GeophysicsforEnvironmentaland

GeotechnicalApplications

Dr.KatherineGrote

UniversityofWisconsinEauClaire
WhyUseGeophysics?

Improvethequalityofsitecharacterization
(higherresolutionandincreasedareacovered)

Reducethecostofsitecharacterization

Noninvasive

Providesamethodtooptimallylocate
exploratoryboreholes

Costeffectivemeansofestablishingcontrol
betweenboreholes
GeophysicalTechniques:

Seismic

Electromagnetic

Resistivity

GroundPenetratingRadar

Magnetic

Gravity
 SeismicRefraction
Anacousticsourceis
dischargedatthe
earthssurface.Energy
travelsdirectlytothe
sensorsoriscritically
refractedfrom
prominentsubsurface
interfacesandis
recordedbysensors
placedatmultiple
locations.

Thetraveltimes (arrivaltimes)ofdirectand
refractedacousticenergyareplottedasa
functionofsourcesensorseparation.
SeismicRefraction

Ifthesubsurfaceis
irregular,sources
aredischargedat
multiplelocations
(typicallyfive).This
multiplicityoftravel
timedataallows
depthstobe
estimatedwitha
higherdegreeof
precision.
 Seismic
Refraction

FromAnIntroductionto
AppliedandEnvironmental
Geophysics,byJohnReynolds,
2007.
 SeismicRefraction

Applications:
Depthtobedrock
Depthtowatertable
Bedrocktype
Bedrockrippability
Mappingbedrockinterfaces
Mappingbedrockchannels
Identifyingfaultsandfracturezones
 SeismicRefraction

From:Handbookof
Ripping,8thEdition,byThe
CaterpillarCompany
2Drefractiondatacanoftenbetransformedintorealistic
2Dgeologicmodels.Theaccuracyofsuchmodelswillbe
increasedifexternalconstraints(boreholecontrol)are
available.Notethatlowvelocitylayersareinvisible and
neverimagedwithrefractiontechniques.
 SeismicRefraction
Strengths: Limitations:
Provides accurate 2-D or 3-D Depth penetration depends on source
subsurface images used; simplest sources have relatively
shallow depth penetration
Provides information on material
type Relatively slow data acquisition, as
sensors (geophones) must be coupled
Data acquisition is straightforward to the ground

Data processing and interpretation Data are difficult to interpret beyond

are straightforward ~4 interfaces

Less expensive Low velocity layers and thin layers

(<3 m) cannot be distinguished

Doesnt work well in acoustically

noisy areas
SeismicReflection
Anacousticpulseisgeneratedby
asurfacesource.Someofthis
downgoing energyisreflectedat
eachsubsurfaceinterface.The
twowaytraveltimeand
magnitudeofthereflectedpulses
arerecordedbysurfacereceivers
(geophones).Magnitudesand
averagevelocitiesofthereflected
pulsesareafunctionofthe
densityandacousticvelocityof
thesubsurfacelayers.
.
 Seismic
Reflection
 SeismicReflection

Threedimensionalseismicreflectionsurveysarebecomingmorecommon
forenvironmentalandengineeringapplications.Thedataacquisitionand
processingaremuchmorecomplicatedthanfor2Dreflectionorrefraction
surveying.
 (b) SeismicReflection

(a)

2Dreflectionprofilescanbeconvertedinto2Dlithology/structuresections.
 SeismicReflection
Strengths (compared to
refraction):
Can provide continuous images of
the subsurface structure
Can image low-velocity layers
Better lateral resolution (used for
finding abandoned underground
mines)
Can provide 3-D image of the
subsurface
Limitations (compared to
refraction):
Cannot image shallow layers (15 m)
Data acquisition is slower
Data processing is much more
complicated
Much more expensive (typically 3 to
5 times more expensive than
refraction surveys)
ElectromagneticMethods(EM)

Theelectromagneticinductionprocessisconceptually
summarizedinfigure1fromKleinandLajoie (1980).
ElectromagneticMethods(EM)
1. WhenACcurrentispassed
throughacoiledwireconductor
(transmitter),EMradiation
(primaryfield)ofthesame
frequencyisemittedfromthe
coil.
2. WhenthisprimaryEMradiation
passesthroughasubsurface
conductor,asecondaryAC
currentisinducedinthe
conductor.
3. Thissecondarycurrentcauses
theconductortoemitsecondary
EMradiation.
4. ThissecondaryEMradiationis
measuredandrecordedbythe
receivercoil.Theapparent
electricalconductivityis
determinedbycomparingthe
magnitudesoftheprimaryand
secondaryEMfields.
 ElectromagneticMethods(EM)
Measuretheearths
responsetoEMradiation

Mapspatialvariationsinthe
electricalconductivityofthe
subsurface

Electricalconductivitycan
berelatedtosoilorrock
properties
 ElectromagneticMethods(EM)
Applications:
Depthtobedrock
Depthtowatertable
Mappingcontaminantplumes
Landfilldelineation
LocatingUSTs
Locatingburiedutilities
Mappingclaylenses
Mappingfaults,fractures,or
weatheredzones
Variationsinporosity,saturation,
orsalinity
Mappingsaltwaterintrusion
 ElectromagneticMethods(EM)
Strengths:
Do not need to be coupled to
earth, so data can be acquired
rapidly and inexpensively
Data can often be acquired by one
person
Multiple tools available (simple
to sophisticated)
Limitations:
Vertical resolution diminishes
with depth
Cultural features can create
problems (metal fences, buried
pipelines, electric power lines,
etc.)

Provides 1-D, 2-D or 3-D

conductivity images of subsurface,
depending on technique used
 Resistivity
A known AC current (I)
is input into the ground
using a battery or a
generator, and potential
differences (V) are
measured using a
voltmeter.

The resistance (R) of the

subsurface can be
calculated using the well-
known formula:
V = IR

Currentflowinthesubsurfaceiselectrolytic(viathe The resistivity () of the

movementofcations andanions)ratherthanelectronic. subsurface is calculated
by considering the
geometric arrangement of
electrodes.
 Resistivity
Theresistivityofthesubsurfaceatdifferentlocationsandatdifferentdepthscanbe
measuredbyshiftingthearraylaterallyandvaryingtheelectrodespacing.

expandable
V V electrode
array
A B

A B C D E . . . Location along traverse

200

164 49 0
10 106 76 114 150 49 127
156 67 65 90 54 103 142 73 83
213 57 64 40 66 48 80 197 85 75
Depth

221 70 55 40 31 63 58 97 203 94 66 100

69 67 34 30 30 64 63 94 210 89
5 10
60 24 29 32 0 97 93 184 0
10
0
values
 Resistivity

Resistivityistheinverseofelectricalconductivityandisanintrinsicpropertyof
amaterial.Resistivityismostlyafunctionof lithology, porosity,claycontent,
permeability, fluidsaturationand fluidsalinity.
 Resistivity
Applications:
Lateralandverticalmappingofcontaminantplumes
Mappingsandandgravelaquifers
Mappingclaylayersandlenses
Depthtobedrock
Depthtowatertable
Mappingfaults,fractures,weatheredzones
Delineatingaggregatedepositsforquarryoperations
Mappinglithologiccontacts
Locatevoids,abandonedminesandtunnels
Variationsinporosity,saturation,orsalinity
 Resistivity
Strengths:
Acquisition is relatively
straightforward
Processing is automated
Can provide relatively high-
resolution 2-D or 3-D conductivity
images of subsurface
Limitations:
Relatively slow, as electrodes must be
coupled to ground surface
Coupling can be a problem (rock or
dry sand)
Limited depth penetration (typically
30 m); deeper penetration depths
require larger horizontal electrode
spacing
Resolution diminishes with depth
Cultural features can create problems
(metal fences, buried pipelines,
electric power lines, etc.)
GroundPenetratingRadar(GPR)
TransmitteremitspulsesofEM
radiationatregularintervalsas
itistowedacrossthesurface.

Someofthispulsedenergyis
reflectedfromlithologic
interfacesandisreturnedto
theearthssurface.
Thetwowaytraveltimeand
magnitudeofthisreflected
pulsedradiationisrecordedby
asurfacereceiverandplotted
onadistancevs.traveltime
profile.
GroundPenetratingRadar(GPR)
GroundPenetratingRadar(GPR)
 GroundPenetratingRadar(GPR)

Applications:
Mappinglithologyorfillboundaries
Depthtoshallowbedrock
Depthtowatertable
Mappingwaterdepths(surfacewater)
Location,depth,andorientationofUSTs,pipes,utilities,
trenches,andotherburiedmaterials
Locatingcavitiesbeneathpavement
Measuringpavementthickness
Locatingrebarinconcrete
Bridgedeckintegritystudies
Archeologicalandforensicinvestigations
Mappingcontaminantplumes
 GroundPenetratingRadar(GPR)
Strengths:
Acquisition is rapid and
straightforward
Data can be acquired by one
person
Does not need to be coupled to
ground
Can provide very high-resolution
images of the subsurface
Targets do not need to be
conductive or metallic
Limitations:
Does not work well in clays or
conductive soils (low depth
penetration)
Less effective in rough or cluttered
terrain
Requires a contrast in dielectric
permittivity (primarily controlled by
water content) to generate reflections
Limited depth penetration (30 m)
 MagneticTechniques
Thetotalmagneticfieldatany
Magnetic observationpointontheearthssurface
North Pole isthesumoftheearthsprimary
magneticfield(causedbycirculationof
fluidintheoutercore)andanyproximal
secondarymagneticfields(generatedby
materialsthathavebecomeslightly
- magnetizedinthepresenceoftheearths
magneticfield(mostlyironbearingor
magnetitebearingmaterial)).

+
Weareusuallyonlyinterestedinthe
secondarymagneticfield,whichcanbe
foundbysubtractingthecontributionof
theprimarymagneticfieldfromthe
measuredtotalmagneticfield.
 MagneticTechniques
Secondarymagneticfields(B)associatedwithmanmadeironbased
materialsareusuallyveryeasytoidentify,becausetheyarerelatively
highmagnitudeandstandout.
B ( BT BE )

100

-100 Theoretically,wecanestimatethesize,
shapeanddepthofthecausativebody

basedonthewidth,shape,andmagnitude
oftheresidualmagnetic curve(B).

surface
Anomaly with high
concentration of iron
However,secondarymagneticfield
anomalies(B)areusuallyinterpreted
qualitatively insteadofquantitatively
inpartbecausetheyareoftenvery
complex.
 MagneticTechniques
Applications:
Locating buried drums, pipelines and other ferromagnetic
objects
Locating buried well casings
Locating/mapping landfills
Locating sand and gravel deposits (that contain heavy
minerals)
Regional geologic mapping
Rebar in concrete
Archeological investigations
Locating underwater ferromagnetic objects
 MagneticTechniques
Strengths:
Data can be acquired by one
person
Does not need to be coupled to
ground, so data can be acquired
quickly and inexpensively
Data are usually interpreted
qualitatively and therefore require
minimal post-acquisition
processing
Limitations:
Cannot locate non-ferrous materials
such as plastic or concrete
Magnetic signatures are superposed
(cannot distinguish nearby targets)
Anomalies are generally very
complex and may be extremely
difficult to interpret quantitatively
Utilities, power lines, buildings, and
metallic debris can cause interference
The size and depth of objects affect
detectability
 Gravity
Gravityisnotuniform.Itisafunction
ofthemassoftheearth,themean
radiusoftheearth,theangularvelocity
oftheearth,theelevationofthe
observationlocation,andsurface
topographyinproximitytothe
observationlocation.
Italsovariesbecauseofsmallscale
densityvariationswithintheearths
crust(variabledepthtobedrock,
presenceofvoids,variationsinlithology,
etc.).
gdirectedtowards
centerofmass Gravimetersaregenerallyusedto
measurerelativevariationsinthe
earthsgravitationalfield.Normally,
wereonlyinterestedinvariationsthat
arecausedbysubsurfacegeological
featuresofinterest.
 Gravity
Reduced Gravity Profile
20
Residual(isolated)gravity
anomaliesareofteninterpreted
g ( gm g )

quantitatively
0
Ideally,wecanestimatesize,
-20 isolated shape,depth&densityofthe
causativefeaturebasedonthe
anomaly
width,shape&amplitudeof
surface residualanomalycurve

subsurface void

Toisolatelocalvariationsingravity(theresidual gravityanomalies),the
measuredgravityiscorrectedtoaccountforchangesinlatitude,elevation,etc.
 Gravity
Applications:
Estimatingdepthtobedrock
Determininginsiturock/soildensities
Mappingairfilledcavitiesinkarst
terrain
Mappingabandonedunderground
mines
Estimatingtonnageofore
Determiningvolumesofavailablefill
Measuringchangesinwatertable
elevation
 Gravity
Strengths:
Data can be acquired by one
person
Only respond to changes in
density (not affected by electrical
or magnetic noise), so can be
acquired in urban areas
Data can be interpreted
quantitatively - model (depth,
shape, size, density) of target can
often be generated
Limitations:
Relatively slow data acquisition
Data interpretation requires control
parameters (i.e. background density)
Data interpretation can be time
consuming
Very precise surveying control is
required so that elevation and latitude
corrections can be applied
Gravity signatures are superposed
(cannot distinguish nearby targets)
 Finalnotes:
Geophysicaldatacangreatlyimprovesite
characterizationandcanreducecosts,but

Manygeophysicaltechniquesprovidenon
uniqueresultsunlesstheyareconstrainedby
boreholeorotherinformation.

Usegeophysicaltechniquesinconjunction
withgroundtruth measurements!

!
 Finalnotes:
Thesuccessofageophysicalsurveydepends
onplanningthesurveyappropriatelyforthe
site shareallavailableinformationwiththe
geophysicistsbeforetheyarriveonsite!

Usingmultiplegeophysicaltechniquesisoften
themostefficientmethodforaccuratesite
characterization.