2 Some Cornments on the Foundations of Physics
1. Brief Historical Introduction
During the last hundred years, the discussion about the concepts
of space and time and their interrelation has been very intense in
physics, and the literature is enormous. After the establishment of
Maxwell's equations in 1873 and the introduction of the concept of
the ether, the question of the motion of the earth with respect to the
ether became of frrndamental importance. The negative outcome of
the Michelson-Morley [] experiment was a great surprise, which
indicated that the velocity of light may be the same in all moving
systems independent of the velocity of the light source. In order to
explain this peculiar phenomenon, several physicists inhoduced the
idea of "contractions" of moving bodies later leading to linear
couplings between space and time: FitzGerald [2], Lorentz [3],
Larmor [4], and Poincar6 [5], and these relations are now known as
the Lorentz transformations. In studying systems moving with
respect to each other, the old Galilei transformations were then
replaced by the Lorentz-transformations for all systems of inertia.
Poincard seems also to have been one of the first to postulate the
principle of relativity that the laws of physics should be the same in
all these moving systems. When Einstein [6] established his special
theory of relativity in 1905, one of the main purposes was to show
that the laws of electrodynamics as expressed by Marwell's equations
were invariant under these transformations as a consequence of the
assumption that the velocity of light is the same in all systems
independent of the velocity of the light source. The theory was given
an elegant and forceful geometrical interpretation by Minkowski [7]
in 1909. Since the new concepts meant a revolution not only in
electrodynamics but in the entire physics, it was important to
investigate the fundamental assumptions for the new theory in great
detail. One of the first straightforward derivations of the Lorentz-
transformations was given by Pauli [8] in l92l in his famous
encyclopedia paper, and it was based on the principle of relativity and
the following four assumptions:
Origin of Lorentz Transformations
O. The velocity of light is the same in all privileged systems.
(II). The properties of space and time:
a. space and time are homogeneous,
b. space is isotropic,
c. space is symmetric with respect to velocities.
Again the starting point is the negalive outcome of the Michelson-
Morley experiment, and the derivation is hence closely associated
with the phenomenon of light. There iue many other derivations [9],
and practically all of them are based on similar assumptions. For
more references, the reader is referred to the standard textbooks on
the Special Theory of Relativity.
It is remarkable that Einstein in the same volume of Annalen der
Plrysik in 1905 published not only his paper about the special theory
of relativity, but also his papers about the photoelectric effect and the
Brownian motion, which was a tremendous achievement. However,
many scientist working in other parts of physics were in the following
decades greatly disturbed by the fact that their basic concepts were
modified to meet the requirements of electrodynamics, and it is
perhaps significant that, when Einstein obtained the Nobel prize in
physics in the beginning of the 1920's-it was the 1921 reserved
prize awarded in 1922-4e got it 'for his services to theoretical
physics, and particularly for his discovery of the law of the
photoelectric effect " and not for his theory of relativity. In the study
of the photoelectric effect, Einstein had assumed that the
electromagnetic radiation was quantized and occurred in wave
packets with the energy E = hv .
Quantum theory had been introduced by Planck in 1900, and the
first Nobel prize in this area was awarded to him in 1918, the second
prize was granted to Einstein in 1921, whereas the third prize was
given to Bohr in 1922, which seems to establish some form of logical
order for these recognitions. Otherwise, it is difficult to speculate
about the motivation for the choice of the photoelectric effect for the
Einstein award, since no official records are taken about the
4 Some Comments on the Foundations of Physics
discussions leading to the selection of the main candidates and the
final prize winner(s). The Physics Committee Reports, containing
also the scientific evaluations of the various candidates, which form
the background for these discussions and the recommendations by the
Committee, the Physics Class, and the final decision by the Royal
Swedish Academy in plenum are further confidential for 50 years.
The Physics Reports for the years up through 1922 and their contents
related to the Einstein nominations and award have recently been
critically reviewed by Pais [10], and for details the reader is referred
to his excellent book.
As to the question of the arguments used in the discussions about
the candidates for the Nobel prizes in the Committee, the Physics
Class, or the Academy itself, one has to remember that anything
which goes outside the official Commiuee Report is pure guesswork,
but many scientists have still wondered why Einstein did not get his
prize for the special theory of relativity. It has been said that the rules
for the Nobel prizes clearly forbids the prize to be shared by more
than three persons, and perhaps it was simply so that there were too
many qualified candidates for a pize associated with the Lorentz
transformations and relativity--5ee references [2]-[7]. Lorentz had
already got a Nobel pize in 1902 for his contributions to the theory
of the Zeeman effect, and Pais's survey reveals that the only other
serious competitor would be Poincar6. A stronger reason might be
that the physics prize, according to the opinion of the leading
Swedish physicists, should be awarded for discoveries in Physics, and
not for discoveries in mathematical or theoretical physics-in
agreement with Alfred Nobel's will that there should be no prize in
the field of mathematics-nd that a theoretical pize should be
considered only if it had important experimental consequences or
applications. A decisive factor in the discussions about relativity was
probably that the final evaluation was written by Gullstrand, a
prominent member of the Physics Committee, who was highly
critical of relativity [11], whereas oseen wrote a brilliant report about
the photoelectric effect. As a curiosity one should perhaps also
mention that Nordenson, a woll established exporimontal physicist in
Origin of Lorentz Transformations
Sweden, was not very fond of Einstein's new concepts of space and
time, and in 1922 he wrote a book [12] explaining how a physicist
should measure these quantities properly: in fact, even later in 1969
he refused to accept the validity of the Lorentz transformations.
In a long series of papers
[3] in the United States, another
eminent scholar, Ives, critically scrutinized the basis for the
revolution in physics caused by the Lorentz transformations and the
special theory of relativity, and the many historical aspects in these
papers are of particular value. Of interest are also the remarks given
by Zapffe [a]. Today the special theory of relativity is an essential
part of modern physics, and most of the discussion is now devoted to
the question of the validity of Einstein's general theory of relativity,
particularly in view of some recent remarkable discoveries in
astronomy [5].
In concluding this section, we note that it would probably have
been easier to introduce the special theory of relativity and its new
concepts of space and time into physics, if
it would have been
possible to derive the Lorentz-transformations without reference to
electrodynamics and the properties of light. It was early observed
[16] that one can get the correct form of the Lorentz transformations
by means of group theory starting from some assumptions of purely
group theoretical character. During the last two decades, there has
been a series of papers about the derivation of the Lorcntz
transformations in the American Journal of Pltysics [17], some of
which do not refer to the velocity of light. A purely kinematic
derivation has also recently been given by L6vy [18]. Since the
literature in this field is enonnous, it goes without saying that the list
of references is necessarily very incomplete.
The author got interested in the problem of the derivation of the
Lorentz transformation without reference to the velocity of light or
group theoretical assumptions more than 50 years ago [17], and the
purpose of this paper is to try to bring up this problem to renewed
consideration particularly in discussing the combination of modern
quntum theory with the special theory of relativity. In a seoond
papcr, mmo of th3 paramctrs ocouring in tho fianrformationg
6 So me Comrnents onthe Foundations of Physics Origin of Lorentz Transformations 7

review of this type of development and its impact on modem physics,

obtainedwillbegivenanewinterpretationintermsofwave
the reader is referred elsewhere [20].
mechanics.

Some Properties of Privileged Systems

2. Derivation of the Lorentz Transformations

Let us next recall the fact that in classical physics as well as in the
Some Properties of Deductive Theories
special theory of relativity, all the laws of dynamics are formulated in
Letusstartbyobservingthatthecharacterofalldeductive a family of privileged systems, which itself has to be properly
change due to the characterized. For our derivation, it would be suffrcient to observe
tneories in physics has undergone a dramatic
a"r"rop*.ni oi matrrematic. uia logic during the last
century. A if
that, a system is privileged, all systems moving with uniform
assumptions- rectilinear motions with respect to it, are also privileged. The
deductive theory is built on some fundamental
purpose of our study is to investigate the relations between the space
-b"t
axioms-fromwhichonederivestheresultsbymeansoflogic-the
and time coordinates of all the systems within this family as seen by
u.t lip*. ,.uroriig. to the pioneering work by Gauss around
geometries: on:.huq observers with identical clocks moving with the systems. In this
1g00 and the develo"pment of the non-Euclidean
theorems valid without connection, one could hence consider at privileged system as a
learnt that the ar.ioirs are not self-evident
urt uoitair,; ;";:bv choice for a deductive theory' which fundamental quantity.
;;;;i Out of nothing' If one wants to relate the privileged systems in classical physics
only had to be nonicontruai.io.y and non-redundant.
to something else, it is convenient to start from Newton's dynamics.
onecouldderivenothing!Alltheresultsofadeductivetheoryare
usually contain a This is a typical deductive theory built on the following fundamental
i";;ffiy ;;"ir"d in ihe axioms. The axioms by the axioms-so-called assumptions:
number of quantitie;,;hi;h are not defined
can be given
undefined quantities in the abstract theory-whi9llater
;il; ,yp", of- realizations leading to different deJining or
.models the
(1) A body not acted upon by any forces will be at rest or
,ppfft"f*i of the abstract theory'toHowever' \n in uniform linear motion.
a

q"*ii i* one has also realize that one needs a (2) A body acted upon by a force K will undergo an
fundamental
quantities which one has acceleration a which is proportional to the force, so
definite starting poini-to*e fundamental
which other quantities may that K - ttl; where the proportionality factor rn is the
to accept without definition, by means of
nothing! body's "inertial mass".
be defined. Out of nothing, one can define
An excellent ;;;f;f a modern deductive theory is provided (3) The forces acting between two bodies will obey the
in mathematics lawof actionand reaction: Krz = -Krr.
by abstract gtorp"iffi *d iT various applications
;fiirt;i;r.- rt'rrr""rJ irrtt., be observediho*.r.r, that theoretical (4) Two bodies with the masses m, and m, will interact
i, diff...nt from mathematics in one important aspect: a by a gravitational force which is proportional to
;dri;; the /rl,
;ili;A tt.ory trt t.il'tific value' if and only if it can explain
-ia mrrry
experimental .d;ri;;;; p'iai't new experimental results'
a value of its own. For a
whereas . *rttrrmrticaittoory usually has
 Origin of Larentz Transformations 9
Some Comments on the Foun'dations of Physics
fixed points on the heaven of the fixed stars. In a strict deductive
there are a
The reader will immediately notice that, in these axioms, theory, this type of reasoning may not seem satisfactory, and the
number of "undefined quantities" as e.g. the concepts
of force, mass, attempts to improve the theory has led e.g. Einstein to the
have still served as a basis for
etc. T.he laws outlined in these axioms formulation of the general theory of relativity in which the laws of
to predict
classical physics and made it possible for modern science physics are valid in all systems.
certain astronomical events, to put a man on the moon,
to send It is obvious that the first ariom is redundant, since it may be
time they
exploratory rockets to most of the planets, etc. At the same
derived from the second one, but in the days of Newton it was
have left many fundamental questions unanswered' pedagogically important, since it was generally believed that a force
It should be observeo ihat these axioms are valid The only in was necessary to keep a body in motion. We note further that
general' first
privileged reference systems, and not in systems in Newton' s laws are valid only in the privileged systems, but also that
rest in a
kiom"indicates that a body not acted upon by forces is at this implieHs shown abovrthat the privileged systems are to a
privileged system or in uniform linear motion in such a system, and
certain extent defined by these laws. The most genial part of
irr. problem is then to find a body which ,l n9t acted upon
Newton's dynamics is, of course, axiom 4 which expresses the
all other
[V gru"itutional forces, since it has to be infinitely far from
"rr""r,iai
grovitational law which regulates an essential part of our universe. It
;;dt"". At this point, axioms 2 and 3 come to our salvation. should be observed that it is perhaps easier to understand the meaning
Considertwobodieswiththemassesmlandln2,tespectively, of Newton's laws today-in view of the new understanding of the
and which act on each other by the forces K,,
and Kzt : -Ktz'
character of deductive theories-than it was a century ago. The
According to axiom 2, one has then quantities za, and m, which enter into the gravitational law are
known as the "gravitational masses". By pendulum experiments,
Kr, = t\il1, Kzr = m2a2, (r.2.1)
Newton proved that the gravitational masses arc proportional to the
inertial masses, and these experiments have later been refined by
tr12r2:
and, adding these two relations, one obtains m1L1*
0'
Edtv0s, Dicke, and Braginsky, and it is usually assumed that these
Introducingthecenterofmass(,fotthetwobodiesthroughthe masses are identical to each other. The proportionality between the
(mt + re2) one gets gravitational and inertial masses forms the basis for the so-called
conventional definition 6 = (mra, + m2a2) I '
equivalence principle, which is the basis for e.g. the general theory
of relativity.
*=0,
dt"
(r.2.2)

Properties of Privileged Systems in Unifurm Motion with Respect to

i.e.thecenterofmassfmoveslikeafreeparticleaccordingto
Each Other
Axioml.Inthetreatmentoftheplanetarysysteminclassical
.is hence often convenient to introduce a
privileged
;ht;at, it in the center of the Let us now consider two privileged systems, S and S,, such that
cartesian coordinate system by having its origin
mass of the planetary system. It shoutd further
be observed that the S, is moving with the velocity v with respect to S. Both systems are
centrifugal forces, assumcd to havo observers with identical clocks, on which they
system oannbt rotate, ,irro. this would introduce
and one can thon try io n* the axos by having
thom directed towards
l0 Some Comments orl the Foundations of Physics

measure the time. The system S has the Cartesian coordinates

(x,y,z) with the origin placed in the point where the observer is
situated, and on his clock he measures the time /. In the same way,
the system S,has the Cartesian coordinates (r1,J{ ,zr)with the origin
placed e.g. where its observer is situated, and on his clock he
measures the time /1. For the sake of simplicity, we will assume that
x-axes are aligned with each other in the direction of the motion,
whereas the y- and z-axes are parallel with each other and
perpendicular to the motion, and that the time is measured from the
moment the origins are passing each other. We will fuither assume
that the coordinates are connected through transformations of the
form:

xr=f(x,t,v), h=!, zt = z, t, = g(x,t,v) (I.2.3)

which imply that the coordinates orthogonal to the direction of the

motion are not affected or involved at all. In order to proceed, we
will assume that the axioms Il-mentioned in the introduction-
about the homogeneity of space and time, the isotropy of space, and
the symmetry of velocities are valid, and the more detailed meaning
of these axioms will be explained in greater detail below. We will
further add one more axiom:

(IId) The superposition of two positive velocities will again

be a positive velocity.

The Axiom (IIa) about the homogeneity of space and time implies
that the first transformation in (I.2.3) should be independent of the
choice of origin, which gives the relation
f (x + a,t + b,v) = f(x,t,v) + ar, for arbitrary values of the constants
aandb. Putting x=0 and /= 0 andobservingthat /(0,0,y)=0,
one gets further ar = .f(qb,v), which gives

"f
(* + a,t + b,v) = f(x,t,v) + f(a,b,v). (t.2.4)
 Origtn of Lorentz Transformations ll

This relation implies that the function f(x,t,v) must be a linear

function in x and r which is easily proven by taking the partial
derivatives with respect to x and t. Hence one has

x'r=hx*H, (r.2.s)

where the coefficients ft = h(v) and k = k(v) are functions of the

velocity v to be determined. Since the system S, moves in S with the
velocity v, the point x, = 0 in S, corresponds to the point x - vt in
S, which gives 0 = hvt i-kt, i.e. k = -hv. Hence the relation (1.2.5)
may be written in the form

xr = h(v){x -vt]i. (r.2.6)

According to axiom (IIc) about the symmetry of velocities, the

system S moves in the system Sr with the velocity -v, and one has
hence also the transformation formulo. x = h(-v){x1+vrt}. In this
situation, it is convenient to introduce two systems S' and S'rwith the
I
x-axis reversed, so that = -x and x,'- -xr. Since S'now moves in
S, with the velocity v, a combination of the axioms (IIb), (IIc), and
I
(I.2.6) gives the relation = h(v){xr'-vfi}, i.e.

x = h(v){xr + vrr} . (r.2.7)

Hence one has h(v) = h(-v), h(v) is an even functions of the

and
velocity v. Combining the relations (I.2.6) md (1.2.7), one gets
further
t2 Some Comments on the Foundations of Physics Origin of Lorentz Tlansformations l3

v+u
,,=0{;-,,}=(+X; - h(x- rr)) W =-.
I +vb(u)
(r.2.13)

='{'-(r(' #)} = h{'l - bxt, (r.2.8) Hence one has the symmetry law ub(v) = vb(u),i.e.

where we have temporarily introduced the notation (t.2.14)

v

q is a constant, and the "superposition law" takes then the

, =(+X,
i) (r.2.e) where
simple form

This gives the transformations u+v

(r.2.15)
l+ auv
\ = h{x - vt}, tt = h{t + bx}, (r.2.10)
The derivation is so far identical with the derivation given in ref.
as well as the reverse transformations [21], but the formulation of the fourth axiom has here been changed.
Because ofaxiom (IId), the constant a cannot have a negative value,
*=hb,*rr,) t=htr+bxrl, G.2.1l) and we will introduce the notation a=lli, where a has the
dimension of a velocity. This gives also 6(v) = (l/v)(l -Ilh'z)
which are obtained from 0.2.10) by replacing v by -v. ln these =vla2,i.e.
relations, it remains to determine the functiot h = h(v) .
For this pu{pose, we will study an observer S, which is moving
in S, with the velocity u. The observer is going to move in S with a
it\v)==76i, 1
(r.2.16)

velocity w which is a "superposition" of the velocities u and v. In

classical mechanics, one would simply have w = u*y, but here we where we can exclude the minus sign, since /l(01= 1. Hence the
may get a more general result. Observing that w = dx I dt and transformations (I.2.10) take the form
u = d\ I dtr, one obtains directly from (I.2.11):
x-vt t-vxla2
..,_dx.dt
w =- _h{dx,ldt,+v} _ u+v (r.2.r2) \=--, !t=!, Zt=z, +
L,
---
' Jl -v' la'
dt, dt, h{+bdxrldtr} l+ub(v) \l l-v- I a-
(r.2.t7)
eond&dtU ths ryrtoms S', S'1, and S'2 with the reverse x-axes, S' is
movlng ln 8'2 wtft the velocity w which gives
14 Some Comments on the Foundations of Physics Origin of Lorentz Tfa,nsfor ma,tions l5

In the special case, when a=@ , one obtains lv = tt+v, and the
relations (1.2.17) go over into the Galilei transformations with tr = t .
However, here there is no reason for a to be infinite from the very
beginning.
Since the transformations (I.2.17) must necessarily be real, one
gets immediately the condition
-o<v 1lo, (r.2.18)
for the relative velocities of observers associated with privileged
systems, and the structure constant a has hence a character of a limit
velocity. From the superposition law (I.2.15) or
In a family of privileged system satis$ing the four orioms
(IIa), (IIb), (IIc), and lIId), the relative velocity between two
systems and their observers must always be smaller than the
limit velocity.
On the other hand, if one combines an observer velocity v satisffing
(I.2.18) with a limit velocity u'= ta, one obtains again a limit velocity
w =!a, which is also seen by direct substitution into (.2.19).
Phenomena moving with limit velocity a in one privileged system are
hence going to move with limit velocity a in all privileged systems. lt
is evident that, in our approach based on the four axioms II, this
theorem is going to replace axiom I mentioned in the introduction.

u+v
W= (r.2.1e)
]puvlai' Signal Velocities

one gets directly the two identities A signal in a system S is a message sent from a point P to another
point P' with a specific signal velocity s. For the sake of simplicity,
w (l+ula)(l+vla) we will put both points on the x-anis at a distance Ax from each
1+-=
o l+uv la2 ) other. If the signal is emitted in P at a time ,, it will be received in P'
(r.2.20) atalater time / and if their distance is Ax, then the signal is received
1
w
__
(l-ula)(l-vla) in the point P' at a later time /=/*Arls, where A,t=f -/ is
l+uv laz
l-
a ' positive expressing a certain property of the signal relating to the
concepts of"order ofevents". Ifthese events are instead observed in
and the combined relation tlre. system 51 moving with the velocity v with respect to S, one
obtains by using the last relation (1.2.17) for the time interval
1
w'
__
(l-r'ta211t*v'la'1 Lt, : tr' -rr,
l- ) -
a- (l+uv I o')' (t.2.21)
: l-svla2 (r.2.22)
which shows that the superposition of two observer velocities u and, ' Jl -v2 la2
v satisfling (I.2.18) gives again an observer velocity w satisffing
(I.2.18). Hence one has the theorem: If one wants the "order of events" to be the same as seen from all
privileged systems in the family, then the quantities Arrand A/must
 16 Some Comrnents on the Found,ations of physics

have.the same sign, which gives the condition I - sv / a2 > 0 . Hence

the signal velocity must necessarily satisfr the
relation

-a<s1+a. (r.2.23)

Nodal velocities

There are, of course, velocities which may

exceed the limit
velocity a. A simple example is provided UV tf,.ip"irif=
O on the
x, -axis, which according to (r.2.r7) moves
in the system s with the
velocity w = a2 /v, which is absolutely higher than
the limit velocity.
In.the following the velocity w wili be referred to
u, it. nodar
veloc.ity of the system S. It has for the moment
no physical meaning,
but it has here been given a name, since it ir'loi-ng
importance in the wave mechanics developed
to be of
in trr. Foiioiring paper.
Using.this notation, one may write the transformation
(I.2.17) in the
special form

(t.2.24)

The nodal velocity of the system srmoving in

s, is given by the
expression wu=a2 lu. For the nodal velocity
w, of S, moving in
S, one obtains similarly:

a' ar+uv v+a, lu v+wu-

w.=-
' w u+v l+vlu = l+vwu/a2, (L2.25)

which implies that even the nodal velocities satisfr

the generar
superposition law.
The axioms II are all in agreement with
"common sense,,, and this
means that there should be no conflict between
trr. ti*rrormations
 Origtn of Larentz Transformations t7

(1.2.17) and the ideas of classical mechanics-{he only point is that

one should not take for granted that a = oo. In a second paper, we
will show that the fact that the limit velocity is linite is a necessary
prerequisite for the existence of modern wave mechanics.
The limit velocity is thus a fundamental structure constant of
space-time, and that light propagates with this velocity is only a
special feature as proven by the Michelson-Morley experiment. In
the following, we will hence use the standard notation a = c but
remember that the symbol c has now a deeper meaning as referring
also to other physical phenomena including mechanics.

3. Minkowski Space; the Laws of Dynamics

Linear Vector Spaces

In this section, we will briefly review the theory of the

Minkowski space and the laws of dynamics as a preparation for the
study of wave mechanics. Using the relations (I.2.17), one finds
immediately the identity

2 2 2 22 2 2 2 2.2
\+!t+4 C\=X +y +z -Ct (r.3.1)

and Minkowski interpreted this relation as the existence of an

invariant length square s2 in a four-dimensional real space given by
the expression s2 = x? + i * *tr - fi, wrtn x4 = ct .
Here we will proceed slightly differently, and for our purpose it is
converient to introduce vector spaces, which consists of all column
vectors =t {ai of order n with either real or pure imaginary
elementsar. In the following, we will denote vectors and matrices in
Roman fonts by bold-face symbols, and we will introduce the
convention that, if A and B are two arbitrary rectangular matrices of
order mxp Lnd p xn, then their product C=A'B is a matrix of
order m xn with the elements given by the formula
 Origin of Lorentz Transformations 17

16 Some Cornments on the Found'ations of Physics

only point is that
I sv I a 'rO.Hence (1.2.17)and the ideas of classical mechanics-{he
have the same sign, which gives the condition - a = o ' lo a second paper' we
ihe sigrrat vetocifu must necessarily satisff the relation
il" riiJJ not t te ror granted thTtvelocity is fi_nite. is a necessary
will show that the iJ th"t the limit
modem wave mechanics'
-a3s<+a. (r.2.23) ,r.t"q"iti e fo, tt e .*i't"ntt of u t*aurn"ntal structure constant of
The limit u.roJity ir-ih",
this velocity is only a
,pu""-ii*., *A thut'tigl't propagates with experiment' In
special feature u, [L'""n tv tf" Mi"htlto"-Morley
notation a = c brtt
Nodal velocities
the following, we';ii he;. use the standardmeaning as referring
remember that the symbol c has
now a deeper
Thereate,ofcourse,velocitieswhichmayexceedthelimit physici phenomena including mechanics'
velocity a. Asimple example is provided by the point f, = 0 on
the ;;;; "ilr"r
x,-axis,whichaccordingto(I'2'17)movesinthesystemswiththe
the limit velocity'
velocity w = a2 / v, which is absolutely higher than 3. Minkowski Space; the Laws of Dynamics
In the"following tire vetocity u, witi be referred to as
the nodal
physical meaning,
ietocityof the system S. It has for the moment no Linear Vector SPaces
but it has here been given a name, since it is going
to be of
in the following paper' the theory of the
importance in the wave-mechanics developed
(I'2'17) in the In this section, we witl briefly review
as a preparation for the
i-rri"g ,ftr notation, one may write the transformation Minkowski ,pu".'*d G 1u*' of dynamics
special form study of *ur, *Jl*i"' U'ing the relations (I'2'17)' one finds
immediatelY the identitY
t-xlw (r.2.24)
"I
t_-_:
Jt-u'td t = *' * Y' + z' - c2t2 (r.3.1)
*? *y? + z? - r'

as the existence of an
The nodal velocity of the system Srmoving in S,
is given by the and Minkowski interpreted this relation
real space given by
expression wu = a2 I u. For the nodal velocity
w* of S' moving in invariant length ,q;;;t in a-four-dimensional
S, one obtains similarlY: i
rh;;;;;;;ffi ,' = *? + + x| - witrt x4and* = ct'
fo1 our purpose it is
Here we will proceea,rigutiv differently,
which consists of all column
a'+uY v+a'lu =G;J
a' :-;; v+wu converient to introduce vector spaces,
wn=
w
=1*u, d' G'2'25)
vectors t={a) J"tA* ' *itt' "itt"r
real or pure imaginary
in
we will denote vectors and matrices
elementsa*. In the following'
symbols' and we will introduce
the
which implies that even the nodal velocities satisfu
the general Roman fonts by iti't"i
convention that, if A an"d B are
two arbitrary^rect^anqulSr matrices of
superposition law. is a matrix of
order m x p wrd ;;;',-'h";*reir ryoJyct'C
=
The axioms II are all in agreement with "common-sense",
and this 1'B
formula
*.*, that there should be no conflict between the
transformations il;; , ,i wittr itre elements given by the