River flooding and management issues

The likelihood of a river bursting its banks and flooding is determined by factors in the
surrounding landscape, such as steepness of the river valley, the amount of vegetation and the
prevailing rock-type. The short-term impact of floods can be catastrophic, but they can have
positive long-term effects as well.

Causes of flooding

A flood occurs when a river bursts its banks and the water spills onto the floodplain.
Flooding tends to be caused by heavy rain: the faster the rainwater reaches the river channel,
the more likely it is to flood. The nature of the landscape around a river will influence how
quickly rainwater reaches the channel.

The following factors may encourage flooding:

Helicopter carrying British aid across flood water, Mozambique

A steep-sided channel - a river channel surrounded by steep slopes causes fast

surface run-off.
A lack of vegetation or woodland - trees and plants intercept precipitation (ie they
catch or drink water). If there is little vegetation in the drainage basin then surface
run-off will be high.
A drainage basin, consisting of mainly impermeable rock - this will mean that water
cannot percolate through the rock layer, and so will run faster over the surface.
A drainage basin in an urban area - these consist largely of impermeable concrete,
which encourages overland flow. Drains and sewers take water quickly and directly to
the river channel. Houses with sloping roofs further increase the amount of run-off.

Flood management techniques include river engineering, afforestation and planning controls
to restrict urban development on floodplains.

The impact of flooding

Floods can cause damage to homes and possessions as well as disruption to communications.
However, flooding can also have positive impacts on an area.

Flooding deposits fine silt (alluvium) onto the floodplain, making it very fertile and excellent
for agriculture. People living on or near floodplains may rely upon regular flooding to help
support their farming and therefore provide food.

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LEDCs tend to be affected more than MEDCs by the effects of flooding. This is partly
because LEDCs have more farms, and farming communities are attracted to fertile flood
plains. LEDCs often do not have the resources to prevent flooding or deal with the aftermath
of flooding.

MEDC case study: causes and effects of flooding in Boscastle, UK (2004)

Causes

Over 60 mm of rainfall (typically a month's rainfall) fell in two hours.

The ground was already saturated due to the previous two weeks of above average
rainfall.
The drainage basin has many steep slopes, and has areas of impermeable slate causing
rapid surface run-off.
Boscastle is at the confluence (where tributaries meet) of three rivers - Valency,
Jordan, and Paradise. A large quantity of water all arrived within a short space of time
causing the rivers to overflow.
The flooding coincided with a high tide, making the impact worse.

Effects

Homes, businesses and cars belonging to more than 1,000 people were swept away.
Income from tourism was lost. This had an impact on livelihoods and the local
economy.
There were vast numbers of subsequent insurance claims.
No lives were lost, partly due to the rapid response of the emergency services.

LEDC case study: causes and effects of flooding in Mozambique (2000)

The Mozambique floods of 2000 show that what happens in one country can very often affect
another.

The flooding was triggered by exceptionally heavy rain in South Africa, lasting for five
weeks in early 2000. Botswana was particularly badly hit, receiving 75 per cent of its yearly
rainfall in three days. On 22 February, Cyclone Eline hit, bringing more heavy rainfall. The
rain from Botswana and other Southern African countries ran into the Limpopo, Zambezi and
other rivers which flow through Mozambique to the sea. These rivers eventually burst their
banks, causing severe flooding in Mozambique.

In addition, the loss of grassland and draining of marshland for farms contributed to more
rapid surface run-off.

The results were disastrous: services were cut off and many people were stranded, homeless
or had died through drowning or disease. Urbanisation in South Africa may have contributed
to the large quantities of surface water run-off swelling the rivers.

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River management

The Kariba dam on the Zambezi river

Steps can be taken to manage flooding. Often these steps involve trying to lengthen the
amount of time it takes for water to reach the river channel, thereby increasing the lag time.
Flood management techniques can be divided into hard- and soft-engineering options.

Hard options tend to be more expensive and have a greater impact on the river and the
surrounding landscape.

Soft options are more ecologically sensitive. The tables summarise the main flood
management techniques.

Hard-engineering options
Dams are often built along the course of a river in order to control the
amount of discharge. Water is held back by the dam and released in a
controlled way. This controls flooding.
Water is usually stored in a reservoir behind the dam. This water can
Dam
then be used to generate hydroelectric power or for recreation purposes.
construction
Building a dam can be very expensive.
Sediment is often trapped behind the wall of the dam, leading to
erosion further downstream.
Settlements and agricultural land may be lost when the river valley is

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 flooded to form a reservoir.
The river channel may be widened or deepened allowing it to carry
more water. A river channel may be straightened so that water can
River travel faster along the course. The channel course of the river can also
engineering be altered, diverting floodwaters away from settlements.
Altering the river channel may lead to a greater risk of flooding
downstream, as the water is carried there faster.

Soft-engineering options
Trees are planted near to the river. This means greater
interception of rainwater and lower river discharge. This is a
Afforestation
relatively low cost option, which enhances the environmental
quality of the drainage basin.
Managed flooding
The river is allowed to flood naturally in places, to prevent
(also called ecological
flooding in other areas - for example, near settlements.
flooding)
Local authorities and the national government introduce
policies to control urban development close to or on the
floodplain. This reduces the chance of flooding and the risk of
Planning damage to property.
There can be resistance to development restrictions in areas
where there is a shortage of housing. Enforcing planning
regulations and controls may be harder in LEDCs.

Different interest groups have different views about flood management techniques:

Governments and developers often favour large hard engineering options, such as
dam building. Building a dam and a reservoir can generate income. Profits can be
made from generating electricity or leisure revenue.
Environmental groups and local residents often prefer softer options, such as planting
trees. Soft options cause little damage to the environment and do not involve the
resettlement of communities.
Effective flood management strategies should be economically, environmentally and
socially sustainable. Sustainable strategies allow management without compromising
the needs of future generations.

LEDC case study: coping with flooding in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is an LEDC. The land is densely populated. Most of the land forms a delta from
three main rivers - Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna - and 25 per cent of Bangladesh is less
than 1 m above sea level. Flooding is an annual event as the rivers burst their banks. This
seasonal flooding is beneficial as it provides water for the rice and jute (two main crops in the
area) it also helps to keep the soil fertile. Bangladesh also experiences many tropical
cyclones. The low-lying land means it is easily flooded. Half the country is less than 6m
above sea level. The snowmelt in the Himalayas adds water into the main rivers. There are
human causes too - building on the floodplains and cutting down trees both increase the
effects of flooding.

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There are advantages to living here:

Rice farmer in Bangladesh

The flat floodplains of the delta are very fertile. Rice is grown.
The area can also be used for shrimp farming.
There are disadvantages too:
The low-lying islands are very vulnerable and flood easily. It is difficult to protect
them.
There are poor communications. Many locals do not own their own telephone or
television so it is difficult to give successful flood warnings.
How can the risk of flooding be reduced?
Bangladesh is an LEDC and therefore does not have money to implement large schemes.
It is always going to be threatened with flooding, so the focus is on reducing the impact.
The Flood Action Plan is funded by the world bank. It funds projects to monitor flood levels
and construct flood banks/artificial levees.
More sustainable ways of reducing the flooding include building coastal flood shelters on
stilts and early-warning systems.

House on stilts, on low lying land

Water Usage

Water usage differs greatly from country to country, depending on how developed a nation is.
Other influencing factors include agriculture and supply networks.

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The global demand for water

The amount of water used in the world every day is very uneven. MEDCs use more water
than LEDCs - households, farming and industry all demand water.

What is the water used for?

What the water is used for depends on the country. The pie charts below show the difference
in water usage in four countries.

In general LEDCs (like Bangaldesh and Malawi) will have most of their water used in
agriculture (farming) and little in industry or domestic use. Bangladesh has farming as
a large part of its economy so a large percentage of their water is used for that
purpose.
MEDCs (like the UK) have a more significant use of water for domestic reasons.
MEDCs also tend to have a higher percentage for industrial use.
There are exceptions. The USA is an MEDC, but it still has a high amount of water
used for agriculture because there is also lot of farming across the country.

The % share of total water usage

The amount of water used

The amount of water used per person in each country changes dramatically. The bar chart
shows the total amount of water used per person in selected countries.

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The graph shows that people in MEDCs use far more water than those in LEDCs

Why are there so many differences in the way water is used?

Agricultural irrigation in a soya bean plant field, Iowa, USA

Agriculture

In MEDCs irrigation is mechanised. Sprinklers or timed irrigation feeds are used.

Where agriculture is common, vast amounts of water can be released at a touch of a
button.
In LEDCs irrigation channels are prone to loosing water through evaporation.

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Industrial use

many women mixing ingredients to make cow dung soap in India.

Industries in MEDCs can be on a large scale, and so demand a lot of water. Corus
Steelworks in South Wales is an example of an industry which needs a large water
supply.
LEDCs have smaller scale cottage industries. They demand less water in the
production of items. However as more multinational companies locate in LEDCs
there will be more demand on water. For example in India Coca-Cola uses over a
million litres of water a day to produce drinks.

Domestic water use

In MEDCs there are a lot of facilities which demand water use. For example showers,
baths, washing machines and swimming pools.
In LEDCs many people do not have access to piped water and so use it more
sparingly. Water may be brought to the home from a well or stream.

As a country becomes more wealthy, there will be an increase in its demand for water. Higher
levels of industrialisation and more domestic goods such as washing machines all lead to an
increase in demand for water. With greater wealth there is also more demand for spas, golf
courses and even baths and showers.

Management of water usage in MEDCs

There are problems in supplying water in MEDCs. These are:

the quality of available water

distribution
the seasonal changes in supply
broken pipes when transporting water

Both water supply and the demand for water need to be managed.

Managing water supply

In the UK there is a big issue with water supply. Areas which receive high amounts of rainfall
tend to be sparsely populated.

One third of the UK population live in South East England. This is also the driest area in the
UK.

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Ways to manage the water supply include:

making sure the broken pipes are mended (as water loss from broken pipes can be as
much as 30 per cent)
using reservoirs and dams in one area to pipe water into large urban areas
making sure that the water supply is of good quality - reducing fertiliser use on farms
helps this

In December 2010 over 40,000 people had water supply problems in Northern Ireland. One
reason was because the water pipes were quite old - some over 60 years old. This meant that
when there was a spell of very cold weather, many pipes could not cope and the pipelines
failed.

Managing water demand

The demand for domestic water can be monitored. Households with water meters in the UK
use less water in general than those without. Households can also conserve water. Ways to do
this are:

having a shower not a bath

collecting rainwater to use on the garden rather than tap water
recycling bath water to flush the toilets with
installing more efficient versions of appliances such as washing machines

Industries can also look to recycle waste water. For example, when using water for cooling in
steel-making, the water can be recycled again and again in the process.

In agriculture, drip-feed irrigation systems could be used rather than sprinkler systems.

Case study: management of water usage in MEDCs

Elan Valley Water Transfer Scheme

Much of Birmingham's tap water comes from over 100 km away. There are five dams in the
Elan Valley which can supply Birmingham with 160 million litres of water a day.

The Craig Goch Dam, Elan Valley.

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Reasons for choosing the Elan valley location

Deep narrow valleys to hold the water in.

Impermeable rock means the water wouldn't leak away.
A high annual rainfall of 1830 mm.
The area is higher than Birmingham, so the water can flow using gravity rather than
pumps.

Pen-Y-Garreg reservoir, Elan Valley

Future expansion of the scheme raises problems. The local environment would be damaged.
There would be increased traffic and noise from the construction of dams to provide extra
capacity. The river flow downstream would be affected, along with the wildlife. Also more
land would be affected when pipes are run across it.

Management of water usage in LEDCs

There are problems in supplying water in LEDCs. These are:

lack of availability of clean water

diseases spread via the water supply
water pollution

Managing water resources

One in eight people of the world population do not have access to safe water. Sixty million
children are born each year in LEDCs who do not have access to safe water.

In LEDCs using appropriate technology is usually the best way to manage supply.

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Women and children collecting drinking water from a manmade well in Senegal.

Wells, dug by hand, are a common way of accessing water - but the supply can be
unreliable and sometimes the well itself can be a source of disease.
Gravity-fed schemes are used where there is a spring on a hillside. The water can be
piped from the spring down to the villages.
Boreholes can require more equipment to dig, but can be dug quickly and usually
safely. They require a hand or diesel pump to bring the water to the surface.

In addition to locating new sources of water, some strategies help to reduce the need for
water. These include:

harvesting (collecting) rainwater landing on buildings

recycling waste water to use on crops
improving irrigation techniques
growing crops less dependant on a high water supply
minimising evaporation of water

As LEDC cities grow, so does the demand for water. The problem doesn't end when water
supplies have been improved and pipes put in place. The water has got to come from
somewhere, and the source of supply may be scarce. It is LEDCs which have the lowest
access to safe water as the map below shows:

Many countries in Africa and the Far East have a below average population size that have
access to safe water.

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Managing safe water

Without safe water people cannot lead healthy and productive lives. Areas which are in
poverty are likely to remain in that way. One example where non-governmental charities
have helped break this cycle is in Nigeria.

In Nigeria only 38 per cent of people have access to sanitation. A community led total
sanitation project (CLTS) was started by one non-governmental charity. In one year, the
project helped 2.5 million people gain access to sanitation. Areas with poor infrastructure,
high rates of illness and poverty were identified, and the charity worked with the local
population in these areas. The teams worked with the people and educated them as to how
poor hygiene and sanitation can make people ill. This included how it can also make others in
the community ill. Toilets were built using local, affordable materials. Key people in the
community led the work.

Case study: management of water usage in LEDCs

The Marunda project

Woman in a market in Jakarta

Jakarta in Indonesia has a rapidly growing population and water companies do not have the
resources to supply reliable and safe water to everyone. This means that a large proportion of
the population are drinking contaminated water and are vulnerable to disease. In addition, salt
water is also contaminating groundwater, which is making the problem worse. This is a
particular problem in shantytowns such as Marunda.

Like most shantytowns, Marunda lacks basic services such as water supply, sanitation and
electricity. People there have a poor standard of living and a low quality of life. Conditions
are crowded and disease spreads easily, contributing to low life expectancy and high infant
mortality rates.

In the past, people have relied on water from tankers or street sellers who charged high
prices.

The solutions

The Jakarta city authorities tried to invest in basic services but there was a lack of funding.
They then sought investment from abroad. In 1999, Thames Water began a 60,000 project to

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bring piped water to Marunda. The project involved local people from the early stages to
ensure that their needs would be met appropriately and that the project was sustainable.

How successful was it?

Statue of Great General Sudirman in Jakarta

By the year 2000, over 1600 homes in Marunda had piped water. Water can now be obtained
more cheaply, allowing money to be spent on food, clothes and education which is vital for
the country's long-term prospects. There have also been health benefits because the risk of
disease from contaminated water has been reduced.

This scheme was a success as it was sustainable and worked with the people to meet their
needs. Not all schemes have been as successful as this one. The Pergau Dam in Malaysia, for
example, was constructed in partnership with the British government with the aim of
providing safe and reliable water and electricity. But it did not meet the needs of the poorest
people and the scheme was an example of tied aid (this means that conditions were attached
which did not benefit Malaysia's population).

Too little water drought

Droughts occur when a long period of abnormally dry weather leads to a severe water
shortage. Droughts are also often caused by the activity of humans and can have devastating
effects.

Human activities causing drought

Human activities that can help trigger droughts include:

Widespread cutting down of trees for fuel reduces the soils ability to hold water -
drying out the ground, triggering desertification and leading to drought.
Constructing a dam on a large river may help provide electricity and water to irrigate
farmland near the reservoir. However, it may also cause drought downstream by
severely reducing the flow of water.

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Effects of drought

Parched ground during drought in Namibia

Droughts endanger lives and livelihoods through thirst, hunger (due to crops dying
from lack of water) and the spread of disease.
Millions of people died in the 20th century due to severe drought and famines. One of
the worst hit areas was the Sahel region of Africa, which covers parts of Eritrea,
Ethiopia and the Sudan.
Droughts and famines can have other geographical impacts. If drought forces people
to migrate to a new home it could put pressure on resources in neighbouring
countries.
Droughts can have a severe impact on MEDCs as well as LEDCs. Droughts have
caused deaths in Europe in recent years - especially amongst the elderly. In the UK in
summer 2006, there were hose-pipe bans and campaigns to make people save water.

Case study: drought in the Sahel

Map showing location of Sahel

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Food for distribution Yabelo area, Southwest Ethiopia

The Sahel region of Africa has been suffering from drought on a regular basis since the early
1980s. The area naturally experiences alternating wet and dry seasons. If the rains fail it can
cause drought.

In addition to natural factors, the land is marginal. Human activities such as overgrazing,
overcultivation and the collection of firewood can lead to desertification, particularly when
combined with drought conditions.

The result is crop failure, soil erosion, famine and hunger: people are then less able to work
when their need is greatest. It becomes a vicious circle and can result in many deaths,
especially among infants and the elderly. In Niger in 2004, the situation was made worse
when a plague of locusts consumed any remaining crops. In these cases, people rely on food
aid from the international community.

On its own, food aid is unsustainable in the long term. What is really needed is development
aid, which involves educating the local community in farming practices.

Case study: the impact of drought in the

UK (2004)
The years 2004-06 were one of the driest periods on record in the UK.

South East England is particularly vulnerable to drought because it has a high population
density. There are 13 million people living in the region and the demand for water resources
is high. There are few reservoirs, which means there is a heavy reliance on groundwater
supplies. Two consecutive dry winters meant that these supplies were not replenished.

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Drought warning in Devon

Hose-pipe bans were introduced in an effort to conserve water.

Groundwater fell to its lowest level on record.
Some rivers dried up.
Low flow in rivers meant that pollution had a greater impact on the environment.
Fish were more likely to die because of low flow, low oxygen levels and higher water
temperatures.
Kew Gardens introduced a range of measures to conserve water, eg only watering
newly planted trees and newly turfed areas.

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