1.

List major muscles involved in respiration (inspiration and expiration) at rest and
during exercise

Inspiratory muscles
Sternocleidomastoid
Scalenes
External intercostals
Internal intercostals
Diaphragm

Expiration muscle

Internal intercostals
External abdominal oblique
Internal abdominal oblique
Transversus abdominis
Rectus abdominis

2. Discuss the major transportation modes of O2 and CO2 in the blood.

99% of O2 is transported bound to hemoglobin (Hb) Oxyhemoglobin: Hb bound to

O2 Deoxyhemoglobin: Hb not bound to O2
Amount of O2 that can be transported per unit volume of blood is dependent on
the Hb concentration Each gram of Hb can transport 1.34 ml O2
Oxygen content of blood (100% Hb saturation) Males: Females: O2 Transport in
the Blood 150 g Hb/L blood x 1.34 ml O2/g Hb = 200 ml O2/L blood 130 g Hb/L blood
x 1.34 ml O2/g Hb = 174 ml O2/L blood
Dissolved in plasma (10%)
Bound to Hb (20%) Bicarbonate (70%) CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3 -
Also important for buffering H+ CO2 Transport in Blood
Bicarbonate Tissue cell PCO2 = 45 mmHg Diffuses into blood-RBC (carbonic
anhydrase)
Conversion to bicarbonate by
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3 - (carbonic anhydrase) CO2 Transport in
Blood Bicarbonate ion (HCO3 - )
Diffuses out of RBC into plasma
Exchange with Cl- (chloride shift) Maintains electrochemical imbalance In lungs
H+ (from HHb or dissolved in plasma) + HCO3 -
H2CO3 CO2 + H2O
Over 99% of the O2 transported in blood is chemically bonded with hemoglobin. The
effect of the partial pressure of O2 on the combination of O2 with hemoglobin is
illustrated by the S-shaped O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve. An increase in body
temperature and a reduction in blood pH results in a right shift in the O2-
hemoglobin dissociation curve and a reduced affinity of hemoglobin for O2.
3. Identify the location and fuctions of chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors
that are thought to play a role in regulations of breathing.
Humoral chemoreceptors Central chemoreceptors Located in the medulla
PCO2 and H+ concentration in cerebrospinal fluid Peripheral chemoreceptors
Aortic and carotid bodies PO2, PCO2, H+, and K+ in blood
Input into the respiratory control center to increase ventilation can come from
both neural and humoral sources. Neural input may come from higher brain
centers, or it may arise from receptors in the exercising muscle. Humoral input
may arise from central chemoreceptors , peripheral chemoreceptors, and/or
lung CO2 receptors. The central chemoreceptors are sensitive to increases in
PCO2 and decreases in pH. The peripheral chemoreceptors (carotid bodies are
the most important) are sensitive to increases in PCO2 and decreases in PO2 or
pH. Receptors in the lung that are sensitive to an increase in PCO2 are
hypothesized to exist.
A mechanoreceptor is a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical pressure
or distortion. There are four main types in the glabrous (hairless) skin of humans:
Pacinian corpuscles, Meissner's corpuscles, Merkel's discs, and Ruffini
corpuscles. There are also mechanoreceptors in the hairy skin, and the hair cells
in the cochlea are the most sensitive mechanoreceptors in transducing air
pressure waves into sound.
A chemoreceptor is a specialized sensory end organ adapted for excitation by
chemical substances (for example, olfactory and gustatory receptors) or
specialized sense organs of the carotid body that are sensitive to chemical
changes in the bloodstream.
 Posted By : NUR ALIA NAJIHAH BINTI MOHD NASIR (D20141066432)
Date posted : 08 Apr 2015 02:43:26 PM
(8 read/s)

Salam,

1. List major muscles involved in respiration (inspiration and expiration) at rest and during exercise:

Inspiration :

Diaphragm - Thin, dome-shaped sheet of muscle inserted at the lower ribs. Contraction of the
diaphragm moves the abdomen downward and forward increasing the vertical dimensions of the
chest cavity. The ribs are also lifted outward increasing the diameter of the thorax. In normal tidal
breathing, the diaphragm moves about 1cm (may move up to 10cm during forced expiration.
Paralysis of the diaphragm causes paradoxical movement in which it moves up rather
than down with inspiration. This occurs when a person sniffs.
External Intercostal Muscles - Connect adjacent ribs and under contraction, the ribs move upward
and forward. Paralysis of the intercostal muscles does not seriously affect breathing because the
diahragm is so effective.
Accessory Muscles of Inspiration
o scalen muscles - Elevate the first two ribs
o sternomastoids - Raise the sternum (may contract vigorously during exercise)
o alae nasi - Flare the nostrils
o Other small muscles in the neck and head

Expiration :

Muscles in the Abdominal Wall - Contract forcefully during coughing, vomiting,

and defecation.Internal Intercostal Muscles - Pull ribs downward and inward (opposite to external
intercostal muscles)
o rectus abdominus
o internal and external obliques
o transversus abdominus

2. Discuss the major transportation modes of O2 and CO2 in the blood.

Transport of Oxygen:

The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in between the lungs and blood. The
greater part of oxygen diffuses into the blood and at the same time, carbon dioxide diffuses out.
Here the question is where the oxygen would go.

The most part oxygen (about 97%) is now carried by the erythrocytes or R. B. Cs. In which it
combines with the hemoglobin, the iron containing respiratory pigment under high concentration
forming loose chemical compound the oxy-hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin is purple colored but oxy-hemoglobin is of bright red color. Along the blood stream
during circulation, the oxy-hemoglobin reaches the tissues, breaks up releasing most of its oxygen,
and regains its normal purple color as hemoglobin, there by the blood acts as an efficient oxygen
carrier.

A small portion of oxygen (about 3%) also dissolves in the plasma and is carried in the form of
solution to the tissues blood stream. Now this free oxygen, before entering into the tissue proper first
passes into the tissue fluid and then enters the tissue by diffusion. In return, the carbon dioxide is
given out by the tissues, dissolves in the tissue fluid and finally passes into the blood stream and
conveyed of blood is 10 to 26 volumes of oxygen per 100 volumes of blood.

The oxygen transport from lungs to tissues is achieved because hemoglobin has the highest affinity
for oxygen at 100 mm Hg PO2 (which is almost present in the alveolar air) and low affinity for
oxygen at 40 mm Hg PO2 which is prevalent in the tissues. So oxygen readily combines with the
reduced hemoglobin of Venus blood in the lungs and it is readily given off to the tissues by the
arterial blood. The release of oxygen from blood is further increased by the fall in pH increased
CO2 tension, and rise in temperature.

Transport of Carbon Dioxide:

The resultant carbon dioxide, which is produced from metabolism and given out by the tissue, is
passed into blood through the tissue fluid and conveyed back to the respiratory surfaces along with
the blood stream. But by plasma and hemoglobin of blood. Blood transports carbon dioxide in three
ways, namely:

(1) As carbonic acid

(2) As bicarbonates of sodium and potassium and

(3) As carbominohemoglobin

All these compounds are reversible compounds. About 10% of total carbon dioxide is carried by the
blood in the dissolved state as carbonic acid (CO 2 + H2O H2CO3) but 80% of CO2 as Sodium
bicarbonate in the plasma and as potassium bicarbonate in the plasma and as potassium
bicarbonate in the corpuscles and the remaining 10% as carbamino-hemoglobin (a loose compound
formed by CO2 + hemoglobin).The carbon dioxide so formed is removed by diffusion before the
blood leaves the lung. This transportation of gases also comes under external respiration.

3. Identify the location and functions of chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors that are thought to
play a role in regulations of breathing.

Location :- a) In the carotid bodies: At the bifurcation of carotid arteries, innervated by the
glossopharyngeal (IX) nerve b) In the aortic bodies: Above and below the aortic arch, innervated by
the vagus (X) nerve

Functions :- A mechanoreceptor is a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical pressure or

distortion. There are four main types in the glabrous (hairless) skin of humans: Pacinian corpuscles,
Meissner's corpuscles, Merkel's discs, and Ruffini corpuscles. There are also mechanoreceptors in
the hairy skin, and the hair cells in the cochlea are the most sensitive mechanoreceptors in
transducing air pressure waves into sound.

A chemoreceptor is a specialized sensory end organ adapted for excitation by chemical substances
(for example, olfactory and gustatory receptors) or specialized sense organs of the carotid body that
are sensitive to chemical changes in the bloodstream.