Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Some past research studies have identified several factors that affect academic

performance of students in various centres of learning. Some of these factors include

class attendance, age, learning styles or preferences , gender , class size , entry

qualifications, family incomE, etc. This literature review provides a brief examination of

some of the factors that have been evaluated in this study.

Gender and Academic Performance

Research done by Borde showed that gender did not play a role in academic

performance. Another study by Meece and Jones also revealed that gender differences

did not influence students standardized science test scores.However, Haist et al.,

showed that men performed better than women in certain settings while women

outperformed men in other settings. A study by Hedges and Newell showed male

students outperformed female students in science, but in reading and writing female

students did much better. However, educational statistics have indicated that female

students are outperforming their male counterparts at all levels of the education system

and attaining higher qualifications . After analyzing more than a million graduating

students, Woodfield and Earl-Novell observed that female students did better than male

students. Woodfield and Earl-Novell attributed this partly to female students being more

academically responsible and thus less likely to be absent from lessons.

Nationality and Academic Performance

Several studies have shown that academic performance differs across nationality. A

study by Yousef showed that foreign students outperformed local students in business

studies. In a study by Nasirudeen et al. It was shown that international students in

Singapore experienced substantial levels of stress, which are often a result of

homesickness, cultural shocks, or perceived discrimination. This, in turn, may have a

negative influence on their participation in activities that contribute to important learning

and personal development. One common coping mechanism used by international

students is to focus more on academic achievement. However, a study by Rienties et al.

Showed that non-Western students scored significantly lower on GPA compared to

Western students.

Students Learning Styles or Preferences and Academic Performance

It is believed that learning styles play a small role on academic performance. However

small the effect on learning outcomes, it is accepted that learning styles can help

students enhance their own learning and thus encourage self-directed learning. Fielding

showed that it is necessary for students and educational institutions to understand

learning styles. Students usually have preferences for the ways by which they learn or

understand a subject and it is advisable for students to tailor these styles to suit their

own learning needs. As stated by Cuthbert, understanding the students learning styles

is important for allowing adjustment in the educators pedagogic approaches. Several

studies have used standardized tools (such as the Visual, Aural, Read/write and

Kinesthetic (VARK) questionnaire, GrashaReichmann Student Learning Styles survey

to identify and understand the learning preference of their students, but none have

looked at the association of student specific preference(s) with academic performance.

Other Determinants of Academic Performance

School students across Singapore participate in a wide variety of extracurricular

activities (also known as co-curricular activities). These can be sports, clubs, debate,

drama, school publications, student council, and other social events. These activities

are, voluntary, usually conducted outside the normal school hours, and students do not

receive grades for their involvement. Silliker and Quirk [36] concluded that participation

in athletics (such as soccer) for high school students enhances academic performance.

Gerber also found that participation in extracurricular activities promoted greater

academic achievement. Many extracurricular activities have proven to be beneficial in

enhancing academic performance, even if the activities are not obviously related to

academic subjects [38]. Students participating in extracurricular activities did better

academically than students who did not participate.

The concept of academic self-efficacy was devised by Albert Bandura. Self-efficacy

concept is defined A conviction that one can successfully execute the behavior

required to produce outcome (pg. 193). It has been proven that students high in

academic self-efficacy set higher academic goals.

According to (Garrett, 2007) Common personal conditions is stress. Stress is a

common element in the lives of every individual, regardless of race or cultural

background.

It is always present among individuals. Stress produces a physical reaction in the body

that can make it harder to focus, sleep, and do well academically. Recurrent physical

and psychological stress can diminish self-esteem, decrease interpersonal and

academic effectiveness, and create a cycle of self-blame and self-doubt. For us

students, we are usually experiencing stress whenever our projects are given by our

professors at the same time, difficult lessons, home works, family problems, etc.

According t(Kirk, Gallagher & Anastasiow, 2007) Dyslexia is a subcategory found within

a specific population of individuals with learning disabilities. It is believed to be caused

by neurological differences within the brain)

Rothman believes that access to resources depends upon the SES of family.

Nevertheless, it is one factor, which may partially affect the performance since there are

many more factors, which are also highly linked with performance. Parents role is

another factor, which has a significant impact in the performance of students. It may be

due to stake and influence of parents. Diaz makes it clearer and says, "Educational

condition attributed to the family is beyond all doubt or discussion, as there is an ever-

increasing awareness of the importance of the parents role in the progress and

educational development of their children (p. 46). Role of family, particularly a strong

interaction between parents and school has also been noticed by USA government.

USA government put forward an act to improve interaction of patents with schools.

Gianzero (1999) provides the detail of this act as quoted by Gianzero, "The Goals 2000:

Educate America Act, federal legislation enacted in 1994, boldly predicts that by the

year 2000, every school will promote partnerships that will increase parental

involvement and participation in the social, emotional, and academic growth of children "

(p. 2). Gianzero, further states that role of family is not so simple. " Nevertheless, the

notion that families play a crucial role in their childrens development and school
success in both home and school environments elicits a host of questions, all of which

carry significant implications.

One of the most recurring and the most frustrating problem that the schools are having

with their students nowadays is tardiness (Sprick and Daniels, 2007). It creates

problems, not just to the students but also to the teachers (Cowan Avenue Elementary

School Community, 2007, para 1). Cowan Crier, the official School Publication of

CAESC, also states that while having occasional tardy isnt a big deal, unfailing

tardiness is and it gives students problems including being ill-prepared for the job

market. According to the results of the study of the U.S. Department of Education on

truancy, which is related to tardiness, being present and on time in going to school are

big factors on the success and behavior of the students (Zeiger, 2010, para 1). Thus,

it is a lot important to value time and practice being on time while being a student.

According to CAESC (2007) and Zeiger (2010), the most essential learning time of the

day for the students lies in the morning, specifically between 8:00 to 9:30 AM. It is

because the students are most mindful and observant at this time of the day. It is also

the reason why the most important lessons and subject matters are discussed during

this time. So when students are late or are not present during this time of the day, they,

in effect, miss out most of the important lessons to be noted and learned.

Reasons for being late in class and other factors affecting the punctuality if a student

vary. There had been some theories that pointed out that tardiness is caused by the

personality of a person. Santillano (2010) stated that psychological theorists considered

some personality traits, including low self-esteem and anxiety as triggering factors of

tardiness (para 2). She also mentioned that while some theorists considered tardiness
as an inborn quality since our being early or late is partially biologically determined,

which she also agreed, other experts also believed that some people are chronically

tardy for the reason that they consciously and unconsciously get good things from it

(pIn the book cited by Santillano, Never be late again: 7 cures for the punctually

challenged, the author Diana DeLonzor suggested that some personality traits could

most likely lead to a person being often late. Some of the traits included were

struggling with self control, feeling nervous or uncomfortable with social situations

and getting distracted easily (para 4). Santillano also discussed about the study

conducted by DeLonzor at San Francisco State University in 1997 in which she

surveyed 225 respondents about their habits that makes them late from their

appointments. It was also a test on the personalities of the respondents that affect their

habits. According to the results of DeLonzors study, those respondents that were often

tardy apt to be anxious and gets distracted easily.ara 3).

Another study was the one conducted by Enamiroro Oghuvbu in Nigeria. The objective

of the study was to determine the causes of the absenteeism and lateness among the

secondary students in Nigeria and to seek for solutions to the growing problem.

According to Oghuvbu (2008), female students are more likely to be late than male

students because of their involvement in domestic activities by their parents (para 7).

Also, as cited by Oghuvbu, distance to school, school discipline, family background and

school location (Emore, 2005) are some of the common causes for the tardiness of the

secondary students.

Another research partly studied about tardiness but tackled a specific reason or factor.

A study by Pimentel and Quijada (2011) focused on the frequency of use by the UP
Cebu freshmen students of Facebook and a part of the study tackled about the effect of

the famous social networking site to UP Cebu students punctuality and academic

performance.

For their study, Pimentel and Quijada collected 60 respondents and provided them with

questionnaires. The questionnaires contained questions that ask the respondents about

their use of Facebook and its effects. A certain question asked the respondents if late-

night use of Facebook has an effect on their punctuality. According to the results of the

study, three out of 60 respondents are always late, eight said they are sometimes late,

12 said they are seldom late and 37 said that they never get late due to late-night use of

Facebook. Generally, the results showed that the respondents are seldom late in class

because of late-night use of the social networking site. Ledoux, as cited by Pimentel

and Quijada, said that lack of sleep causes neural malfunctions and further affects a

persons behavior. In the studys case, it is a students punctuality that is affected.

Here are some of the factors that may affect a students academic achievement:

The support and availability of the parents, their financial situation and standard of

living. In Qubec, as in other places in the world where the topic is studied, it has been

observed that students in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas get lower marks.

The geographical location of the educational institution.

For example, English as a second language is not learned in the same conditions

throughout Qubec.
The percentage of students in a school whose mother tongue is not the language of

instruction

The diversity of student profiles in the same class

The grouping together, in certain schools, of students with severe learning difficulties,

or with problems associated with psychosocial integration in special education classes

The various practices pertaining to the student admission requirements. Some

educational institutions admit students indiscriminately, whereas other select them on

the basis of previous academic achievement or their results on aptitude tests.

Krishnan (1977) conducted a study on non-intellectual factors and their

influence on academic achievement. The sample comprised of 180 students of sixth to

ninth class studying in central school Tirupati and was divided into three groups

depending on their parents education as high, middle and low. The results indicated

that parents educational status had significant influence on the academic achievement

of their children.

Saini (1977) undertook a study on academic achievement as a function of

economic status and educational standard of parents.

According to Womble (2003) academic competence, self-efficacy, motivation,

students' attitudes and behaviour, time management and engagement in class activities

are some of the factors that affect an individuals' academic performance.

 Kleijn et al (1994) pointed out that academic competence is associated with

students' ability to manage their study load, i.e. student with better academic

competence would probably have better academic performance. Review into the

literatures has indicated that the skills, attitudes, and behaviors contributing to academic

competence fall into one of two domains: (i) Academic Skills or (ii) Academic Enablers

(DiPerna and Elliott, 1999).

Strategic studying techniques may help students achieve a higher score in the

examination. Strategic studying is defined as the knowledge and application of effective

study skills or techniques by the students (Kleijn et al, 1994). There are many efficient

study techniques that could be used by students based on the learning environment

(Alvermann, 1991 and Ogle, 1986). These study strategies include Know-Want-Learn

(K-W-L), Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Review (SQ3R), summarizing and note-taking,

using graphics, and self-questioning. Extensive course loads and the comprehensive

information covered in today's medical curricula necessitate the use of effective study

strategies for academic success (Lay, 1993).

Family background factors such as the educational level of the parent, family

income or financial, parent support and educational expectation seem to exert some

influence on student's academic achievement and this has been supported by several

past and recent studies (Hossler & Stage, 1992; Eccles & Harold, 1993; Beyer, 1995;

Paulson, 1996; Hossler et al., 1999; Checchi, 2000; Ermisch & Francesconi, 2001; Agus

& Makhbul, 2006).

 The relationships of parent level of education, parent educational expectation for

their children, parental involvement and support and students' achievement are

proposed by the Chen's Model of family influence s on student academic achievement

(Chen, 1995)