Contribution of Chinese Civilization the leader of the surrounding tribes and soon urban, literate, Bronze Age civilization,
literate, Bronze Age civilization, and ancient
To advancement in Science and Technology
Chinese civilization is one of the strongest and biggest
country in the world which greatly help in the
advancement of science and technology. Mostly, in
warfare and military defence which they are known.
Most of the history of Chinese civilization, including
the ancient period, has traditionally been divided into
dynasties. A dynasty is a line of kings or emperors
from a single family, following each other on the
throne from generation to generation. In Chinese
history unlike with European history, the succession
was in the overwhelming majority of cases from
father to son. This was because, due to the dictates of
ancestor worship, it was a ruler's overriding
responsibility to produce a male heir. Not to have
done so would have been unthinkable.
Chinese history has a huge population which been
united under a single emperor. At different times,
there are several competing dynasties have divided
the country between them. It is only the ones who
have ruled the entire country, however, which have
been accorded true legitimacy by Chinese historians.
The situation in ancient China was slightly different
with other country. Because the ancient period was
later be known as Chinese civilization and only
spreading across the area which today we know as
"China". Thus the early dynastic rulers of China are
known as kings rather than emperors. It is only after
the time of the First Emperor, Qin Shih Huang who
reigned over a united China from 221 BC. This is the
imperial period of Chinese history began.
The Xia Dynasty is the first dynasty in China to be
described in ancient historical chronicles. The
Records of the Grand Historian and the Classic of Rites
say that Yu the Great, the founder of the Xia dynasty,
was the grandson of Zhuanxu, one of the legendary
Five Emperors who were the first rulers of China. Yu
was successful in stopping devastating floods and
increased the produce from farming since the floods
usually destroyed the crops of the farmers which
greatly affect the living of Chinese people. Xia tribes
influence strengthened all over china. He was made
afterwards was sent with an army to suppress a tribe
which was causing trouble on the kingdom's borders.
He won a great victory which further strengthened his
power. Yu's succession as the king marked the start of
the Xia dynasty. Shortly before his death, instead of
passing power to the person deemed most capable to
rule. Yu passed power to his son, setting the
precedence for dynastic rule like what the other king
did.
Like other country China is also surrounded by bodies
of water like river. The Yellow River is one of the
famous river in the country. This region was the
setting for the emergence of Chinese civilization into
the light of history. A large area of northern China is
covered by loess. This very fine earth has blown in
from the highlands of central Asia over thousands of
years, and makes one of the most fertile soils in the
world. In ancient times, the main crop in northern
China was millet, a highly nutritious food still grown
in many parts of the world as a major crop. Based on
this staple, a flourishing Stone Age agriculture
developed. They continued to grow in size. In the
Yellow River region, what looks very much like
primitive Chinese characters had also appeared,
inscribed on pottery. These characters became more
complex as time went by. Other technical advances
included the introduction of the potters wheel which
help in their work. And the production of high quality
jade ornaments. Finds of luxury grave goods and the
remains of large and complex buildings show that a
wealthy ruling elite stood out from the population at
large.
Metallurgy reached China sometime around 2500 BC,
almost certainly from the Middle East via central Asia.
At first this was restricted to copper work, but by c.
1800 BC, knowledge of bronze casting had entered
the Yellow River Valley. At around the same time
there was a dramatic increase in the size and density
of some walled towns in that region, the earliest-
known cities in East Asia. By this date the Yellow River
region had in fact seen the appearance of a fully
China finally emerges into the full light of history
under the first of its historic dynasties, the Shang.
The various cultural and social strands were
developed in the final phase of ancient Chinas
history. This was characterised by the rise of strong,
centralised states which unified the Chinese cultural
area under a single imperial dynasty.
Chinese civilization created new machine
and technology which is a great help in our daily life
such as: Silk Road, paper, compass, gunpowder,
fireworks, Tea production, Kites, See drill, deep
drilling, porcelain, Iron and steel smelting,
wheelbarrow, acupuncture, seismograph. Also the
most famous structure in China is the Great Wall of
China which they built as a military defence.
They also help in creating food such as noodles and
alcoholic beverages.
GREEK
Introduction
The ancient Classical and Hellenistic eras of Greece
are undoubtedly the most splendid, having left
behind a host of ideas, concepts, and art to provide
the foundation of what we call western civilization.
The position of Greece at the crossroads between
Africa, Asia, and Europe has undeniably played a large
role in the diverse and often turbulent history of
Greece. Protruding from Europe, Greece hangs
precariously southward from the end of the Balkan
Peninsula, and slices towards the Mediterranean Sea
with dramatic peninsulas and thousands of large and
small islands.
The Ancient Greeks have left a wide-ranging body of
literature that has profoundly affected the
development of Western culture. The Gods and
Heroes of Ancient Greece have inspired generations
of artists and writers in their muse. Our primary text
sources for Greek Mythology are Hesiod, Homer and
the anonymous Orphic poets. The Ancient Greeks
used poetry as a medium to record their religion and
history.
They believed the gods resided on Mount Olympus,
the highest peak in Greece, is a reminder of how the
physical landscape can determine the cultural foci of
a people. Zeus who ruled from Mount Olympus gave
to his brothers, Poseidon and Hades, the sea and
underworld. The anthropomorphic nature and
transformation of the Olympian deities allowed the
Greeks to rationalize their interaction with the
natural world of flora and fauna.
Science in Ancient Greece was based on logical
thinking and mathematics. It was also based on
technology and everyday life. The arts in Ancient
Greece were sculptors and painters. The Greeks
wanted to know more about the world, the heavens
and themselves. People studied about the sky, sun,
moon, and the planets. The Greeks found that the
earth was round.
And because of these curiosities, many ancient
Greeks have had come up with lots of discoveries and
inventions that helped contribute in fields of science,
mathematics and others. Their discoveries are still
taught in schools today and used the calculations and
first-hand ideas they have rendered and be able to
elaborate the thing what they have started.
This written report is focused on the discoveries and
inventions from the ancient Greek civilization.
Discussion
Over 500 different types of plants were described by
Theophrastus of Eresus. He was born in 370 B.C. and
was a student of Aristotle, who bequeathed to
Theophrastus his writings, and designated him as his
successor at his School. He was a scholar, botanist,
biologist, and physicist. He was considered the
"Father of Botany."
The Heliocentric Hypothesis states that the planets
revolved around one large, stationary star (the Sun).
Aristarchus of Samos is held to be the original author
of the heliocentric hypothesis. He thought the sun
was immovable, like the fixed stars. He knew that day
and night were caused by the earth turning around on
its axis. Copernicus was afraid to reveal his
heliocentric vision until he was dying. One person
who did follow Aristarchus was the Babylonian
Seleucos (fl. mid 2nd C B.C.).
One of the natural phenomena that ancient
civilizations were usually fazed about was the
occurrence of an eclipse. The cause of an eclipse was
first described by Greek astronomer Anaxagoras of
Clazomenae. He said that it was the moon coming
between the sun and earth or the earth between the
sun and moon depending on whether it's a lunar or
solar eclipse.
Another contribution of the Greek civilization was the
Siphon Principle. Hero, a Greek who lived after 150
B.C. was the first hydraulic engineer. He modernized
the obtaining of water through a method known as
the siphon principle. The siphon principle allows the
pipes that carry the water to follow the terrain of the
land and the aqueduct and bridging techniques were
no longer used as often.
Sundials are the oldest known devices that are used
to measure time. This device is dependent on the
rotation and movement of the sun. In ancient Greek
Civilization, a sundial is known as the pelekinon. A
vertical rod that is responsible for the shadow seen in
a sundial is known as the gnomon that is discovered
by Anaximander of Miletus. Gnomon is sometimes
known as the shadow casting rod. This sundial is
used to predict time accurately throughout the year
since their sundials were made in accordance with the
science of geometry.
Theodosius of Bithynia, an astronomer and
mathematician, have invented a universal sundial
than can be used anywhere on Earth since using a
sundial is also crucial due to the tilted axis of the
earth.
Pythagoras of Samos discovered the famous theorem
in the science of geometry, the Pythagorean
Theorem. The Pythagorean Theorem states that the
hypotenuse, the longer leg, is equal to the sum and
squares of the other opposite and adjacent sides.
Records have shown that Pythagoras has sacrificed a
100 oxen due to his discovery. With Pythagorass
important contributions to the science of
mathematics, he is often described as the first pure
mathematician. A proof to this is another of his
contribution, a discovery is the numerical relations
between the notes of the scale. It is a contribution
related to music, however, it is still in lined with
mathematics. For he stretched enough strings to
produce specific notes in octaves that before doing it,
he inclined it in accordance with the principles and
laws of mathematics.
Another discovery from the ancient Greek
civilization is under the medical category and is
attributed by the notable Hippocratic of Cos. In
ancient Greek civilization, illnesses were thought to
be a punishment from the gods but a medical
physician defy the inevitability. Hippocrates studied
the human body thus discovered that there were
scientific reasons for ailments and not just any silly
punishment. That was the start when the Greek
medicine was freed from the chains of magic,
superstition and supernatural.
Archimedes of Syracuse was a Greek
mathematician and an inventor. He was also one of
the most famous mathematician. One of his known
discoveries was the usefulness of the fulcrum and the
lever. With his discovery, he made a quotable quote,
Give me a place to stand, and a lever long enough,
and I will move the world.
Another discovery from the ancient Greek
civilization is from the Father of Experimental
Physiology, Claudius Galenus or most commonly
known as Galen which discovered nerves of sensation
and motion. During his time, people believed that
arteries contain air and not blood, but as a medical
practitioner, he performed experiments and proved
that arteries contain blood rather than air.
Erastosthenes is known for his mathematical
calculations and geography. And chief among of his
discoveries is the calculation of the circumference of
the earth that helped a lot of Ancient Greeks to prove
and to know that the shape of the earth is Spherical.
Thales of Miletus is regarded as the father of
geometry who gave number of axioms and rules that
were true based on reasoning (called mathematical
truths) in the 6th century BC. Then came the likes of
Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes whose geometric
axioms and rules are still taught in schools today.
Inventions
The first vending machine was described by Heron of
Alexandria. His machine accepted a coin and then
dispensed a fixed amount of holy water. When the
coin was deposited, it fell upon a pan attached to a
lever. The lever opened up a valve, which let some
water flow out. The pan continued to tilt with the
weight of the coin until it fell off, at which point a
counter-weight would snap the lever back up and
turn off the valve. Vending machines are usually used
and is deemed very convenient for most consumers.
The first fire hose was invented during the 1st century
B.C. by Heron in the basis of Ctesibius' double action
piston pump. The invention allowed for more
efficient firefighting.
Inventor Archimemdes of Syracuse invented a screw
or what is known as Archimedes Screw or
Archimedean Screw. He invented it around 3rd
century BC. This device is capable of lifting any solid
or liquid substances from a lower plane to a higher
elevation. As the years go by in ancient Greek
civilization, it was also used as an engine to throw
heavy stones at the enemy.
Hipparchus of Nicaea invented an astrolabe
that is used in astronomy. Astrolabe is the most
treasured instrument of astronomers in the ancient
time since it is very compact and versatile.
In addition, Hipparchus produced a table of chords,
an early trigonometric table, which leads some to call
him the inventor of trigonometry. He cataloged 850
stars and accurately calculated when eclipses, both
lunar and solar, would occur. Hipparchus is credited
with inventing the astrolabe. He discovered the
Precession of the Equinoxes and calculated its 25,771-
year cycle.
Water Mill is a revolutionary invention used all over
the world for metal shaping, agriculture, and most
importantly milling or in other word grinding.
Odometer is one of the most widely used instruments
in present day, odometer measures the distance
travelled by a vehicle such as bicycle or any other
automobile. This instrument was also originated in
the time of Ancient Greece which was first invented
by Archimedes of Syracuse around the first Punic war.
Ctesibius who added alarm systems which could be
made to drop pebbles on a gong or blow at pre-set
times. It is used to integrate mechanism to time the
alarm which could sound off delicate water organs or
pebbles into drums.
Cartography is the study and practice of making
maps. Anaximander made immense contributions in
the field of cartography and geography and his map
of the world was indeed a marvelous achievement of
that time. The world ma was bounded on the east by
the Caspian Sea. It stretched to the pillars of Hercules
in the West. Middle Europe borders the map in the
North while Ethiopia and the Nile featured at the
southern end of Anaximanders map.
Conclusion
The ancient Greek civilization was one of the most
sophisticated civilizations in world history with many
contributions in the field of arts, philosophy, politics,
science and technology. Most philosophers of ancient
Greece have contributed ideas and principles which
paved the way for other civilizations to utilize and
further enhance. These contributions have proved its
significance through the years, a lot of which have
shaped modern concepts, theories, practices,
technologies, as well as ways of living.
20 Accomplishments, Inventions, or Discoveries of
the
Roman Civilization
The founding of Rome goes back to the very early
days of civilization. It is so old, it is today known as
'the eternal city'. The Romans believed that their city
was founded in the year 753 BC. Modern historians
though believe it was the year 625 BC. Early Rome
was governed by kings, but after only seven of them
had ruled, the Romans took power over their own city
and ruled themselves. Ancient Rome grew from a
small town on central Italys Tiber River into an
empire that at its peak encompassed most of
continental Europe, Britain, much of western Asia,
northern Africa and the Mediterranean islands.
Among the many legacies of Roman dominance are
the widespread use of the Romance languages
(Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian)
derived from Latin, the modern Western alphabet
and calendar and the emergence of Christianity as a
major world religion. After 450 years as a republic,
Rome became an empire in the wake of Julius
Caesars rise and fall in the first century B.C. The long
and triumphant reign of its first emperor, Augustus,
began a golden age of peace and prosperity; by
contrast, the empires decline and fall by the fifth
century A.D. was one of the most dramatic implosions
in the history of human civilization.
Aqueducts
The Romans did not actually invent the aqueduct or
the primitive canals for irrigation and water transport.
It actually existed first in Egypt, Assyria and Babylon.
The Romans used their civil engineering mastery to
perfect the aqueduct.
Concrete
The concrete of Romans was actually weaker than its
modern counterpart, but it has improved remarkably
more durable which are slaked lime and a volcanic ash
(pozzolana) to create a sticky paste. Combined with
volcanic rocks (tuff), this ancient cement formed a
concrete that could effectively endure chemical
decay.
Newspapers
The Acta Diurna, or daily acts, is the early
newspapers that were written on metal or stone, and
then posted in crowded areas like the Roman Forum.
Acta are believed to have first appeared around 131
B.C. and typically included details of Roman military
victories, lists of games and gladiatorial bouts, birth
and death notices and even human interest stories.
There was also an Acta Senatus, which talks about the
proceedings of the Roman senate. These were
traditionally withheld from public view until 59 B.C.,
when Julius Caesar ordered their publication as part
of the many populist reforms he instituted during his
first consulship.
Welfare
The Ancient Roman Civilization was the wellspring for
many modern government programs like subsidizing
food, education and other expenses for the ones in
need. These programs date back to 122 B.C., when
the tribune Gaius Gracchus instituted lex frumentaria,
a law that ordered Romes government to supply its
citizens with allotments of cheaply priced grain. This
early form of welfare continued under Trajan, who
implemented a program known as alimenta to help
feed, clothe and educate orphans and poor children.
Other items including corn, oil, wine, bread and pork
were eventually added to the list of price-controlled
goods, which may have been collected with tokens or
tesserae. These generous handouts helped Roman
emperors win favor with the public, but some
historians have argued that they also contributed to
Romes economic decline.
Bound Books
Usually, literature took the form of clay tablets and
scrolls. The Romans changed it by changing the
medium of those by creating the codex, a stack of
bound pages that is recognized as the earliest
incarnation of the book. The first codices were made
of bound wax tablets, but were changed later by
animal skin parchment that more clearly resembled
pages.
Roads and Highways
To ensure effective administration of the sprawling
domain of the Romans, they built the most
sophisticated system of roads the ancient world had
ever seen. These Roman roadsmany of which are
still in use todaywere constructed with a
combination of dirt, gravel and bricks made from
granite or hardened volcanic lava.
Arches
The ancient Romans were the first to effectively
harness their power in the construction of bridges,
monuments and buildings. Their spectacular design of
the arch allowed the weight of buildings to be evenly
distributed along various supports, preventing
massive Roman structures like the Colosseum from
crumbling under their own weight. Roman engineers
improved on arches by flattening their shape to
create what is known as a segmental arch and
repeating patterns at various intervals to build
stronger supports that could span large gaps when
used in bridges and aqueducts.
Julian Calendar
The modern Gregorian calendar is modeled very
closely on a Roman version that dates back more than
2,000 years. Early Roman calendars were likely
cribbed from Greek models that operated around the
lunar cycle. But because the Romans considered even
numbers unlucky, they eventually altered their
calendar to ensure that each month had an odd
number of days. This practice continued until 46 B.C.,
when Julius Caesar and the astronomer Sosigenes
instituted the Julian system to align the calendar with
the solar year. Caesar lengthened the number of days
in a year from 355 to the now-familiar 365 and
eventually included the 12 months as we know them
today. The Julian calendar was almost perfect, but it
miscalculated the solar year by 11 minutes. These few
minutes ultimately threw the calendar off by several
days. This led to the adoption of the nearly identical
Gregorian calendar in 1582, which fixed the
discrepancy by altering the schedule of leap years.
The Twelve Tables
Subpoena, habeas corpus, pro bono, affidavitall
these terms derive from the Roman legal system,
which dominated Western law and government for
centuries. The basis for early Roman law came from
the Twelve Tables, a code that formed an essential
part of the constitution during the Republican era.
First adopted around 450 B.C., the Twelve Tables
detailed laws regarding property, religion and divorce
and listed punishments for everything from theft to
black magic.
Corpus Juris Civilis
Even more influential than the Twelve Tables was the
Corpus Juris Civilis, an ambitious attempt to
synthesize Romes history of law into one document.
Established by the Byzantine emperor Justinian
between 529 and 535 A.D., the Corpus Juris included
modern legal concepts such as the notion that the
accused is innocent until proven guilty. After the fall
of the Roman Empire, it became the basis for many of
the worlds legal systems. Along with English common
law and sharia law, Roman law remains hugely
influential and is still reflected in the civil laws of
several European nations as well as the U.S. state of
Louisiana.
Surgery tools and techniques
The ancient Romans invented a number of surgical
tools and techniques that pioneered subsequent
developments in the field of medicine and surgery.
The Roman medical scenario was heavily influenced
by the surgical advances achieved by the ancient
Greeks. Medical practitioners in ancient Rome not
only utilized all available tools to their best, but also
developed as many new tools themselves and
efficiently devised the use of cesarean section. But
they made the biggest of leaps in battlefield related
surgery by making medical preparedness and remedy
in battle a prime concern. During the reign of
Augustus, the military medical corps was established
to assist injured soldiers in battles. The Romans also
mastered medical innovations to curb immediate
blood loss in battles, thus saving thousands of lives.
They also invented tools like bronze scalpels,
obstetrical hooks, bone drills and forceps, and also
the rather frighteningly named vaginal speculum. The
Romans are also attributed with pioneering the
earliest form of antiseptic surgery since they used to
dip medical tools in hot water to disinfect them
before surgery.
Apartment Buildings
Every apartment building had an insularius - a
caretaker who was responsible for the insula and its
fire protection. As the upper floors were usually made
of timber, they often burnt out (Remember the great
fire in Rome which Nero was blamed
for?). Insularius was the intermediating figure
between the inhabitants, the landlords, and the
forces of law. Renting insula was a profitable business
and was a source of wealth for many Roman
patricians and prosperous people, like Cicero for
instance, or Crassus (allegedly the richest person in
Rome in mid first century BC).
Post and Courier Service
Cursus publicus consisted of series of forts and
stations built all along the major Roman roads where
special spots, called stationes, served as relay points
providing horses and vehicles to the traveling
messengers. The post and courier services could be
used only with a particular certificate (diploma)
issued by the emperor himself, and its primary
customer was the state. Although the imperial
administration supervised the functioning of the
postal network, the local provincial governors were
responsible for its funding and maintenance.
Graffiti
Graffiti are called writings or drawings on walls or
other surfaces that are usually visible on public
places. Examples of different graffiti existed in many
ancient societies, but those found in ancient Rome
(esp. in Pompeii and Herculaneum) show those two
thousand years ago, Romans expressed publicly
different personal, social, political, and artistic
messages the same way we do today with the modern
urban graffiti.
The Republic
The Romans invented the type of government called
a Republic, where citizens elected their leaders who
created their laws by vote. They wanted to make sure
that the laws applied to everyone, whether they were
rich or poor. They also wanted to make sure that
everyone knew what the laws were and had access to
them, so they engraved the laws on metal and put
them in the forum for everyone to see. The laws were
called the Twelve Tables. The creation of the Roman
Republic made my top 10 list of greatest Roman
inventions because it was an effective way to keeping
the majority of citizens satisfied with their
government, since they get to elect their leaders.
Allowing citizens to vote is an ingenious innovation
because it satisfies them with the simple fact that
they are not ruled by an absolute dictator.
The Colosseum
Over 500,000 people lost their lives and over a million
wild animals were killed throughout the duration of
the Colosseum hosted people versus beast games.
Grid-based Cities
Again, the Romans were not the first to start grid
based establishments and cities, the earliest of basic
grid planning dates as far back as Mahjong Daro and
Harappa. But it was the Romans who embraced this
concept, added a new dimension to it and
implemented it on such a large scale that grid based
settlements became famous. A basic Roman grid was
characterized by a rectangle or a square in a nearly
perfect orthogonal layout of streets. The two main
streets, cardo and decumanus, would cross each
other at a right angle in the center of grid. This grid
was an ideal structure to organize the different
components of city such as housings, theaters and
stores into particular blocks. Rather than making it a
monotonous array of blocks, Romans incorporated
various items such as open theaters, public baths,
markets and other recreational facilities within a city
grid. The Romans then went on to standardize this
pattern of settlement by building colonial cities and
military camps throughout their huge empire, from
Britain to North Africa, in Italy and also in all of the
Eastern Mediterranean region.
Sewers and Sanitation
The ancient Roman Empire in many ways boasted
the highest level of sewage and sanitary management
in the contemporary ages. They had established a
number of public baths, latrines and an interlinked
sewage line binding them all together in a complex
yet an efficient feat of engineering. Rome and other
major cities had an extensive network of sewers and
drains that ran along the sides of streets. The
abundance of water in the Roman aqueducts along
with runoff water from local streams was regularly
used to flush these drains and sewers. The flush
would then dump all the waste into the nearest river
(usually the Tiber), which does not sound the best of
sanitary solution, but was far better than leaving the
sewage lying around in the streets. The ancient
Romans also excelled in the used of covered gutter
and sewer lines to which a majority of houses in the
city was connected. Without a doubt, their sewage
and sanitation system made the ancient Romans a
forerunner for newer practices in sanitation
throughout the world.
Roman Numerals
As the name already suggests, the Roman
numerals originated in ancient Rome. Constituting
into one of the popular number systems that is still
used for various purposes today, the first usage of
these numbers dates back to somewhere between
900 and 800 BC. Back then, much of the existing
numbers and counting systems could not keep up
with ever increasing calculation requirements. The
Roman numerals were developed to serve the exact
purpose of delivering a standard counting method
that could be efficiently used in communications and
trade, though the Roman numbers also came with
their flaws such as absence of the number zero and
inability to calculate fractions, among many others.
However, these numbers were able to survive even
after the fall of the ancient Roman Empire. Their use
in movies titles, cornerstones and many other
popular and cultural references today shows the long
lasting legacy of this ancient numeral notation.
Marriage
The Romans created the idea of marriage. They
married for life and could not get a divorce. The
families were in charge of finding a good match for
their children, and the children could not get married
to any relatives. The marriage of children was also the
joining of two families in their eyes. The Romans'
invention of marriage belongs in my top 10 Roman
inventions list because they created something that is
not a physical object that is still in use today. It is a
way to show a symbol of love and devotion to one
person who you want to spend the rest of your life
with. The Romans also believed in providing gifts for
their husbands and wives, such as the engagement
ring to show their love. I placed it as number 9
because although it is not a physical object, it is a
bond between two people that is meant to last for
life. They did not believe in divorce, which is why the
amount of commitment they had for their significant
others was remarkable.
Babylonia is an ancient empire that existed in the
near east in Southern Mesopotamia between the
Tigris and the Euphrates River. Throughout much of
their history, their main rival for supremacy is their
neighbour, the Assyrians. During this ancient time,
there were some discoveries, invention in science and
technology that up to now are still significant in our
world. Some major achievements of the Babylonian
Empire includes the code of laws, contributing to the
world's current time-keeping system and the use of
advanced irrigation techniques. The Babylonians also
built architectural wonders such as the Hanging
Gardens, glazed bricks and seed plow.
In the code of law, King Hammurabi developed it and
had them inscribed on a monument made of black
stone. This makes him the earliest-known ruler to
present his people with an organized body of laws.
Second is the worlds current time system wherein
the Babylonians used base 60 instead of another base
to make calculations. No one knows why they chose
60, but it makes sense because 60 is divisible by 10,
12, 15, 20 and 30 as well as the first six counting
numbers. The Babylonian numerical system is the
reason a clock is divided the way it is, according to
metrologist Michael Lombardi. The third is the use of
advanced irrigation system. King Hammurabi was also
the first ruler to implement water regulations. His
rules covered the distribution of water and a farmer's
responsibility to maintain canals running through his
property. Babylonians had to develop advanced
irrigation systems to comply with these rules and to
keep their crops growing. These advanced systems
included basins, drains and irrigation dams. And the
fourth one is the building of Hanging Gardens of
Babylon. King Nebuchadnezzar is credited with
building the Hanging Gardens of Babylon for his wife.
The story says his wife was homesick because she
came from a green, mountainous area and found the
flat terrain of Babylon somewhat depressing. The
gardens consisted of vaulted terraces with plants
hanging over the sides. This garden is known as one
of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Another
one is that ancient Babylon provided a wide variety of
ancient inventions that are still used today, including
glazed bricks and the seeder plow. Glazed bricks were
used in ancient Babylon as a way to decorate temples
and other buildings. Some of the bricks that have
been excavated date back to the mid-1800s B.C.
The ancient Babylonians developed writing,
sanitation techniques and a variety of architectural
designs like dome, column and arch. The zodiac signs
are Babylonians invention of great antiquity and
eclipses of the sun and moon could be foretold.
Observatories were attached to the temples, and
reports were regularly sent by astronomers to the
king. The stars had been numbered and named at an
early date, and we possess tables of lunar longitudes
and observations of the phases of Venus. Great
attention was naturally paid to the calendar, and we
find a week of seven days and another of five days in
use.
The Babylonian system of mathematics was
sexagesimal, or a base 60 numeral system. Among the
Babylonians mathematical accomplishments were
the determination of the square root of two correctly
to seven places. Like in Egypt, priests encouraged
much of the development of Babylonian science.
Babylonians used a numeral system with 60 as its
base, which allowed them to divide circles into 360
degrees. They understood the properties of
elementary sequences, such as arithmetic and
geometrical progressions, and a number of
geometrical relationships. They estimated the value
of pi as 3 1/8, which is about a 0.6 percent error. It is
highly likely that they also were familiar with what we
today call the Pythagorean Theorem which states that
the square of the longest side of a right triangle
equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
However, we have no evidence that the Babylonians
proved it formally, since their mathematics rested on
empirical knowledge rather than formal proof.
The ancient Babylonians used a calendar
with alternating 29 and 30 day months. This system
required the addition of an extra month three times
every eight years, and as a further adjustment the
king would periodically order the insertion of an
additional extra month into the calendar.
Babylonians also contribute to the field of
medicine especially in human and animal anatomy
and physiology. They used vegetable, mineral and
animal substances in treating diseases. A frequent
method of use, after special preparation, was by
direct application to the affected part, or by binding it
on. The most common method of administering was
by mouth, and occasionally using a rectal suppository.
Physicians in that time has knowledge of the real
nature of the ailment except that they knew the
function of the organs affected. It is evident that
primitive folk medicine, with all its superstitions,
completely dominated the medical teaching of the
ancient Babylonians, just as such superstitions
suffused their general outlook on the natural world.
Babylonians are also fund of jewelleries.
They have been crafting necklace, pendants and
beads made from gold, copper, silver and even bones.
The gold pendants and beads exemplify the finest
craftsmanship in gold from the ancient Near East, and
each represents a deity or the symbol of a deity. They
used symbols such as female figures, wearing horned
headdresses and long flounced dresses, probably
represent Lama, a protective goddess; the disk with
rays emanating from a central boss represents
Shamash, the sun god; and the forked lightning is the
symbol for Adad, the storm god. Granulated rosettes
may be symbols of Ishtar, goddess of love and war
represented by the planet Venus. Necklaces with
similar symbols can be found on the figures of royal
personages in later Assyrian wall reliefs and probably
served as both jewelry and talismans.
Agriculture formed the economic base of
Babylonian civilization with production of barley,
wheat, fruits, vegetables, with cattle and sheep
predominating. The main crop in the time of the
ancient Babylonians was barley. The farmer would
sow his seed with a tool known as a "seeder
plough" The plough would create a furrow into which
a seed would be dropped using a funnel. A man would
have to walk beside the seeder plough and drop the
seeds in at regular intervals. This would mean that all
the seeds would be at exactly the correct depth.
Introduction
The Persian civilization was one of the first major
civilizations on the ancient world. It was the
civilization that stretched from India to Europe (550
B.C.E. to 331 B.C.E.). it is the any of a series of imperial
dynasties centered in Persia, and now known as Iran.
In addition, the Persian gained power by winning the
local people, they marked that period as a peaceful
rule and extensive trading. Persia was ruled by
Parthian Empire which supplanted the Hellenistic
Seleucid Empire and by Sassanian Empire, these
empires was ruled until the mid 7th century.
Indeed, the Iranians settled into specific regions, and
build their own societies. The Persians governed the
South area between the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf.
Moreover in the North, the Medes formed a state
called Media.
Indus River was the river behind the success
of Persian civilization. And in the modern world,
Persia is now known as the country of Iran.
Discussion
One of the earliest use of battery can be
found in the Persian civilization. They invented the
Baghdad battery which is composed of a 5-1/2 inch
high clay vessel inside where a copper cylinder held in
place by asphalt and inside was an oxidized iron rod.
Expert says that it needs to be filled with acid or
alkaline liquid in order to produce an electric charge.
A laser which used an electric current through gas to
produce light and most commonly used to produce
holograms. It is considered as the first gas laser which
is co-invented by Ali Javan.Windmills were also
created by Persian. This invention was introduced to
other continents for some historians believed that
Alexander the Great might have come across it. Early
refrigeration method was used by Persian which is
also knowm as Yakhal. It is made of a special mortar
known as sarooj that is composed of dry sand, clay,
egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash. The idea of
xenotransplantation also arise from this civilization. It
dates to the days of Achaemenidae as evidenced by
engravings of many mythologic chimeras still present
in Persepolis. An irrigation management system was
also invented which is called Qanat. In terms of
warfare and defense, they made the bow which
become their main weaon in battle. Spara was also
made which is a rectangular shields that is made up
of reed or whicker which is covered with leather and
often elaborately painted.
Persian also made many discoveries in the
field of science and technology. Abu Bakr
Muhammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi discovered sulfuric
acid. This substance became the work horse of
chemical engineering and modern chemistry.
Practical applications of sulfuric acid today are broad
as the substance is used to make everything from
fertilizers to detergents. Through the use of a special
wine agent prepared by a Zoroastrian priest to
produce unconsciousness for the Caesarean section
performed on Rudaba, anaesthesia was discovered.
First beer making techniques were discovered some
5-6, 000 years ago in Medeo, Persia. They also made
the discovery of hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, and
nitric acid, separation of gold from other metals
through the agency of lead and saltpeter (potassium
nitrate) and the theory that the different metals are
composed of varying degrees of sulfur and mercury.
Moreover, the theory of vision was discovered by Abu
Ali al-Hassan ibn al-Haytham, a Persian physicist and
Father of Optics. He theorized that vision results from
light that is reflected into the eye by an object,
contrast on the belief of Aristotle that it is emitted by
the eye itself and reflected back. While Abu Rayhan
al-Biruni theorized that the speed of light is finite.
Jaber Ibn Hayyam, a famous Persian chemist who
died in 804 at Tous in Khorasan. He created the Bible
of European chemist. He was the father of a number
of discoveries recorded in an encyclopedia
The also made advancement in
mathematics. Kamal al-Din Al-Farisi made a
mathematical theory of the rainbow and exposition
of the nature of colors. Concept of duality in numbers
by Khayyam, a poet and a mathematician. This
concepts formed the basis of modern day
mathematics and are now proven to be a Persian
Empire accomplishment. Algebra discovered by
Khwarizmi. It is one of the greatest Persian Empire
contributions to the modern world. A form of
mathematics without which almost none of the
modern day inventions or discovery would have been
possible.
Conclusion
Persian civilization have accomplished many
great things and made many advancement in the
many fields like science, warfare, mathematics, and
technology. They are the cradle of science in the
ancient times. Their contributions helped in
understanding nature, medicine, mathematics and
philosophy in modern world.