panels. The total distance prior to application of
from the base blockwork wall to the panel face is waterproof membrane
200mm (Fig 12). across whole Wall.

14b. (Below)
South end of the Wall
fully clad in basalt
precast cladding.

13
Panel/wall
connection detail.

6 Tl1E ARUP JOURNAL 311997


16. View of the Museum from the Harbour Park, with the 'wetlands' in the foreground and the orientation building, with associated Harbour Park bridge, to the right.
The north end of the 'Wall' is to the right.

17.
East elevation showing dolomite cladding
panels in varying forms. The sloping panels
at the base of the building in the foreground
are retaining walls, forming landscaping and
a ceremonial approach to the Marae.

Wind loads (of up to 68m/s basic wind speed)


governed the design of the panels themselves,
while seismic loads governed the bracket and
fixing design.
Development of the kerf bracket design led to a
single bracket being used to support the adjacent
corners of four panels. Each bracket takes the
vertical load of the two panels above while simply
restraining the two below against wind load.
The turned down 'tang' of the lower support also
acts as a flashing to direct water away from the
cladding cavity.
The panels are made from a 25mm structural
facing mix with 45mm of standard grey concrete
backing mix; both mixes have a strength of 35MPa.
The facing mix for each panel incorporates one of
two types of aggregate, either a yellow dolomite
or a dark grey basalt. Two types of finish are used,
an exposed aggregate and a polished face.
The darker, grey, panels are used exclusively
internally and externally. This is on 'the wall', the
strong 100m element that leads right through the
building, while the dolomite panels are used every-
where else, with the difference between polished
and exposed finishes providing emphasis as
necessary. Some panels are curved in order to
define the geometry of the building (Fig 17).
Grade 316 stainless steel was used for all
brackets and bolts to give optimum durability.

THE ARUP JOURNAL 311997 7


18. Orientation lobby from Harbour Park, showing curved precasl panels.

Steel design the Museum. followed closely by the complete Part of the visitor experience in the Harbour Park
The steelwork design required close collaboration skeleton of a rare Pygmy Blue Whale. is the swing bridge, the brief having required
with JASMAX to establish a multitude of solutions Bridges form an integral part of the museum. a 'moving bridge' capable of being negotiated
for the differing locations. Much of the steelwork is Internally they criss-cross the multi-storey voids, a by wheelchairs. This bridge, which consists of
exposed and forms a fundamental part of the notably unusual one, the lhonui bridge, curving a series of cables strung between abutments
architectural expression. Uses ranged from basic across the wedge-shaped central space (Fig 19). and carrying boards at their base, passes over
staircases to the live-storey high entrance glazing Its support is taken substantially from lour hangers a stream flowing into wetlands and the more
support and restraint system, other large openings fixed to the roof above. articulated with large pin adventurous visitors can certainly instigate a
in the orientation lobby (Fig 18), and a three-leaf, joints. Differential movements at each end of the significant swinging motion (Fig 20).
variably opening, ceremonial door, 8m wide and bridge are accommodated with sliding bearings. Corrosion of external steelwork was investigated
two storeys high. Bearings to allow for movements up to SOOmm in depth with Arup Research & Development.
The roof forms incorporate many curves and were required for the Harbour Park bridge, which The environment is very corrosive, being right on
geometrically unusual shapes, all formed in a spans from the main building out to the orientation the waterfront with strong winds to carry moist,
variety of structural steel (Figs 16, 17 & 20 ). The building in the Harbour Park. This is essentially a salt-laden air onto every element. All external
main exhibition spaces are column-free, spanned propped cantilever, painted yellow, mostly hung connections are either fully welded or pinned, all
up to 27m by square hollow section trusses, all of from the main structure (Fig 16). The requirement pins being stainless steel (grade 316) as are the
which incorporate in their design hanging points to cater for large movements results from the plates they connect. Where these plates connect
for exhibition loads. The heaviest was judged to bridge connecting a base-isolated building and a to the structure the weld interlace is painted to
be a Tiger Moth aeroplane currently owned by traditionally-founded building. prevent corrosion.

19. lhonui bridge.

8 THE ARUP JOURNAL 311997


Construction Conclusion Credits
Building the museum incorporated several New Zealand's Prime Minister Jim Bolger has Client.
techniques new to New Zealand. The first was been involved in the whole process and laid the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa Board
the concept of construction management. All the foundation stone 1n 1993. Construction started the Architect:
work was let 1n construction packages, starting same year, and Jim Bolger was on hand again in JASMAX Architects
with the hotel move. The main structure and 1995 for the topping-out of the main structure.
body of the building formed another, while all The Queen also visited the site in her trip to New Exhib,llon consultants.
the services were let individually, with many other Zealand in 1995. At the time of writing, the project Ralph Appelbaum & Associates
packages running alongside. Carson Project was on schedule and budget for the opening in Project manager:
Management managed the individual contractors February 1998; exhibitions were being installed. Carson Group
with assistance from a partnering agreement. with aspects of the structural design tested to Structural and civil engineers:
As soon as each contractor was appointed. a their full extent. One window on level 4 had to be Holmes Arup Joint Venture
partnering meeting was held with members of designed as fully openable to allow the ingress of Ove Arup & Partners Mike Brading, Paul Callum.
the construction and design teams and the client a full-sized war canoe as one of the maori exhibits P1ppa Connolly, Joanna Fenwick. Roger Lovell,
body, with the goal of producing a charter aimed - which was successfully achieved 1n May 1997. Colin Roberts. Dan Ryan . Pete Tillson. Rob Walsham.
at improving team relationships. The principal The raised 33mm thick plywood floor covering the Martin Wehner (structural)
Clive Humphries (civil)
benefit of this approach was to put a mechanism 10 QOOm2 of exhibition space was designed to John Perry (Arup Fa<;ade Engmeenng)
in place where issues were aired as soon as they carry a forklift for exhibit installalion. The flexibility David Moorehead (Arup Research & Development)
surfaced and solutions agreed early 1n the provided for cabling routes and fixing of partitions Mike Willford (Advanced Technology)
process, thus avoiding lengthy negotiations and and the like proved invaluable as exhibits have Geotechnical engineers:
adversarial stances. been installed. Tonkin and Taylor
All work was carried out under IS09000-9003 The true drama of the building is only now Quantity surveyors:
principles. taking shape as the exhibitions bring life to the Russell Drysdale and Thomas
diverse spaces. The whole project has been Landscape architects:
undertaken very much in the public eye. and it Boffa Miskell Partners Ltd
will be some time before the final verdict is
reached as to its success. Environmental wind consultants:
Works Consultancy
Building contractors:
Dynamic consolidation: Mainzeal
20. Base building: Fletcher Construction
Harbour Park External works: McKee Fehl
'swing bridge' Base isolators: Skellerup Industries
springing Steelwork: Stevensons Joint Venture
from replica Precast cladding panels: Precision Precast1ng
limestone Illustrations:
cave. 1, 3: Norman Heke
( Museum of New Zealand
Te Papa Tongarewa)
2: Courtesy JASMAX Architects
4, 16, 19, 21 : Michael Hall
( Museum of New Zealand
Te Papa Tongarewa)
5, 12: Sean McDermott
6, 14b. 17. 18, 20: Rob Walsham
7. 10, 11 , 14a: PippaConnolly
8: Jan Nauta
( Museum of New Zealand
Te Papa Tongarewa)
9. Ove Arup & Partners
13. 15. Colin Roberts

21. Southern elevation from Cable Street. Uplift pressures of up to 7.5kpa were designed for on the ~antilever roof..

THE ARUP JOURNAL 3/1997 9


The American Air Museum, Duxford
David Andrews Gabriele Del Mese Kevin Franklin Chris Wise

Introduction
Duxford, about 8km south of Cambridge,
England, has been a working airfield since 1918.
Founded to train British pilots for the Great War.
its association with American military aviation
extends from 15 March that year when the 159
US Aero Squadron marched in from nearby
Whittlesford railway station. They lived under
canvas and built their own mess to cater for their
different tastes in food and drink (coffee not tea).
The historic listed hangars from that time survive
to this day, except one which was blown up, on .
purpose, during the making of the Battle of Britain
film. In the Second World War, Duxford was used
by the USAAF 8th Air Force as a fighter base,
active from 1943 to 1945. It was closed in 1961,
but was taken over by the Imperial War Museum
in 1972 to be opened to the public four years later
as a Museum housing a fine collection of historic
British and American aircraft. Some of these still
grace the skies with the beauty of their lines and
the roar of their engines, whilst many others have
been lovingly restored and still more are under-
going countless hours of diligent restoration by
Imperial War Museum staff and volunteers.
For many years the Museum's collection of
American aircraft. the finest outside the USA. had
languished in the open air. and an initiative was
taken almost 12 years ago to launch a campaign
to fund and build a new American Air Museum for 2. Plan of the aircraft within
the American planes - a project conceived in part the building (the planes shown
as a tribute to the nearly 30 OOO American airmen in pink are suspended).
who lost their lives during the Second World War,
flying from English airfields including Duxford. The Funding
centrepiece was to be the sinister B52 bomber, After the initial effort, the project had to be The structure of the building aligns completely
with its 61m wingspan and tail fin 16m high. The shelved due to recession and lack of sufficient with these aims, and is deliberately underplayed
scheme that evolved with Norman Foster as funds, and detailed design only took off again to give a very calm background against which to
architect, Ove Arup & Partners as structural, early in 1995, thanks to fund-raising on both sides view the exhibits. In the end the design team
geotechnical. and acoustic engineers. and of the Atlantic. The film actors Charlton Heston chose the essentially simple form of a great shell
J Roger Preston as environmental engineers, was and the late James Stewart led the campaign on partly buried in a raised landscape.
largely shaped by the need to house this giant, the American side, and Field Marshall Lord
and the desire to hang many smaller planes from Early in the design process, the team compared
Bramhall in Britain. 60 OOO individual donations steel and concrete roof solutions, showing that a
the roof. The suspended planes, weighing up to were made to the project, much of it from the
10 tonnes, range from an F100 Supersabre to a concrete building could keep the temperature
USA. With great foresight, this money was mainly above the dew-point so that condensation did not
U2 spy plane, from a PT13 Stearman to a TBM3 used to finance detailed design work so that the
Avenger. The grounded planes in the exhibition occur, with a minimum of dehumidification plant.
project was well placed to receive the first ever A detailed life cycle cost study showed the con-
include - apart from the 80 tonnes B52 grant, of 6.5M, from the Heritage Lottery Fund.
Stratofortress - an F111 , a B25, a B29, an F4. crete solution, with its inherent low maintenance
This was later supplemented by a further $1M and minimal dehumidification, to be in overall
and a P47 Thunderbolt, amongst others. A 45 from Saudi Arabia in gratitude to the US and
tonne section of the notorious Iraqi 'Supergun' is terms the most cost-effective. even though the
British Forces for their efforts in the Gulf War. structure itself with its larger foundations was
fortunately mounted on the floor.
The design marginally more expensive.
Key aims of the design were: The roof
low capital cost The roof spans up to 90m, and is made from two
precast concrete shells only 100mm thick,
low cost in use spaced 900mm apart. At the front of the building
ease of construction the structure behaves mainly as an arch, and at
effective passive temperature control the back, where it is very flat, as a beam. The
membrane action of the shells allows load sharing
maximum use of controlled natural light in two directions. especially under the weight of
1. The 21 aircraft accommodated, effective condensation control. the suspended aircraft. Forces from the concrete
starting with the 852 (far left). Elegance and grace of form were prerequisites. roof shells are collected into an in silu curved
upper concrete ring beam, and then passed
across a 'daylight slot' via 34 steel arms spaced
at approximately every 4m to a lower in situ ring
beam and finally to the abutments and foundations.

10 THE ARUP JOURNAL 3/1997


The proiect would be affordable 1f it were possible
to create a very efficient structure that was simple
to manufacture and build. Key to this was the
choice of a rational construction geometry for the
curved roof shell so that it could be made from
high quality, factory-produced components. Under
dead load. a funicular shape would give simple 6. Shell roof detail showing lower T precast units,
direct stresses in the shells, but manufacture in upper precast roof units.
concrete of a doubly curved structure of constantly
changing radius would mean that there would be
nearly 1000 one-off components. In any case, the
structure needs significant bending capacity to
deal with the point loads from the suspended
aircraft and other asymmetrical loads, and this 4. Definition of the torus geometry to
means it needs depth. accommodate the 852 plane: major
The geometry was solved by designing the roof radius 277m, minor radius 63m.
out of components cut from a torus (doughnut).
which 1s defined by only two constant radii. In this
way the 924 precast panels of the roof could be
made from only six sets of standard shell compo-
nents. The 27 4 lower precast curved panels have
an inverted T cross-section, and weigh about 12.5
tonnes each. 650 upper precast units stitched to
the ribs of the lower T-shaped panels complete 7. Lower precast units showing cast-in
the whole roof, which weighs about 6000 tonnes reinforcement for the in situ connections.
and covers 6500m2 of floor area. Each lower pre-
cast T unit is provided with two aircraft suspen-
sion points by means of cast-in steel sockets with Soil/structure interaction
a capacity of 13.5 tonnes in any direction. The The roof discharges its thrusts through the
sockets were neatly used during construction to abutments onto spread foundations constructed
clamp the shell units onto the temporary staging. 5. Precast concrete roof modules. against chalk. Horizontal thrusts are of the
order of 100 tonnes/m, with a vertical load of
Concrete roof Steel roof
40 tonnes/m. Close to the surface, the chalk is
weathered to Grade 1 to 2, but reaches a
\I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I \I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I \I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I competent Grade 4 within 2m-5m. Chalk fractures
into blocks which makes prediction of its properties
complex and rather empirical. While there are
considerable data on its vertical stiffness and
creep performance, data for chalk's horizontal
stiffness do not exist and so had to be derived
from first principles.
Temperature profile summer peak
Given the sensitivity of shell structures to
32 r-.,...-,--r--r--,,--,.....'!"""".,..."T'"...,.....,.-,::l\l'f,.......,....llfiill~ -r"--r--i~r-r-.-, movements of their supports, this was the subject
of much debate during the structural analysis.
Eventually, a series of parametric analyses were
carried out using the Arup non-linear program
FABLON. The softness of the chalk was varied
well above and below expected values so that
the sensitivity of the roof to movements of its
foundations could be properly explored. Extremes
of construction tolerances, concrete shrinkage,
External
and temperature effects were built into the same
parametric study to build up an overall picture of
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
the roof behaviour.
T,me (24 hour clock)
The chalk strata themselves were analysed
3 (Above and below). Roof study: concrete and steel as climate modifiers. to ensure an adequate margin of safety against
Temperature profile - winter peak
slip-circle failure.

8. Load path from roof to foundations


showing possible slip-circle failure.

2 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (24 hour clock)

THE ARUP JOURNAL 3/1997 11


9. Corner Junction of four lower The glazed wall The circular geometry given by the torus departs
precast units prior to concreting. At the front of the building the arched opening 1s from the ideal funicular shape that would maximise
closed by a glazed wall some 90m across and arch action. This. and the fact that the roof must
18m high. The glazing support structure is a accommodate suspended loads. means that the
series of twin vertical steel plate mullions 25mm structure has to resist significant bending stresses
thick and 40mm apart, spaced at 3m centres. as well as membrane ones. Boundary conditions
It 1s stabilised out-of-plane by the roof, but 1s for the model (and 1n details of the real building)
otherwise self-supporting, using single-glazed were carefully selected. with thermal and shrinkage
19mm sheets of glass, the largest of which are strains controlled as follows:
3m wide by 5.5m high. (The thickness of the The front of the roof is fully restrained .
glass is beneficial in limiting the transfer of solar
radiation.) As the height of the opening varies, the The steel arms are given flexibility on plan.
twin mullions are simply plasma-cut from 25mm The back of the roof is supported vertically but
steel plate to match the bending moment is free to move laterally on sliding bearings.
diagram. The taller mullions are deeper, the The curvature of the roof allows out-of-plane
shorter ones shallower, but all are within a family movement.
of curved profiles.To prevent buckling of the
compression zone, the plates are clamped The assembled loadcases, around 17 1n all,
10
Pouring in together 1n pairs by studs. To ensure overall included allowances for wind, snow, temperature
s1tu stitches stability of the fa<;ade 1n its own plane. the double changes. creep, shrinkage, and patch loading of
to roof lower plate mullions are linked into vierendeel frames, the suspended aircraft Post-processing of the
precast each with two mullions and one set of transoms. analysis output was spreadsheet-based, ideal for
units. Between the vierendeel sets the transoms are manipulating large quantities of numbers -
loose-fit to provide erectton tolerance. a result of the 'one loadcase at a time' side of
non-linear work. A 'worst credible' scenario was
The glass fa<;ade was assembled in situ once all also considered with reduced load factors,
the aircraft had been placed inside the building or drastically reduced foundation stittness values.
suspended from the roof structure, and eventually and the worst structural setting-out imaginable,
erected by rotating the assembled pairs of mullions up to 100mm out of position.
around their pinned feet into their vertical position.
The whole system can be lowered to the ground Structural engineering often involves thousands
in the same manner to allow major changes in the of man-hours distilhng a complex idea into
11 (below). aircraft exhib1t1on. This 1s planned to happen something that appears very simple. Lengthy
Erecting and every 10 years or so. and sophisticated analysis of the Duxford roof
placing upper eventually proved that the shells could be
precast units. Analysis reinforced extremely simply, with typically two
The structure was analysed in 30 also using layers of 8mm bars at 150mm centres 1n two
FABLON. which catered for the p-delta ettects directions. Areas of reinforcement were
of foundation movement and shell deflection generated in this manner and attributed to
together with a study of the ettect of setting-out zones of the roof surface to build up a map of
construction irregularities. A comparison of linear required reinforcement so simple that it could
and non-linear analyses of the roof showed that be contained on one sheet of A4 paper.
the behaviour of the shells was only mildly
non-linear. The non-linear model was also used The predicted deflections of the front arch were
to explore the buckling behaviour of the roof. about 50mm upon depropp1ng, doubling 1n the
showing that it has a factor of safety against long term. The measured deflection upon
buckling failure 1n excess of 6. depropping was also about 50mm. Long-term
movement monitoring, including foundation
movement, is ongoing summer and winter
until 2000.

14 Laboratory tension tests


on 100mm roof panels.

12. Aerial view of the nearly completed shell.


Formwork for the in situ canopy in the foreground.
June 1996.

13 A to L. General construction sequence:


A 2 February 1996. B. 7 February 1996. C 20 February 1996 D. 26 February 1996

12 THE ARUP JOURNAL 3/1 7


15.
The shell at the topping
out ceremony. July
1996. The perimeter
light slot is v1s1ble.
starling from the front
foundations and
increasing ,n width
as ,t moves to the rear
of the shell.

16. Positioning a secllon of the Iraqi super-gun.


weighing 45 tonnes. September 1996

17.
The completed
shell roof prior to
de-propping.
June 1996.

18
Suspending the
first aircraft.
the U2 spy plane
weighing 5.9 tonnes.
September 1996

E. 27 March 1996 F. 2 April 1996. G 8 May 1996. H. 5 June 1996. Sequence continues II,
Environmental/structural interaction Construction 22. South-east side:
Humidity Work began in earnest in October 1995, just inclined columns supporting
The nature and material of the building were in before the onset of winter. As chalk excavation the lower in situ edge beam at abutment level.
part determined by the need to provide a carefully was inv~lved. the project was fortunate during the
controlled humidity regime with minimum active foundation works to have very little rain, but it was
control. This is because, although planes do not affected by severe cold. Frost blankets and
mind extremes of heat or cold, they are sensitive heating were used to protect the concrete during
to condensation, which attacks their frames curing. Some five months on. the structure of
from the inside. The Museum is divided into two heavily reinforced abutments emerged from the
distinct areas: a large display area for the aircraft, ground, allowing placement of the first steel arms
where temperature control is unnecessary, and that support the roof at the rear of the building.
humidity is at 50% RH maximum, and a small The precast units were then craned into position
exhibition space for displays and artefacts. For on temporary falsework. Some 800 tonnes of steel
the latter area the environmental conditions are falsework was used to limit roof deformation
temperatures of 22C2C in summer and during construction, and the entire roof was kept
17C2 in winter. while humidity is 55% RH. propped until all precast units were placed, so
Conditions in both spaces are maintained that no transfer of loads to the foundations took
24 hours/day. place until the whole structure was assembled
and ready to work as predicted. On a good day
Temperature th~ contractors erected either eight lower precast
The thermal mass of the concrete shell, together units or 40 upper units. Depropping began at
with the partly buried form, is sufficient to buffer the end of June 1996 and took about a week to
extremes of heat and cold, effectively averaging complete. Jacks were unwound in steps of
out day and night time temperatures. In the 5mm progressively across the whole structure,
exhibition space, conditions are maintained by a with 20 passes needed across each of the 600
close control air-conditioning system with electric or so jacks.
heating coils. a direct expansion (DX) cooling coil
and a steam humidifier. Toilets are tempered The internal works, including casting the ground-
in winter with electric convectors. Cooling for bearing slabs and the elevated ramps, proceeded
the exhibition space is achieved by a DX coil alter the falsework was removed, and the
connected to an air-cooled condensing unit with structure was essentially complete by September
integral compressor. 1996. Installing the aircraft, erecting the glass
wall, and completing internal finishes and exhibits
Light continued until the official opening. This took
Lighting is critical in achieving the desired viewing place on 1 August 1997 when Her Majesty Queen
cond!tions. The great glass wall faces south east, Elizabeth II met the project team and, in a rather
flooding the adjacent part of the interior with moving ceremony, was watched by some 4000
natural light, but the deeper parts of the plan American Air Force veterans.
would be dark unless daylight was artificially 23. South-east side:
Cost shell supported by variable length steel arms
in)roduced into them. Alter analysing schemes through the lighting slot.
with strips of rooflights, individual rooflights, and The total cost of the project was about 11 M. Of
indirect bouncing of light, the team chose to this, construction totalled approximately 8.4M,
introduce a glazed slot around the perimeter. while the cost of all the concrete work was
Daylight pouring through the slot meets a sloping tendered at 4.5M. The glass wall cost 1.1M.
reflective wall which bounces it back to gently
light the great curve of the roof.
This is supplemented by 2000W floodlights -
46 in all - for winter evenings.

19. Pathway of natural light


through perimeter lighting slot.

20. 21.
Front glass wall: Front glass wall:
detail of head detail of foot
sliding support. fixed pin.

General construction sequence continued:


I. 12 June 1996. J. 25 July 1996 K. 6 November 1996. L. 11 March 1997.
Credits
Client:
The Imperial War Museum. Duxford
Architect:
Foster and Partners
Structural, geotechnica/, and acoustic engineers:
Ove Arup and Partners Steve Abernethy,
David Andrews, Mike Banfi. Derek Bedden, Paul Cross,
Gabriele Del Mese, Kevin Franklin. Richard Hough,
Maggie Ricketts. Faith Wainwright. Sean Walsh. Chris Wise.
Ray Young (structure)
Mike Francescon. Andrew Lord, Nick O'Riordan (geotechnics)
lain Clarke (acoustics)
Services engineers:
Roger Preston and Partners
Quantity surveyor:
Davis Langdon and Everest
Safety aspects:
Hanna, Reed Associates
Main contractor.
John Sisk
Principal sub-contractors:
Concrete: O'Rourke
Precast roof. Malling Precast
Steel arms: Lindhurst Engineering
Glazing: Focchi
Roof membrane: Sarnafil
Aircraft hanging: Vanguard
Illustrations:
1-3, 8, 19: Martin Hall
4, 5; Ove Arup & Partners
24. Rear shell area supported by steel sliding steel arms through the glazed lighting slot, March 1997. 6, 12. 17: Peter Mackinven
7, 9-11 , 13A-l. 16. 18, 20. 22-24: David Andrews
14, 21 : Gabriele del Mese
15: Roger Ridsdill Smith

THE AAUP JOURNAL 3/1997 15


Control Techniques' R&D HQ, Newtown, Powys

1. The east elevation. showing the circular dining pavilion to the north.

Arup Associates was originally appointed in existing ground to the west and rises above ground
November 1991 to design a new research and level on its east side. A landscape of grassed bank
development facility for Control Techniques pie, varying in size surrounds the perimeter up to
adjacent to St Giles Technology Park, Newtown. window cill level on the ground floor. 650mm above
Powys, where they had their existing headquarters office floor level. To the east. where the line of the
and other functional units. Control Techniques site flood flow comes very close to the gable, a
manufacture variable speed drives for electric retaining wall holds the fill below the building,
meters and were expanding their successful preventing encroachment into the flood area.
business. The new R&D headquarters building The overall layout is divided by the two-storey main
was part of this expansion, encouraged and grant- entrance, which penetrates the building's full depth.
supported by the Development Board of Rural On the ground floor, to the east, are the stairs.
Wales who were also supporting a new factory, offices, meeting rooms, and lavatories. To the west the site flood level with a grassed, landscaped
separately procured, and built first. is the R&D department itself, plus an exhibition bank rising to window cill level around the
Control Techniques' primary requirement was to space which can be viewed from the hall and perimeter, and is linked to the main entrance hall
focus all the R&D and administrative functions in accessed by visitors. Inside the R&D area is a by an open-sided, glass-roofed corridor.
one place. They were to be under one roof but machine test space. enclosed by blockwork walls Most of the main building is air-conditioned,
separately accommodated to give the R&D area to reduce noise. A bridge at first floor level links the providing comfort cooling, heating, and mechanical
the appropriate level of security. The building was R&D area to the offices, etc. on the east side, extraction. Most of the plant is at the west end on
to reflect the high tech nature of the company busi- where the staircase provides direct access to the two floors within the external envelope, except for
ness. and Arup Associates' response to this brief outside for fire escape. the chillers. which are external. Natural ventilation
took the form of a two-storey building, 18m deep, A goods delivery and despatch area is located at has been used for the entrance area, the restau-
and curved on plan with an inner radius of 100m. the north-west corner of the building with a paved ranVdining pavilion, and the machine test area.
The site is a 1.2ha plot within a 2.Bha pasture, and roadway for service vehicles alongside, whilst a Detail design started in July 1993 and was
the building's curve is centred on a natural separate pavilion building with glazed walls and an completed in January 1994. Construction
landscape feature known locally as the Gro Tump. external terrace houses the 48-seat restaurant and commenced in September 1994 and was finished
Because of this slope, the building is cut into kitchen. Like the main building, it is raised above for client occupation in February 1996.
16 THE ARUP JOURNAL 3/1997
Dick Lee Declan O'Carroll

2. South elevation of
the main building.
The main plant and
service entrance 1s
situated to the west.

3 (below). The main entrance is central on


the south elevation composition, signalled
by a projecting glazed canopy.

4 (above). A fixed blade sunscreen is positioned along the southern glazed perimeter
elevation, effectively reducing solar gain.

5 (below). The office environment The north-facing clerestory windows and transparent
perimeter envelope provide good levels of natural daylight and fine views across the
surrounding countryside.

Credits
Ghent
Developmen Board for Rural Wales
Occupier;
Control Techniques pie
Designers:
Arup Associates D,ck Lee (pro1ec1 co-ord1na10,)
Dav,d Thomas. Alas1a,r Gourlay. David Laing. Declan O'Carroll
(architects)
Peter Skead. Hanif Humayun (struc1ural engineers)
Alan Ross (mechanical eng,neer)
Dav,d Hymas (electncal engineer)
Geoff Stevens. Nick Taylor (quanhly surveyo,s)
Mam contractor.
Norwest Holst
Photographs:
Andrew Puller

niE ARUP JOURNAL 1997 17


New materials for construction
Simon Cardwell Bob Cather Steven Groak
Materials are ever-present in our activities: without them, 'developed' economy. It shows a perspective of 'new' The approach and benefits of
we would have nothing to construct with. For many, materials based upon the developing understanding of understanding unfamiliar materials are
though, they are means to ends, not subjects worthy of the science of materials. This has evolved over the past also valuable when applied to materials
study in their own right. We tend be over-familiar with 30 years or so, for several reasons. we believe we know well and treat as
them and have little of the detailed understanding needed Prominent among them are the increased interest in how commonplace - the familiar.
to address the concepts underlying existing and the chemistry and microstructure of materials governs
emergent materials. 'What new materials are available for their service performance; and how this understanding
designers and constructors?' is a temptingly simple has been hugely underpinned by the development of Famlllar Materials
question asked by engineer, architect or client, but it may sophisticated examination technologies. To some extent
not bring the straightforward response expected. this has been possible for metallic materials for many
As with many simple questions, the response starts with decades, but their extension into non-metallics has been Timber
'Well, it depends .. .': It depends upon the experience a major benefit. 30 years ago, scanning electron micro- Stone
and perspective of questioner and respondent, upon the scopes were barely invented; today they are common-
industrial background to the question, upon the history of place - at least in research and commercial laboratories. Glass
materials use, and upon economic development within To embark upon the question of what the new materials Concrete
the country concerned. are, some simplifying assumptions can be made and then
Ferrous alloys
The response developed here to the question is set by following an argument, a wider perspective is seen to
essentially against the backdrop of an industrialised develop. Aluminium

Brickwork

One way of categorising a 'new' When will failure occur and is this
material is to define it as one with acceptable, given the desired design The better understanding that can be
which we are unfamiliar. life and maintenance? developed of these familiar materials
In some instances materials that are can be used in two broad ways. In
familiar will be asked to do unfamiliar conventional applications we might be
Unfamlllar Materials things. We have become well used to able to improve the efficiency of use or
sealants acting as weather seals - to achieve the same efficiency at lower
to exclude water and air - but when cost - initial or whole life - or with lesser
Composites asked to be an adhesive, to hold environmental impact. The same
Adhesive joining components into the building, a range knowledge base can also help Arups
of new performance requirements and its clients to achieve better
Titanium is imposed. solutions or to solve problems in
Some construction applications can, new ways by extending materials
Super alloys performance beyond that which was
because of their cost structure or lack
Parafil ropes of existing design solutions, have a previously thought possible. Examining
stronger need for new materials and the microstructure of timber before,
Honeycomb
can more readily drive the adoption of during, and after extremes of loading
them. A clear example is in the can permit a more pronounced move
offshore and petrochemical industries, for timber design from an essentially
where the potential advantages of craft basis to one of more fundamental
It may be new in the sense of being engineering design more common,
totally new, but is more likely to be advanced composites for lightweight
components and enhanced chemical perhaps, in steel (Figs 3-5).
new to construction applications; it
may have seen service elsewhere, in resistance in pipes and safety and We can progress similarly - but not
aerospace or defence systems, for maintenance structures are becoming as readily - for cement and concretes
example. 'Unfamiliar', therefore, well established (Fig 1). with craft-based boats to the bigger,
implies insufficient real experience, Elsewhere, the adoption of composites engineered boats we call concrete
so that engineers are not sure or is at present perhaps more of a gravity platforms, and beyond (Fig 6).
confident in using these materials in solution seeking a problem - can we How far can engineers move with
building applications. really justify advanced composite this developing knowledge? Building
footbridges. or are they an exercise in structures have already progressed
learning to better see what might be from the more common 40MPa and
possible? Other advanced composite SOMPa concrete structures to the
or new fibre materials have moved 1OOMPa plus now being used in
2. The upper guys on Torre de Collserola, some way towards use, eg parallel Hong Kong (Fig 7) and considered
Barcelona, are of non-conductive aramid, filament ropes have for reasons of light elsewhere. To some extent the anchor
invisible to radio signals. weight or radio transparency been to this progression is the need to
used to stabilise mast structures (Fig 2). develop confident design rules for the
Where they have been employed in They are at present a small but interest- material, its interaction with other
other industries, something can be ing sector. These and other composites materials, and the site practice to
learnt, but the needs or methods of may become widespread or they may ensure the promise is fulfilled in our
adoption may be different and thereby not: It is too early to predict. structures. For the concrete material
limit transfer. Some of the more obvious alone, we can already make - albeit in
differences in other industries are: In any assessment of new or unfamiliar
materials there is clear benefit in
the ability to repeat production on a understanding the underlying science
large scale, to use prototyping and of behaviour and performance, to
component testing predict what behaviour we might
more developed concepts of, and encounter from the new material in its
shorter periods for, design life new applications. In some physical
the ability of, or expectations for, sciences there may be the temptation
inspection and maintenance from time to time to assume that all
in service. basic knowledge is known and it
To bring unfamiliar materials into simply has to be applied . In materials
wider use in building applications, science, however, we are still at the
confidence in their potential stage of basic understanding opening
1. Glassfibre reinforced epoxy pipe. performance needs to be developed. up before us.
How will the material or product A framework for understanding the
behave and then fail , as at some point structure and behaviour exists but is 3. Microphotograph
- before Armageddon - it must? still developing in detail. of epoxy-Khaya glueline.
18 THE ARUP JOURNAL 3/1997
4. following the 1970s oil price increases.
Traditional timber-frame These newer applications will tend to
boat-building. move our familiar material away from its
more normal experience, and we will
find that these demands will create an
unfamiliar material about which we
must predict and learn.

If we can visualise this way of


5.
MS3 wind turbine looking at 'unfamiliar' and 'familiar'
generator with materials, and use our new materials
timber blades. science understanding to benefit,
what of the materials we no longer
use - the overly familiar discarded or
contemptible materials?

'Contemptible Materials'

Thatch

Mud walls
Lime mortars

Cast iron

Waste products

Ice

7. 100MPa high strength concrete structure By applying our understanding, can


at Taikoo Shing City Plaza, Hong Kong.
we relearn or re-use 'contemptible'
materials?
Enquiries about thatched roofs, and on
the engineering properties of ice. have
both featured in Arups' materials
advisory role. The potential benefits of
lime mortars rather than the now more
common Portland cement-based
materials are being remembered.
We have not yet perhaps applied our
new science to these lime materials
yet but the scope is there.
During the Industrial Revolution. (grey)
cast iron was at the forefront of materials
technology and firmly in the realms of
the 'familiar'.
However, despite the great advances
the material offered architecture and
structural engineering, it was still
inherently brittle and weak in tension.
8. Macro defect-free cement These constraints, in conjunction with
(MDF) spring: such a structure. the development and widespread
a few centimetres long, is only availability of steel, led to the decline
achievable due to MDF's high in cast iron use. As a result, today
tensile and compressive strength. grey cast iron is considered by many
as 'contemptible'.
As we have tried to illustrate, the
understanding of materials, like most
things, is dynamic. Progress in basic
understanding is inevitable, and this
is reflected in the application of the
material. Grey cast iron may be
regarded as 'contemptible' but by
changing the distribution of the carbon,
inherent in cast iron, from flake to
6. Ravenspurn concrete spheroidal, spheroidal graphite (SG)
gravity oil platform. cast iron is formed.
This change in microstructure results
small quantities - components with familiar structural grey hard stuff that strength washers, loudspeaker in a similar generic material, but with
strengths, both tensile and compres- it will be necessary to think quite enclosures. and lightweight bullet-proof fundamentally different properties.
sive, of 200MPa (Rg 8). The research differently about the applications best vests. Lateral thinking and cross- The resulting improvements in tensile
fraternity are already working on suited to their particular properties. fertilisation of ideas and experience, strength and auctility have given rise
400MPa concrete and are wondering These applications may not be as applications and technologies can , to exciting new opportunities, as in the
how to get to 600MPa! Be warned, primary structures at all. Some already produce surprising results. Some of
these new concretes are not yet at the in place are for abrasion-resistant, the high strength concrete products
local ready-mix plant. In fact they are powder-handling machine parts, press described here, evolved from research
sufficiently different from the more moulds for steel sheet pressing, high into cold-forming plastics materials 'Contemptible' mater,afs conlinues Ill>
THE ARUP JOURNAL 3/1997 19
become more familiar. The Forge swimming pool in Sheffield3, as used in various forms: sheets and
developments in casting technology well as the Western Morning News extrusions. Now titanium is also
and the adoption of a wider range of fai;:ade. crossing the industry boundary - being
cast materials have resulted from new widely used for metal roofing panels in
skills in: As we may now consider iron and steel Japan. Additionally, advances in
castings as familiar, the trend could be manufacturing processes are also
fracture mechanics continued to other materials at present
computer modelling of casting crossing industry sectors - super
- as far as building applications are plastic forming (originally developed
processes and the effects on the concerned - relatively unfamiliar. Again,
cast product for aerospace applications) has been
recent projects have adopted castings used for the manufacture of cladding
9. SG cast iron glazing brackets at improved quality control of of gunmetal and aluminium bronze. panels. Similarly, highly corrosion-
Western Morning News. materials, and Encouraged by the use of less common resistant alloys from the offshore
improved foundry practice. materials in castings, the possibilities of market are beginning to find uses in
The application of casting, particularly many other metallic materials can be construction applications.
glazing brackets at the new Western in ferrous materials, can give seen where perhaps lack of familiarity
Morning News HQ in Plymouth 1 (Fig 9), Further ahead are metallic materials
advantages in ease of fabrication, with them in construction had previously with a 'smart' capability, for example
or more diversely (and somewhat commercial viability, and in the visual limited designers' aspirations. Many
ironically) as shock absorbers for fire-resisting steels which change
quality of the construction. Other metals, familiar in everyday practice in their microstructure on heating to
nuclear waste containers. notable examples have included the other industries. may offer advantages
Now, far from being discarded compensate for the normal loss in
nodes at Lee House on London Wall in to construction. From aerospace, strength in steels.
('contemptible'), cast iron (SG) has the City2 and the roof of the Ponds aluminium alloys are already being

Smart materials are a subject in their own right and a behave as selective membranes
separate study by Tony Sheehan of Arup R&04-6 is Unknown Materials demonstrate self-healing and other biomimetic properties.
monitoring and reviewing the possible applications.
Other unknown materials have been discovered but we
Continuing our theme we can see these materials in our have less knowledge of their structures and properties and
current knowledge as unknown; unknown not because Smart materials:
are as yet uncertain how to use them. New carbon-based
we know nothing of their chemistry or microstructure, but - detecting I responsive materials not of the established allotropes, diamond or
because their characteristics and behaviour in any industrial graphite, have been identified, the better known being
application. construction or not, are still relatively unknown. fire-resisting steels
'buckyballs' (buckminsterfullerenes) and, more recently,
The p.ossibilities are enormous - but what? And where? controllable phase change 'nanotubes' - hollow tube microstructures with a diameter
They encompass a wide range of materials and definitions. of the order of a few nm7.
They can: shape-memory alloys
These materials appear to have incredibly high stiffness, and
detect and/or respond to their environment - biomimetic (eg self-healing) it is suggested that the normal chemical and physical
undergo controllable phase change, with consequent behaviour of other materials is radically changed when
change of shape or property placed within the tubes.

Beyond the unknown materials are the materials would quite probably reside References
unknowable - unknowable in the sense Unknowable Materials in different windows. their experience (1) BAILEY. P. The Western Morning News.
that with our available technologies, eg not detectable/analysable and use of them possibly being quite The Arup Journal, 28;4). pp8-11 , 4/1993.
analysing and understanding their with current techniques different (Fig 10).
composition and microstructure is (2) McCARTHY, C. The cast steel nodes for
Materials scientists in essentially Lee House. The Arup Journal, 2.l;1), pp 12-
difficult or impossible. Discoveries in
construction-oriented activities have 15. Spring 1988.
sub-molecular structures
In this class of materials are many of three broad tasks: (3) BROWN, M, et al. Ponds Forge
the natural and organic systems. The Biotechnical to maintain and extend their International Sports Centre. The Arup
processes in living organisms that fundamental understanding of the Journal, 2~2), pp3-9, Summer 1991 .
make them function and adapt to their Living organisms materials they find familiar
environment are intriguing and perhaps (4) SHEEHAN, T. Smart technology in
hold many new models for engineers to Symbiotic associated with to maintain a wider vision and construction: Dream or reality. The Arup
understanding of the materials visible Journal (for forthcoming publication)
follow. human behaviours
through the other 'windows', so as to (5) Advanced construction materials.
There is a challenge to develop the maximise their flexibility to achieve Architects' Journal, 13 July 1995. p37 (also
means of understanding these materials desired and optimum design published in Germany as 'Neue Baustoffe',
and systems. and the question of 'what solutions Baumeister, 8/1996, p62).
are the new materials?' might then be questioner and responder. We can see to scan constantly the potential of
taken to a new plane. (6) Smart materials in construction.
materials in a continuum of categories, materials, from the contemptible to Proceedings of the Third International
The perspective of the new, familiar, able to move from location to location the unknowable, to exploit their Conference on Intelligent Materials. Lyon.
unfamiliar, etc, explored here is - as in that continuum as knowledge and significant transitions across that June 1996.
was said at the beginning - dependent understanding of them changes . spectrum. (7) BALL. P. Through the nanotube. New
on the position and experience of Viewed from other industries, the same Scientist. pp28-31. 6 July 1996.
Illustrations:
1. Wavin Repox bv
10. Continuum of categories of materials. 2. Ben Johnson
3. Clare Hacker
4. Peter Ross
Aerospace
applications 5. Wind Energy Group Ltd
Automotive LIIIMlk ~ ~
6. Niki Photography
applications 7. Bob Cather
Construction 8. N Alford
sector (Developed Economies) 9. Peter Mackinven
Construction Graphics: Sean McDermott
sector (Less Developed Economies)

~ Continuum of Ma erials

20 THE ARUP JOURNAL 3/1997


The Observational Method in ground engineering
Che-Ming Tse Duncan Nicholson

Introduction data; to improve value/economy; to Select the quantities to be observed review stage. Here, the monitoring
From civil engineering's infancy, increase safety; to reduce design as construction proceeds, and results are compared with predicted
visual checks have been made on uncertainties; to strengthen links calculate their anticipated values on trigger criteria and planned modifica-
uncertainties in the ground and on between designers and constructors; the basis of the working hypothesis. tions if appropriate or emergency
structural performance. to clarify construction control/manage- Calculate values of the same plans if required can be introduced.
In the late 1940s an integrated process ment; and to motivate the project team. quantities under the most , If there is little uncertainty about the
for predicting, monitoring, reviewing, In September 1995 the Construction unfavourable conditions compatible ground, there will be no need to follow
and modifying designs evolved with Industry Research & Information with the available data on the the OM, as there is no pro-active
the development of modern soil Association asked Arup Geotechnics, subsurface conditions. monitoring and planned modification.
mechanics theories by Karl Terzaghi in collaboration with Balfour Beatty Select in advance a course of action But if there is great uncertainty, the
and Ralph B Peck. Civil Engineering Ltd, to investigate or modification of design for every predefined design method could lead
these potential advantages. The foreseeable significant deviation of to a possibly unsafe or maybe
They stated: 'Design on the basis of Funders Report CP/49 3 for this has the observational findings from those unnecessarily expensive solution. The
the most unfavourable assumptions is been completed and is now available OM can take account of the monitoring
predicted on the basis of the working
inevitably uneconomical but no other to all CIRIA members. It highlighted results and provide a safer and more
hypothesis.
procedure provides the designer in the conservatism of some geotechnical economic solution, if appropriate, on
advance of construction with the Measure quantities to be observed
design parameters and also developed and evaluate actual conditions certain types of projects.
assurance that the soil-supported a robust procedure for implementing
structure will not develop unanticipated Modify design to sutt actual condtions. Recent developments
the OM, compatible with current in using the OM
defects. However, if the project permits design codes and Health and Safety Traditionally a single robust and
modifications of the design during possibly over-conservative design is After Peck's 1969 Rankine Lecture, the
Regulations. This article describes OM gained world-wide recognition and
construction, important savings can be some recent developments in the OM fully developed before site work starts
made by designing on the basis of the was used in a wide range of ground
and examples of its application by on a particular phase. Instrumentation engineering operations. However, it
most probable rather than the most Arup Geotechnics. monitoring is sometimes used but
unfavourable possibilities. The gaps in passively, to confirm that design has not been referred to in British
the available information are filled by The traditional predefined design codes, although the final draft
predictions are not exceeded. There is of Eurocode 74 recognises it as a
observations during construction, and design method and the OM
no primary intention to vary the design
the design is modified in accordance Peck's definition of the OM embodies during construction. The CIRIA report design method and states the
with the findings.'1 the following eight 'ingredients': referred to this as the 'predefined requirements for using it. Similar
Explore sufficiently to establish at requirements have been adopted in
In his 1969 Rankine Lecture2 Peck design method'. the Hong Kong 'Guide to retaining wall
referred to this process as the least the general nature, pattern and The OM, on the other hand, requires
properties of the deposits - but not design's. One objective of the CIRIA
'Observational Method' (OM), and designers to consider the range of Report is to clarify OM concepts and
since then aspects of it have been necessarily in detail.
foreseeable conditions. Designs are to provide a clear framework. For the
used informally on UK civil engineering Assess the most probable conditions developed for this ran'ge and first time, it was officially defined, as
projects. Only recently, however, has and most unfavourable conceivable construction modification strategies follows: 'The Observational Method in
interest revived in the method per se - deviations from these conditions; in planned before work starts on any ground engineering is a continuous,
partly due to concern for more this assessment geology often plays particular element of work. Planning is managed, integrated, process of
economical use of resources and also a major role. important to ensure that modifications design, construction control, monitoring
because tighter health and safety Establish the design. based on can be implemented sufficiently quickly and review which enables previously
regulations require project participants a working hypothesis of behaviour to avoid the development of failure defined modifications to be incorporated
to assess risk. The OM has formidable anticipated under the most probable conditions. Monitoring is essential and during or after construction as appro-
potential: to provide benchmarking conditions. is used actively to provide data for the priate. All these aspects have to be
demonstrably robust. The objective is
to achieve greater overall economy
without compromising safety.
Table 1: Comparison of the predefined design method and the OM
The OM can be adopted from the
The OM outset or later if benefits are identified.
The predefined design method However. it should not be used where
there is insufficient time to implement
Normally one set of soil Rarameters: eg moderately conservative The range of foreseeable soil parameters are considered fully and safely complete the planned
or characteristic values (EC?) - but may do parametric study. eg most probable and most unfavourable. modification or emergency plans.
One design and one set of predictions based on limited Two or more design and construction methods are sutt1c1ently Technical considerations
construction method considerations. developed to include predictions for tngger criteria. The process of implementation
(Fig 1 overleaf) emphasises national
A construction method option may be outlined sufficiently for the A flexible construction method statement is developed which can and corporate policies, eg health and
design to be progressed. This is subsequently developed by the incorporate design changes and modification strategies often safety regulations, quality assurance,
contractor in his method statement. developed Jointly by the contractor and the designer conditions of contract, and design
Monitoring limited to checking that predictions are not exceeded. Comprehensive and robust monitoring. regularly reviewed. codes. Good corporate and project
as the basis for management and design decisions. team organisations are also essential.
Design and planning are concerned
Predictions unlikely to be exceeded. Therefore, construction The design, construcuon method and construction programme with data gathering, design, data
programme not constrained by monitoring results. If predictions may be changed depending on the rev,ew of monitonng results.
are exceeded then unforeseen conditions have developed and interpretation, risk assessment, and
the work may need to stop whilst problem is resolved. the allocation of resources to achieve
objectives and decide priorities.
Management o construction, monitoring, interpretation afld Design cases should cover all the likely
modification plan or emergency plan implementation are required scenarios. and design modifications
planned so that they can be introduced
The monitoring system must be sensitive enough to allow early in time to stop safety reducing
discovery of a rapidly deteriorating condition The mod1f1callon unacceptably. The construction control
plan must be rapidly implemented to ensure that the limiting
trigger cntena are not exceeded. plan, monitoring plan, and monitoring
specifications should be developed
Emergency plans are needed to control failure. Emergency plans must be introduced in accordance with the which set out agreed procedures and

~-~-
Construction (Health Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996 frequency for monitoring instrumentation
This can be ac111eved as an extension of the OM mgger cn\ena and reporting results. Instrumentation
beyond the serviceab hty limit state to ensure ;rat failure does ric records and construction progress
. information should be reviewed
by competent people. The planned
The OM may be initiated at this stage in its 'best way out' format. 1t r,ay be that the best way out OM can be rtroduced to
overcome unforeseen ground conditions. modifications will be implemented if the
trigger criteria have been exceeded.
THE ARUP JOURNAL 3/1997 21
National&
Arup projects
Corporate Policy Arup Geotechnics has a long history of applying the OM to major proiects.
Three examples are given below.

Corporate & Project


Organisation
Minster Court, London
At Minster Court (Fig 3), a 0.8m thick Construction of the basement
diaphragm wall formed a 9m deep proceeded with the excavation to the
basement. About 5m from one side of 'large berm' initially. The cumulative
it are the LUL District and Circle Line movement at end of this stage was
tunnels (Fig 4). The basement was about 1Omm - significantly less than
constructed using a 'semi top-down' the specified criteria, giving the con-
Design & Planning construction technique. ie the sides of tractor confidence to trim the berm
the basement wall were excavated progressively to the 'small berm'.
top-down while the centre of the The contingency plan was to backfill
basement was excavated bottom-up. the berm to its original size in case
Construction An earth berm was left to support the
Control of large movements.
retaining wall, but concern was raised
about possible movements on the side The measured wall movement at the
of the basement near the tunnels. end of the excavation of the 'small
berm' was about 13mm and the
Monitoring The construction movements contingency measure was not required.
included those from demolition of
existing buildings, diaphragm wall 3. Minster Court excavation.
installation, and berm excavation 6 , and 4. Minster Court construction sequence.
the following procedures were adopted
Review
in implementing the OM: 3. Basement excavation and propping
Berm size reduced ii movement Stanchion Capping beam
The allowable movements of the recorded 1s satisfactory
adjacent tunnels were agreed
between the owner of Minster Court
and LUL.
The behaviour of the diaphragm
Yes
wall was analysed using the FREW
program. In conjunction with case Existing District and Circle Une
Implement planned modification history data for similar construction tunnel
(or emergency plans) methods and ground conditions, Activity Engineer's specified performance 12. Installation ol diaphragm wall I
the allowable movement in each 1 <15 mm lateral movement Diaphragm wall
activity was defined. These, based < t O mm lateral movement
on the 'moderately conservative'
2
3 <30 mm laleral movement oor~~~;:ph1 Aallwue~t~:nslon
1. Implementing the OM. TotaJ <40 mm lateral movement Bored pile
assumptions, were: T Not8 1h8t nol afl maximum
All control systems including the 1. Demolition. movements act at th9 same leveJ

OM - tend to become slack over 2. Installation of diaphragm wall.


time, so it should be audited at a 3. Berm excavation. NB Details of the superstructure not shown
frequency agreed by all parties in
Two berm sizes were designed:
the project to provide independent
assessment of the validity and 1. A small berm for the moderately
reliability of all the components of conservative condition with a 4m A4/A46 Batheaston/Swainswick Bypass, Bath
the OM shown in Fig 1. wide top, 12m wide base, 5.2m
high and a slope angle of 35. About 800m of this road was A construction control cycle was set
Management considerations constructed within a diaphragm wall up (Fig 8). Berm size and sequence of
There is more interaction between 2. A large berm for the most
unfavourable condition with a 8m retained cutting; Arups assisted the berm excavation were assessed
designers and constructors on contractor, Amey Construction, in during the temporary works design,
OM projects than on predefined wide top, 12m wide base. 3m
high and a slope angle of 40. designing temporary works. and trigger criteria were defined.
design projects, and this needs As part of the permanent works The wall deflection and the excavation
management and co-ordination. The ground movements were 'predefined' design, the engineer sequence were monitored against the
Management considerations can measured at an agreed frequency by proposed a construction sequence trigger criteria during excavation.
be broadly divided into the surveying, inclinometers and extens- with props placed between pairs of
categories of culture, strategy. ometers. In-tunnel surveys were facing diaphragm wall panels, followed
competence, and systems (Fig 2). made and deformations of the tunnels
by excavation to the formation level of
The commitment of the members measured by tape extensometer. the road. The temporary prop layout
of the project team and their The movements of the tunnel walls was to be designed by the contractor.
willingness to 'own' and solve were measured by surveying. The implication of this was that heavy
problems are of critical importance. steel sections would be required to
prop between the diaphragm wall
2. Management considerations Quahty panel. resulting in restricted working
Heafth and safety space and a complicated construction
Value management
lnrsgrared design and consttvctlon
sequence. After consulting Arup 1 Excavate to lop of guide wall level
Geotechnics, the contractor proposed 2 Construct diaphragm walls
OM requirements and limitations
3 Construct capping beam
RtSk management a simpler and more economical 4 Excavation inside walls leaving berms
Research and developmant alternative construction sequence 5 Excavate to road formalion level
Co-ape.ration
Training and education (Fig 5) using the OM. The temporary (within bays if necessary)
props in the engineer's original design 6 Construe! permanent prop
Business parrnanng
7 Construct pavement
Enthusiasm were replaced with a controlled
excavation sequence utilising earth

B B berms (Fig 6). 5. Alternative construction sequence.

6
Earth berm
Clear communication Contract
Reliable and timely inlorma&on gathering Risk-based control
excavation at
Retiab/8 and timely Information processmg Team building Batheaston/
Ref/able and r,mely information revlewfng Resource planning Swainswick
Auditing Bypass.
- OM procedures and ,equlremems Skllls
quality Knowledge
health and safety Expenence

Competence

22 THE AAUP JOURNAL 3/1997


7.
The Castle Mall site.

Castle Mall, Norwich


The 11 ha Castle Mall development in probing and grouting (bulkfilling or
the centre of Norwich (Fig 7) comprises compaction grouting)
a two-storey shopping centre with a excavating to backfill with concrete
basement up to 18m deep, alongside increasing the original size of
a five-storey underground car park. the foundation. Case 5: >3m features at the perimeter arrangements were organised to give
The general stratigraphy across the Depending on size and location of the bored pile retaining wall would be high flexibility for programme and
site prior to construction was made features identified, a case range of five compaction-grouted from a higher occupation of site areas. Grout pres-
ground up to 10m thick overlying Nor- likely design scenarios was developed: level. This required a minimum sures and volumes were particularly
wich Crag up to 10m thick and Upper overburden for treatment at any one carefully monitored for compaction
Case 1: Solution features up to 4m level and depth of excavation near grouting, a relatively untried technique
Chalk, in which holes (solution fea-
across clear of foundations, or up to the retaining wall was limited. in the UK, and standard penetration
tures) were present. Pad footings
3m across at a contiguous piled wall, The foundation design on site was tests (SPT) and plate load tests were
founded in the Upper Chalk were
would be probed to locate their extent modified within the general design made on treated solution features.
adopted, with ground treatment of
below ground and bulkfilled with a scenarios envisaged. To implement Treatment techniques could then be
solution features.
cement/ pfa grout from 1.5m above the different cases, contractual modified as work proceeded.
Selecting the foundation type took slab formation level to fill any voids.
into account: Case 2: Features up to 2m across
Uncertainties in ground conditions below a proposed foundation would
be probed and bulkfilled with grout as
Incorporating the OM into other Arup services
The solution features were not located
until close excavation, and there was with Case 1, with the pad foundation For many civil engineering projects, Also, the OM has much in common with
only limited data on their nature, size possibly being increased in size. the ground is a major source of the Lathams principles of innovation,
and frequency. Case 3: For medium-sized solution uncertainty because of variable working together and partnering which
features. the feature would be geology, and difficulty in selecting are often at the core of Arups' design
Uncertainties in
probed and bulkfill grouted. A large design parameter values or in approach. The OM will thus enable
ground treatment results
mass concrete slab would then be modelling the problem realistically. Arups to offer clients cost-effective
Cost-effectiveness The above case histories show that, designs in the future where there
constructed to spread the footing load
The aim was to maximise benefit on to good chalk around the feature. where there are large uncertainties, are significant ground engineering
from good founding strata for spread the OM can manage effectively the uncertainties, for example:
foundations. Case 4: 2m-4m features beneath risks associated with them. Like value
foundations would be probed and Tender stage - partnering with other
Programme time constraints management, the OM is primarily Arup services like civil engineering,
compaction grouted with a reduced intended to eliminate unnecessary or
Foundation construction had to bearing pressure allowed on the bridges, building, environmental, etc,
start immediately on completion of avoidable cost, while meeting other to offer competitive tender designs.
compacted feature. The effective project objectives such as time and
excavation. footing size would be increased to The same service can be offered
safety. It may also be used by other externally, ie partnering with
If a solution feature was encountered, allow for reduced bearing pressure by disciplines like maritime and environ-
three methods of treatment were constructing a mass concrete slab contractors and share savings.
mental engineering where similar
envisaged: below the footing. uncertainties exist. Post-tender stage - as an independent
The recent CIRIA developments in the value engineering reviewer.
OM have incorporated some Arup skill Construction stage - as a best
areas such as risk management and way out when unpredictable site
safety management. problems develop.

The design was carried out using two 2. Review data, decide on further actions,
sets of soil design conditions - 'most and implement the following contin References Credits
probable' to calculate an 'amber gency measures where necessary: (1) TERZAGHI, Kand PECK, RB. Soil CIR/A Project
trigger' and 'most unfavourable' as excavate within bays mechanics in engineering practice. Client:
a 'red trigger'. counterfort drainage Wiley, 1967. Construction Industry Research and
The construction programme was behind the wall (2) PECK. RB. Advantages and limitations Information Association
based on 'most probable' conditions in use ground anchors of the observational method in applied soil Research contractor:
keeping with Peck's approach. excavate retained soil to mechanics. Geotechnique. 1~2), Ove Arup & Partners Duncan Nicholson,
If movements exceeded the amber reduce active earth pressure. pp171-187, 1969. Che-Ming Tse
trigger, the following procedure would The application of the OM in the A4/A46 (3) NICHOLSON, DP, TSE C-M, and Balfour Beatty Civil Engineering Ltd
be carried out: was successful. Using this alternative PENNY, C. The observational method in Minster Court
1. Increase the frequency of construction sequence, substantial savings ground engineering: principles and Client:
monitoring readings. were made in the temporary works. applications. Funders Report CP/49. Prudential Portfolio Managers Ltd
CIRIA. 1997.
Foundations sub-contractor:
(4) BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Stent Soletanche Joint Venture
Identify next Eurocode 7. Geotechnical Design. Part 1:
excavation stage Consulting engineer:
General rules. BSI, 1995.
8. Ove Arup & Partners
Site control cycle. (5) GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
OFFICE. Guide to retaining wall design. A4/A46 Bypass
Identity neX1 stage
Hong Kong Government, 1993. Client:
(6) TSE, C-M and NICHOLSON, DP. Highways Agency
Monitor deflection Design construction and monitoring of the Consulting engineer:
and report basement diaphragm wall at Minster Sir Alexander Gibb and Partners
Court, London. In: Proceedings of the Contractor:
Conference on Retaining Structures, Amey Construction Ltd
Site interpretation Institution of Civil Engineers, Cambridge, Temporary works designer:
pp323-332. Ove Arup & Partners
(7) FRANCESCON, M and TWINE, D. The Castle Mall
treatment of solution features in upper Client:
Green Amber Red chalk by compaction grouting. In: Friends Provident and Estates and General
Proceedings of the Conference on
Grouting in the Ground, Institution of Civil Consulting engineer:
Engineers, pp327-348, 1992. Ove Arup and Partners
Extra readings Replace excavated
soil immediately (8) LATHAM, M. Constructing the team. Grouting sub-contractor:
HMSO, 1994. Keller Colcrete Ltd
Illustrations:
Reviewcontingency Inform engineer. 1, 2, 4, 5, 8: Jon Shillibeer/Sean McDermott
with engineer Implement additional 3, 7: Peter Mackinven
contingency plans
6: Amey Construction Ltd
THE ARUP JOURNAL 311997 23

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