BASIC LOGIC REVIEWER

CHAPTER 6: THE HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISMS AND VARIATIONS OF SYLLOGISMS

THE HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM

- syllogism with hypothetical propositions as premises

- has three types: conditional, disjunctive and conjunctive

THE CONDITIONAL SYLLOGISM

- contains conditional proposition as major premise and contains two parts: the antecedent
or condition and the consequent or result/effect
- the antecedent is introduced by if and the consequent that is introduced by then
- categorical propositions are the minor premise and conclusion
In true conditional, consequent always follows from antecedent
In symbolic logic, antecedent is p, consequent is q and symbol used is the horseshoe or
. A curl (~) is written before a part of the conditional to indicate negativity.
Schema: pq (if p, then q)
p
-------
q

The Laws of the Conditional:

1. If the antecedent is TRUE, the consequent is also TRUE (p=TRUE; q=TRUE)

2. If the consequent is FALSE, the antecedent is also FALSE (q=FALSE; p=FALSE)

3. If the antecedent is FALSE, the consequent is DOUBTFUL (p=FALSE; q=TRUE?/FALSE?)

4. If the consequent is TRUE, the antecedent is DOUBTFUL (q=TRUE; p=FALSE?/TRUE?)

DERIVING A VALID CONCLUSION:

1. Posting Process when the minor accepts the antecedent and the conclusion accepts the
consequent (MODUS PONENS)

pq (if p, then q)
p
-------
q
Example:
If apples are nutritious, then they are good for the body. (if p, then q)
But, apples are nutritious. (p)
Ergo, they are good for the body. (q)
 2. Denying Process when the minor premise rejects the consequent and the conclusion
rejects the antecedent (MODUS TOLLENS)

pq (if p, then q)
~q
-------
~p
Example:
If Peter is a cancer patient, then he is very ill. (if p, then q)
But, Peter is not very ill. (~p)
Ergo, he is not a cancer patient. (~q)

TWO MOODS OF THE CONDITIONAL SYLLOGISM:

1. Constructive Mood follows the posting process

2. Destructive Mood follows the denying process

FORMS OF THE MAJOR PREMISE:

1. Both antecedent and consequent are affirmative

2. Both antecedent and consequent are negative

3. Antecedent is affirmative and consequent is negative

4. Antecedent is negative and consequent is affirmative

SCHEMA:

Constructive Mood Destructive Mood

1. pq (if p, then q) 1. pq (if p, then q)

p ~q
------- -------
q ~p

2. ~p ~ q (if not p, then not q) 2. ~p ~ q (if not p, then not q)

~p q
------- -------
~q p

3. p ~ q (if p, then not q) 3. p ~ q (if p, then not q)

p q
------- -------
~q ~p

4. ~p q (if not p, then q) 4. ~p q (if not p, then q)

~p ~q
------- -------
q ~p
THE DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM

- consists of a disjunctive proposition as major premise

- categorical propositions are the minor premise and conclusion
- is the either-or statement
- when one part is denied, the other is accepted and when one part is accepted, the other
may be denied or accepted
- in symbolic logic, the disjuncts are symbolized by p and q and the symbol used is the
wedge or v. A curl (~) is written before a part of the conditional to indicate negativity.
Schema: pvq (p or q)
p
-------
~q

TWO TYPES OF DISJUNCTION:

1. Proper parts are mutually exclusive or contradictories

- if one is TRUE, the other is immediately FALSE

- if one is FALSE, the other is immediately TRUE

Example:
Regine Velasquez is either a male singer or a female singer.
But, Regine Velasquez is a female singer.
Ergo, she is not a male singer.

2. Improper parts are not mutually exclusive

- if one is FALSE, the other must be TRUE

- if one is TRUE, the other may be TRUE or FALSE (DOUBTFUL)

Example:
The living thing is either an animal or a plant.
But, the living thing is not an animal.
Ergo, it is a plant. (?) [can also be a man that is neither an animal or a plant]

THE VALID PROCESSES OF DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM:

1. Posting Process when the minor premise accepts one part and the conclusion denies
the other part

pvq (p or q)
p
-------
~q
Example:
Regine Velasquez is either a male singer or a female singer.
 But, Regine Velasquez is a female singer.
Ergo, she is not a male singer.

2. Denying Process when the minor premise denies one part and the conclusion accepts
the other part

pvq (p or q)
~p
-------
q
Example:
The living thing is either an animal or a plant.
But, the living thing is not an animal.
Ergo, it is a plant.

FORMS OF THE MAJOR PREMISE:

1. Both parts are affirmative

2. Both parts are negative

3. The first is affirmative and the second is negative

4. The first is negative and the second is affirmative

SCHEMA:

Posting Process Denying Process

1. pvq (p or q) 1. pvq (p or q)
p ~p
------- -------
~q q

2. ~p v ~q (p or q) 2. ~p v ~q (p or q)
~p p
------- -------
q ~q

3. p v~ q (p or q) 3. p v ~q (p or q)
p ~p
------- -------
q ~q

4. ~p v q (p or q) 4. ~p v q (p or q)
~p p
------- -------
~q q

p and q (disjuncts) are interchangeable in minor premise and conclusion

THE CONJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM

- consists of conjunctive proposition as the major premise

- categorical propositions are the minor premise and conclusion

- states that two things cannot be true simultaneously (proper)

- in symbolic logic, the conjuncts are symbolized by p and q and the symbol used is the
dot or .. A curl (~) is written before a part of the conditional to indicate negativity.

for improper conjuncts, both posting and denying process can be used

VALID PROCESS (PROPER)

- only posting process is the valid process (PONENDO-TOLLENS)

- minor accepts one part and conclusion denies the other (accept-deny)

- Schema: p.q (cannot be p and q)

p/q
-------
~q/~p
Illustration:
You cannot be a male and a female at the same time. (cannot be p and q)
But, you are a male. (p)
Ergo, you are not a female. (~q)

VALID PROCESS (IMPROPER)

- both posting and denying process are valid

- minor accepts one part and conclusion denies the other (posting)

- minor denies one part and conclusion accepts the other (denying)

- Schema: p.q (cannot be p and q) p.q (cannot be p and q)

p/q ~p/~q

------- -------
~q/p q/p
Illustration:
Mario cannot be student and a teacher at the same time. (cannot be p and q)
But, Mario is a student. (p)
Ergo, he is not a teacher. (~q)

Mario cannot be student and a teacher at the same time. (cannot be p and q)
But, Mario is not a student. (~p)
Ergo, he is a teacher. (q)
VARIATIONS OF THE SYLLOGISM

- syllogism can also appear in non-standard logical form

- examples are conversations, casual verbal encounter, texts and articles

- syllogistic arguments can be combined (compound) or abridged (shortened)

THE ENTHYMEME

- more common forms of syllogistic argumentation

- most common type and used most often in everyday life

- syllogism in which one proposition is missing or omitted (premise or conclusion)

- contains only two propositions and third is implied

Illustration: (Categorical Syllogism)

Every artist is imaginative.

But, Raphael Sanzio is an artist.
Ergo, he is imaginative.

ORDERS OF THE ENTHYMEME:

1. First Order when major premise is omitted

Variation:

Raphael Sanzio is an artist.

For this reason, Raphael Sanzio is imaginative

2. Second Order when minor premise is omitted

Variation:

Raphael Sanzio is imaginative.

Because, every artist is imaginative.

3. Third Order when conclusion is omitted

Variation:

Raphael Sanzio is an artist.

And every artist is imaginative.

RECONSTRUCTING THE ENTHYMEME

 - first, identify the expressed propositions (find out if premises or premise and conclusion)

hints are the premise indicators and conclusion indicators

to distinguish major from minor premise, use the conclusion

if premise contains the subject of the conclusion, it is the minor premise

if premise contains the predicate of the conclusion, it is the major premise

- next is to identify the terms: major, minor and middle terms

cancel the two terms that are similar and combine the remaining terms to form the
implied proposition.

- after reconstructing, analyze its validity based on the rules on constructing an argument.

- enthymemes can also be hypothetical and not only categorical.

THE EPICHREME

- syllogism where a proof or reason is conjoined to one or more premises

- proof or reason is usually introduced by because or since

- syllogism with reasons attached at the end of premises

Illustration:

If man is material, then he is mortal (because he is corruptible.)

(Since man is with flesh and blood), Man is material
Ergo, he is mortal.
THE POLYSYLLOGISM

- an argument that consists of two or more syllogisms logically connected together

- the conclusion of previous one becomes premise of the next one.

- two or more syllogisms connected at the conclusion of the previous syllogism

Illustration:

Man is a rational animal.

A rational animal is a knowledgeable one.
A knowledgeable one is a thinking being.
A thinking being is an intelligent creature.
Ergo, an intelligent creature is man.
THE SORITES

- an abridged polysyllogism with three or more premises

 - the predicate/subject of previous premise becomes the subject/predicate of the next
premise

- final conclusion consists of subject of the first and the predicate of the last or the subject
of the last and the predicate of the first premise

KINDS OF SORITES:

1. Aristotelian Sorite / Progressive Sorite

- conclusion is composed of the subject of the first premise and the predicate of the last
premise

Example:

Mango is succulent.
Succulent means something juicy.
Something juicy is watery.
Watery means full of moist.
Full of moist does not connote a dry object.
Ergo, mango does not connote dry object.

2. Goclenian Sorite / Regressive Sorite

- conclusion is composed of the subject of the last premise and the predicate of the first
premise

Example:

A mass of land is not an ocean.

An island is a mass of land.
A land surrounded by water is an island.
An archipelago is a land surrounded by water.
Philippines is an archipelago.
Ergo, Philippines is not an ocean.

THE DILEMMA

- intended to trap an opponent in an argument

- known also as a horned argument

- consists of disjunctive proposition/s (p or q) as the major premise, conditional

proposition/s (if p, then q) as the minor premise

- disjunctive and conditional propositions are interchangeable as to use as major or minor

premise in the dilemma
 - the argument made takes the parts of the disjunction and draws conclusion detrimental to
the adversary

RULES OF THE DILEMMA:

1. The disjunction must be proper and exhausts all possibilities or alternatives. This limits
the options to just two alternatives. (use or not in giving the disjuncts)

2. The conditional must follow with consistency and necessity. It must accept only the one
consequence laid by the dilemma. Not observing this rule can give opponent chance to take the
dilemma by the horns. (consequence must necessarily happen or occur)

3. The dilemma must not be open for rebuttal and other conclusions. It must be immune
to a counter dilemma or the opponent may butt back at the dilemma.

FORMS OF THE DILEMMA

1. Simple Constructive

- contains only one consequence

- disjunctive proposition accepts antecedent and conclusion accepts the consequence

(accept-accept)

Schema:

A v B (A or B) or A B (If A, then B)

A X (If A, then X) B X (If B, then X)

B X (If B, then X) A v B (A or B)

------------ ---------------

X X

Example:

Either I win a million dollars, or my friend wins a million dollars.

If I win a million dollars, I will donate it.
If my friend wins a million dollars, he will donate it.
Therefore, a million dollars will be donated.

2. Complex Constructive

- contains two antecedents and two consequents

- disjunctive proposition accepts the antecedent and the conclusion accepts the
consequents

Schema:
A X; B Y (if A, then X; and if B, then Y) or A v B (A or B)

A v B (A or B) A X; B Y(if A, then X; and if B, then Y)

----------- ---------------------

XvY X vY

Example:

If we increase the price, sales will slump; and if we decrease the quality, sales will slump.
Either we increase the price or we decrease the quality.
Therefore, sales will slump.

3. Simple Destructive

- contains two consequents

- disjunctive proposition denies the consequents and the conclusion denies the antecedent

Schema:

A ( X v Y) [If A, then X or Y]

~ (X v Y) [not X or Y]

-------------

~A

Example:

If I am to pass the examination, I must study all night or be mentally alert as I write.
Either I will not study all night or be mentally alert as I write.
For this reason, I will not pass the examination.

4. Complex Destructive

- contains two antecedents and two consequents

- disjunctive proposition denies the consequents and the conclusion denies the
antecedents

Schema:

A X; B Y [If A, then X; and If B, then Y]

~ (X v Y) [not X or Y]

-------------
 ~(A v B)

Example:

If it rains, we will stay inside; and if it is sunny, we will go for a walk.

Either we will not stay inside, or we will not go for a walk.
Therefore, either it will not rain, or it will not be sunny.