Precast Walling Elements

Masonry

Masonry may be defined as the assemblage of building units or properly bonded together with mortar.
The adobe masonry walls are also constructed as brick masonry wall. Masonry structures are made from a
number of smaller units called blocks which was held together with a bonding material known as mortar. The
blocks used for the masonry are made from stone, cement concrete, concrete hollow blocks, soil stabilized block
and clay. Generally the traditional shape of the blocks is either square or rectangular. Mortar is used to bond the
individual blocks.

Stretcher Bond

The bricks are laid in normal stretcher bond by using mud mortar. The mortar is prepared from the fine
graded original soil may be used for the masonry. Cement mortar should be avoided for these constructions.
Since the different strengths of two types of elements do not bound tightly to each other and will reduce the
plastic nature of the wall. The mortar joints of 20 to 25mm thickness may be maintained.

Rat trap bond wall

The cavity brick wall has been widely used in the tropical country. The cavity brick wall construction to
ward off the excessive heat from outside and thermal insulation to be maintained heat inside, during the cold
climate. These walls saving the building materials like brick and mortar as compared to the solid brick wall.
Ultimately the reduction of self weight of the masonry will reduce the depth of foundation. The rat trap bond wall
considered being and economical brick work than solid brick wall. Burnt clay brick is one of the most important
versatile building materials that have been used in building construction over the centuries. Ancient civilizations
have demonstrated that the use of burnt brick in a befitting manner. However, the use of brick has been used as
load bearing wall of one brick/one and a half brick/two brick thickness.

Use of rat trap bond

As against the conventional English bond or Flemish bond a new bonding system called rat trap bond had
been propagated in India through the efforts of renowned architect Shri Laurie baker. For load bearing walls,
there is a saving of 25% of the total number of bricks and thus in the cost of wall by use of rat trap bond. It is
very easy to construct the brick work using the rat trap bond also with aesthetical rendering. This bonding system

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is also provides for better thermal insulation properties. In terms of structural strength, it is as strong as or even
stronger than the conventional 9" thick brick wall. Brick work structural performance is less critical in
compression and more in bending. This is due to the increased height of the brick being positioned with its 4-1/2"
width as height as against the 3" thick as height in case of normal brick work structural analysis as well as
computer simulated test models have established that rat trap bond is 25% more stronger .

The construction has been very widely used in housing and institutional buildings up to 2 to 3 storeys. In
any case, in all public buildings where predominantly load bearing walls are provided only up to 2 to 3 storeys
and in case of tall building, walling is only a filler material used as a cladding with multistoried structural column
and beam/slab frame. There is absolutely no necessity for providing the 9" thick solid brick work with English
bond and it can be fully replaced with rat trap bond on all external /internal envelops. Some of the application
areas and details of construction etc are given in subsequent sections.

Laying

1) Before laying a brick in cement mortar or composite mortar it shall be thoroughly soaked for at least an
hour in clean water. If masonry is in mud or lime mortar the bricks need not be soaked.

2) Bricks shall be laid in rat trap bond with a 75 mm cavity between two leaves of bricks on edge with a
header after every stretcher as shown in figure. All the frogs of the bricks shall be kept towards cavity.
Half or cut piece wherever required as closer shall be used preferably near the end of walls, while laying
the bricks mason thread shall be tied on both the faces. All bricks shall be laid in a straight line and truly
in plumb. One end of the header should be kept in line with inner leaf, the other end towards the outer
face may be slightly in depression than the stretcher line, and this depression is filled with mortar if
plastering is not being done on outer face.

3) While laying the bricks, a layer of mortar (normally 1:6, cement: sand) up to two storied construction
shall be spread on full width of the two leaves of the lower course to a suitable length. Bricks shall then
be gently placed on edge by gently tapping with handle of trovel or wooden mallet so that proper bond
may develop and no gap is left in joint. To check dropping of mortar in cavity a wooden plate held over
cavity while spreading the mortar.

4) All bricks shall be laid in a straight line plan and shall be truly in plumb. There should be no vertical
joint one over the other in two consecutive courses. All vertical joints shall be one over the other in
alternate courses. In order to keep the joint thickness, the vertical height of each course shall be well
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 determined by equal distribution among the total height to be achieved. For this purpose, wood gauge
shall be used. The total height of the brick work in one day shall not more than 920mm or 8 courses of
brick on edge height.

5) Special care shall be taken at T and L junctions and 155mm thick partition wall junction.

6) The bond detail at various junctions in plan is shown in figure. It is recommended to use a solid brick on
edge course at still level and at roof level. It is desirable to carry out solid 230mm thick brick masonry
with flat brick in conjunction with 115mm thick masonry wall.

Joints

Care should be taken that all the mortar joints between bricks shall be full and we compacted. Joints shall
not be more than 10mm thick. Where pointing or plaster has to be carried out, the joints shall be racked to a depth
of 115mm so as to have good bond of plaster or pointing.

If the pointing or plastering is not required then the joints shall be struck flush and finished at the time of
laying the bricks. In most of the case (particularly for low cost houses) it is desirable to have exposed brick work,
so it shall be cleaned in the same day on which brick work is laid all mortar droppings shall be cleaned.

Precautions

During the laying of bricks, the brick work shall be protected from any lateral force and from the rains. It
is desirable to use at least a solid course of brick on edge at plinth, door, and window sill/lintel level and one
course at roof level. Care should be taken for its proper curing period of 7 days. Where it is required to have

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exposed brick work, the joints shall be well pointed. The head of header in brick lying shall be tapped and
finished with mortar so as to check the penetration through joints in recess on one side.

Method of construction

The following methods may be adopted while constructing rat trap bond walls:

1) The bricks should be thoroughly soaked in clean water for at least one hour before the construction.

2) Prepare the required cement mortar.

3) The bricks are to be arranged as per the figure no.1 in which a75 mm cavity should be maintained
between two leaves of bricks on edge with a header after every stretcher of brick. All the frogs in the
bricks shall be kept towards the cavity of the wall.

4) Half bricks shall be used near the end of the walls to avoid the continuous vertical joints.

5) All the bricks shall be arranged in a straight line and should not have any vertical joints in the masonry
over the consecutive layer of the bricks.

6) The masonry work should be checked continuously with a true plumb.

7) Appropriate wooden gadget may be used for speedy construction as well as better out comes.

8) Care should be taken at the joints and junctions of the walls.

9) It is advisable that the brick work in a day shall not be more than 920 mm or 6 courses of brick on edge
height.

10) The wall shall be cured before rising of further wall over it.

11) The mortar joints shall not be more than 1cm.

12) The solid course of brick on edge should be laid at the plinth level, window sill level, lintel level and roof
level of the brick masonry.

Sand lime bricks

Sand lime blocks area manufactured from finely ground sand or siliceous rock with clay and silt less than
5% lime. The lime should be conforming to clays hydrated lime. To attain easily strength and color suitable
additives may be added. These bricks are manufactured in different dimensions with sand lime or calcium
silicate. The sizes are 190x90x90mm or 190x90x40mm with frog shall be 100x40 and 10 mm to 20mm deep an
one side of flat surface.

Classification of bricks:

The sand lime bricks shall be of designated depending upon the average compressive strength of bricks.
The compressive strength of the bricks is 75,100,150 and 200 kg/cm 2.

Physical characteristics of sand lime bricks:

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 Compressive strength of the bricks should not be less than 75kg/cm2 and maximum strength is 200
kg/cm2 are expected. However the 20% of variation in the compressive strength is permitted.

Average compressive strength

(kg/cm2)
Class/Description

Not less than Less than

75 75 200

100 100 150

150 150 200

200 200

Sand lime blocks

The sand lime blocks are solid and compact uniform shape with or without foxy. These blocks are free
from visible cracks warp age and organic matters and pebbles and modulus of foamed lime. The color of this
sand lime blocks shall be uniform in color.

Materials:

The sand lime blocks are manufactured with the combination of ground sand and silt less than5% and
hydrated lime conforming IS712-1984. Suitable admixtures are added for easily strength and color.

Size of Bricks:

The size of sand lime bricks shall be 190mmx90mmx90mm and 190mmx90mmx40mm with frog on are
of its flat side are also provided.

Manufacturing method:

The sand lime blocks are manufactured in a mould of the above size affixed in block molding machine.
Suitable vibrations are also given and ramming the mixture. The blocks are steam cured and stocked for self
curing. After completion of the process it will be taken for construction.

Fly Ash Bricks

Fly ash bricks manufacturing units can be set up nearby thermal power stations. Because the main raw

materials can be obtained in nearby thermal power stations

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Description

Fly ash is a burnt residue of pulverized coal (bituminous or sub-bituminous) and is siliceous in nature.

R&D efforts undertaken during the past few decades have revealed that the material can be gainfully utilized in

number of ways in building products manufacturing as well as in civil works with adequate durability, Due to its

superior Geo-technical, Pozzolanic and Physio- Chemical Properties. The major areas of fly ash utilization

established.

Clay Fly ash Bricks

Manufacturing process of clay fly ash bricks by manual or extrusion process involves mixing of fly ash

(60 %) with clay of moderate plasticity. The green bricks are dried under ambient atmospheric conditions or in

shed to equilibrium moisture level of below 3 percent. Dried bricks are fired in traditional brick kilns at 1000

30 C with a soaking period of 5 7 hours at maturing temperature. The technology has great potential to reduce

the top soil consumption for making conventional clay bricks.

Strength of building materials

The non-engineered masonry walls fail during the disaster due to its brittleness. In order to improve the

ductile property of the wall, the reinforcement in appropriate location is necessary to increase the stability of the

structures.

The following points are prone to the failures of wall during disasters.

1. Unsymmetrical plan and elevation

2. Heavy structural weight and its stiffness
3. Low materials strength
4. Weak connections between longitudinal and transverse walls
5. Weak connections between walls and roof
6. Stress concentrations at corners of doors & windows
7. Unfilled joints in the walls
8. Improper bonding between wall materials
9. No structural elements connectivity
10. Poor workmanship

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Strength of masonry units

The strength of the masonry unit shall be depends on the following factors.

1. Crushing strength of bricks

2. Mix proportion and its strength

3. Slenderness ratio

4. Eccentricity of vertical load

5. Openings in the wall

Crushing strength of bricks

The compressive strength of the bricks is one of the essential parameters to determine the strength of

masonry. The category of the building and expected life of the structures will decide the selection of building

material strength.

Mix proportions and mortar strength

The different mix proportions are recommended for the masonry structures. The compressive strength of

this mortar is to be tested before the use of these mortars for construction. The strength of the different mortars is

indicated in the code books which may be ascertained before the use of materials. Rich mortar strength will have

more tensile and shear strength for the masonry walls.

Slenderness ratio

The ratio of effective length and effective thickness of the wall is necessary. The larger slenderness ratio

shows smaller strength.

Eccentricity

The load on the wall shall be vertical and axial. In the case of eccentric loading, more moment will act on

the wall and hence reduce its strength.

Wall encloser

The load bearing wall thickness should not be kept less than 190 mm. The height of the wall should not

be more than 20 times the thickness of the wall. The length of the wall between the cross wall or not more than

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40 times the thickness of wall. If longer room sizes are required in a building, then the thickness of the wall

should be increased or the buttress of length 20 times the thickness of wall apart or less span shall be provided.

The bottom width of the buttress is equal to one-sixth of the wall height.

Opening in the wall

The openings in the wall should be minimum, more number of doors, windows and other openings in the

wall structures reduce the strength of wall.

The following guidelines may be adopted:

1. The openings are to be located from the inside corner by a clear horizontal distance equal to 1/4 th height
of openings but not less than 60 cm.
2. The total horizontal distance of the openings should not exceed 50%, 42% and 33% of the length of the
wall between the consecutive cross wall in a single, two and three storied building.
3. The horizontal distance between the two openings should not be less than 1/2 th of height of the shorter
opening but not less than 60 cm.
4. The vertical distance between two openings shall not be less than 60 cm or less than 1/2 th width of the
smaller opening.
Masonry bonds

The bricks should be immersed in fresh water before the use of masonry and proper bonds are to be

maintained in the masonry to achieve full strength of the unit. The vertical joints are to be broken properly from

course to course.

Horizontal reinforcement in walls

A horizontal reinforcement shall be provided in the wall to improve the bending strength and to prevent

shrinkage in walls. The horizontal bonds are provided in all load bearing walls at plinth, lintel, roof-eave levels

and also top of the gable walls. The plinth level bond shall be provided to resist lateral loads and avoid the

different settlements, and the damp proof course may also apply on it to prevent the dampness raising from the

ground.

The lintel band is required for bridging the door/window openings and the roof band shall be provided to

cover all elements so as to integrate them at the end and fix them into the walls.

The gable walls horizontal band integrates the longitudinal walls with them.
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Vertical reinforcement in walls

The vertical reinforcement shall be provided at the critical section of the walls like Jamb of openings and

corners of walls. The provision of reinforcement will depend upon several factors like height of the storey,

number of storey, location of building, seismic effectiveness, soil type, foundation type and functional use of the

building.

Cavity blocks

The U shaped blocks are used to provide the horizontal band in wall construction. The horizontal

reinforcement with strips shall be placed into the U shaped block and then suitable cement concrete should be

poured and compacted. The vertical reinforcements are conveniently placed into the cavity block at the rate of

one bar in a cavity and filled with micro concrete and properly compacted. The reinforcement should be come up

from the footings of the buildings. The vertical reinforcement may be suitably overlapped at the time of

construction so that the plumb of the wall will be maintained.

Wall footings

A simple wall footing with stone or bricks is constructed depending upon the site and soil conditions.
Damp proof coarse is to be provided at the base of the wall to avoid the dampness raising in the brick wall. The
base width of footing should be equal to the selected width of adobe wall.

Wall

A maximum length of 6m wall between posts and cross walls are recommended. The cross walls should
have enough bonding. The height super structure is to be 2.5m.

Lintel

Adequate lintels should be provided in load bearing walls of the openings.

Example: 180mm bearing is required for 1.8m span of lintel.

Load bearing wall

The direct roof weights and lateral loads should not be imposed on the mud walls. However, the lightly
loaded simple trusses with conventional beam and rafters shows better results. All the trusses should be
connected with a base plate of large size and fitted on the top of the adobe wall, so that the vertical loads can be
spread uniformly. These plates are properly anchored on the wall so as to improve the stability of the structures.
The intersecting cross and main walls increase the stability of the non load bearing walls.

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 After the wall construction the roof construction can be started. The mud walls should be protected with
eves board so as to avoid rain beating on the wall surfaces. The lateral loads are not permitted on the wall. The
location and size of doors and windows are to be provided with care.

Types of Blocks

1. Stabilized Mud Blocks

2. Precast Concrete Stone blocks

3. Precast solid concrete blocks

4. Hollow concrete blocks

Stabilized Mud Blocks

Traditionally the building techniques were based on the locally available materials in different locations.
The basic types of stone, sand, mud, timber, bamboo and bio-mass materials were used. The mud was mostly
used for wall, stone for foundation and bamboos for roof and bio-mass were uses as roof coverings. Due to
increasing the growth of population and civilization, the use of kutcha materials for the construction of houses
were reduced. The consumption of steel and cement for multi storied buildings and other constructions are grown
up. The cost of the building and other related services are increasing. As a result huge demands for building
materials are exist. On the other hand the poor people are finding difficult to make their house due to cost
escalation. So there is a need to find out an affordable solution for the housing which is very essential.

Mud housing technology can be successful in all climates. Therefore the research and development in the
building materials are to be developed in a systematic manner to meet the growing challenges.

The Historical Development of Building Materials

The table shows the development of building materials

Historical Development in Building Materials

Materials Period
Mud, Stone, Wood/thatch Prior 8000BC
Sun dried bricks 6000 BC
Pottery Products 4000-8000BC
Burnt bricks 4000BC
Lime 3000 BC
Glass 1300 BC
Iron Products 1350 BC
Lime pozzolana Cement 300BC-476 AD
Aluminium 1808 AD
Portland Cement 1824 AD
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 Plastics 1862
Mud Technology

Mud is the most important basic materials for building construction. There are different types of soil are
existing on the earth surface. The basic properties of each soils and its behavior during loading and the
environmental changes are to be considered for the effective use of soil for construction

Types of Soil

The following types soils are consideredGravel

Sand

Silt

Clay

Organic soil

Mixed soil

Test on Soil

The following tests are suggested to categories the soil

1. Physical properties of soil Colour, texture and particle size distribution

2. Chemical properties of Soil Chemical composition of soil sample

3. Engineering properties of soil Liquid limit, Plastic limit, Shrinkage limit, CBR Value, Optimum
Moisture Content and Swelling index.

Soil type Size in mm Optimum soil composition for compressed soil

block
Fine Grained 2.00 4.00 7%
Sand 0.02 2.00 53%
Silt 0.002 0.02 20%
Clay Below 0.002 20%

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The basic properties of the soil will determine the suitability and the test will be useful for the selection of soil

1. Texture or Particle Size Distribution

The quantity of gravel, sand, silt or clay can be determined by sieve and hydrometer analysis

2. Plasticity

It indicates the likelihood of a soil to deform when it is in wet condition. The liquid limit and plastic limit
corresponding to the percentage of soil from fluid to plastic state and plastic to solid state respectively

PI = LL PL
3. Compaction

It is the ability of the soil to be compressed to a maximum for a given compaction energy. As the density of soil
increases its porosity decreases. The water penetration will be reduced and it can take more loads.

4. Shrinkage

The shrinkage test is performed with the help of wooden mould of size 60 cm x 4 cm x 4 cm. the inner
surface of the mould should be greased. The mould filled with soil sample and leveled the top. Leave it for 5 to 7
days drying. The volume of dried mass of soil should be 7.5 10%. The greater shrinkage indicates more clay
content present in the soil.

Adobe

Adobe is a Spanish word derived from the Arabic atob, which means sun dried brick. The Adobe has
been recognized as traditional building material and widely used for construction of rural houses.

Selection of Soil

The ideal soils for earth wall construction should contain coarse sand, fine sand, silt and clay. If the ideal soil
contains particles having clay content of 30 to 40 % show good cohesion less and more durability. A field test may be
conducted to find out the percentage of sand, silt, clay in a sample by using a glass jar. A portion of clay and silt can
be checked by putting these soil in a glass jar of water, the top of the jar lid should be closed and shake vigorously.
The heavy particles will settle down and the clay particles will be suspended over the silt. Allow these processes to
be complete for 24 to 48 hours. The results shows the percentage of each particles present in the sample.

Soil Stabilization

Stabilization in a broad sense incorporates the various methods employed for modifying the properties of a
soil to improve its engineering performance. Stabilization is being used for a variety of engineering works, the most
common application being in the construction of road and airfield pavements, where the main objective is to increase
the strength or stability of soil and to reduce the construction cost by making best use of locally available materials.

Stabilizing Agents

These are the materials that when in contact with water or in the presence of pozzolanic minerals reacts with water to
form cementitious composite materials. The commonly used binders are:

Cement

Lime

Fly ash

Bagasse ash

Rice Husk ash

Blast furnace slag

Bitumen

Sodium silicate

Cement

Cement stabilization is done by mixing soil and Portland cement with water and compacting it. The material obtained
by mixing of soil and cement reacts and results in hard and durable structural material with good strength. This
stabilization is suitable for sandy soils and soils having low plasticity.

Lime

Lime can be used as a stabilizer due to presence of higher calcium content in it. The exchange of ions in the adsorbed
water layer and a decrease in plasticity of the soil occurs. The amount of lime required for stabilization process varies
from 2% to 10%. This stabilization method is more suitable for clayey soils.

Fly ash

Fly ash is a fine, glass powder recovered from the gases of burning coal during the production of electricity. These
micron-sized earth elements consist primarily of silica, alumina and iron. When mixed with lime and water the fly
ash forms a cementitious compound with properties very similar to that of Portland cement. Because of this
similarity, fly ash can be used to replace a portion of cement in the concrete, providing some distinct quality
advantages.

Bagasse ash
Bagasse ash is the residue obtained from the incineration of bagasse in sugar producing factories which are rich in
silica. When this ash mixed with soil and compacted. The siliceous substances in ash induce pozzolanic reaction
which increases the bonding results in strong product

Rice Husk Ash

This agricultural waste with the pozzolanic reactivity is a type characteristic which controls the quality of RHAs
when using for cement and concrete. It is a fine filler to improve the microstructure of soil interface.

Blast Furnace Slag

It is a non- metallic material which consisting of high silica and alumina which are formed C-S-H gel when mixed
with lime and cement.

Bitumen

Bituminous stabilization is generally done with asphalt as binder. Asphalt is too viscous so it is mixed with some
solvent and then it can be used any inorganic soil, cohesion less soils and cohesive soil can be stabilized by bitumen.
Generally the amount of bitumen varies from 4 to 7% by weight.

Sodium Silicate

The chemical is used as solution in water called water glass Sodium silicates gives strength to soil when it reacts
with it and makes the soil impervious It also acts as dispersing agent which increase soil density after compaction.
The quantity of chemical requires for stabilization varies from 0.1 to 0.2% by weight of soil.

Stabilized Adobe or Stabilized Compressed Earth Block

The Stabilized Compressed Earth Block (SCEB) Technology offers a cost effective, environmentally sound
masonry system. The stabilized compressed earth block has a wide application in construction for walling, roofing,
arched openings, corbels etc. Stabilized earth blocks are manufactured by compacting raw material earth mixed with
a stabilized such as cement or lime under a pressure of 20 40 kg/cm using manual soil press such as Balram. A
number of manual and hydraulic machines like hydra are available in India. The basic principle of all the machines is
the compaction of raw earth to attain dense, even sized masonry. Some of the hydraulic machine can even
manufacture interlocking blocks. These interlocking blocks are highly suitable for speedy and mortar less
construction. SCEB technology helps in offsetting the use of fuel wood that is getting expensive every day. On the
other hand, compressed earth blocks are sundried and use cement as stabilization for gaining the required strength.

The most important factor that affects the quality of a compressed earth block is the composition of the soil
mix used to manufacture the blocks. The physical properties of soil have greater relevance in the manufacture of
compressed earth block. They include colour, particle size break-up, structural stability, adhesion, bulk density
capillary, porosity, specific heat, moisture content, permeability, linear contraction and dry strength. Soil classified, as
clayey sands are excellent for making blocks. Such soils require little stabilization to achieve block strength 20 kg/sq.
cm. with the BALRAM machine. The optimum soil composition for compressed soil/mud block is 7% gravel, 53%
sand, 20% silt and 20% clay.

Production of Adobes

The soil, raw or stabilized, for a compressed earth block (CEB) is slightly moistened, poured into a steel press (with
or without stabilizer) and then compressed either with a manual or motorized press. CEB can be compressed in many
different shapes and sizes. For example, the Auram press 3000 proposes 16 types of blocks. The input of soil
stabilization allowed people to build higher with thinner walls, which have a much better compressive strength and
water resistance. With cement stabilization, the blocks must be cured for four weeks after manufacturing. After this,
they can dry freely and be used like common bricks with a soil cement stabilized mortar.

Advantages

1) Low energy and emissions

2) Uniform size

3) High strength

4) Thermal insulation

5) Versatile

6) Cost effective

Applications

The compressed Earth building system can be used in a variety of ways to construct buildings that are
aesthetic, efficient and easy to build.

The following design principles were to be adopted for SCEB buildings are:-

1) Strong foundation with sufficient plinth height.

2) Sufficient roof overhang and a strong wall finish.

3) Careful detailing of joints and use of concrete elements where tensile stresses are active.

4) Orientation of building with respect to direction of wind and rain

In India more than 5 million stabilized earth blocks have been used to build residential and community buildings in
both urban and rural areas. The benefits of this technology have been appreciated by both the public and private
sectors and it is being promoted by HUDCOs Network Building Centre to build housing and institutional projects.
Technical Details

The performance specification of SCEB are based on BIS code IS 1725, 1982 and tested in accordance with
IS 3495 1992

Dimensional Variations : +/- 2 mm

Wet compressive strength : 20 30 kg/cm2

Water absorption : <15% by weight

Erosion : <5% by weight

Expansion on saturation : <0.15% in block thickness

Surface characteristics : No pitting on the surface

Manpower required : 1 skilled, 6 8 unskilled

Product

The stabilized compressed earth block is a masonry unit of cuboidal shape. This may be solid or hallow or
interlocking. The shape and size of a block is defined by the equipment used in its manufacture.

Equipments Available

1) TARA Balram Machine

TARA Balram is a unique machine that harnesses compressed earth block (CEB) technology to offer an
economical and environment friendly sound masonry system. Development Alternatives, New Delhi has designed the
machine and Technology and Action for Rural Advancement (TARA), New Delhi has manufactured it. It has been
designed to enhance the strength and durability of earth construction. Houses made from earth blocks are strong and
have a longer life. This machine manufactures SCEBs by compacting raw earth mixed with a stabilizer such as
cement or lime under a pressure of 20-40 kg/cm 2 using a manual press. This machine is a perfect profit making
machine for small entrepreneurs.
Specification:

Size of the machine : 1500 x 600 x 1200 mm

Weight of machine : 180 kg
Size of block : 230 x 109 x 76 mm
No. of blocks per cycle : 2 Nos.
Type : Portable
Manpower required : 5-8
Energy source : Manual
Compaction by : Pressure.
Compressive strength : 20 30 Kg/cm2
Stabilization : 5 10 % Cement.
2) AURAM Press 3000 Machine

The automatic opening of Auram press 300, combined with the sliding hopper assures a higher productivity
than the other presses. The theoretical daily output is 1000 blocks but one can expect 850 blocks per day of plain
blocks 240 or 290. The Auram press 3000, beside its versatility, presents the advantage to give more regular
quality block than other presses worldwide. The mould is all the daylong fed with the same quality of soil mix,
due to the sliding hopper. The productivity is also increased by the fact that the sliding hopper does two
operations: when it slides above mould, it pushes the block which had been compressed earlier and then the soil
mix falls in the mould when the lever is pulled back up.

Specification:
 Size of the machine : 4000 x1500 x 2900 mm
Weight of machine : 415 kg
Size of block : 230 x 230 x 90 mm
No. of blocks per cycle : 1 No.
Type : Portable
Manpower required : 3-5
Energy source : Manual
Compaction by : Pressure.
Compressive strength : 2.7 5.3 MPa
Stabilization : 5 10 % Cement.
3) Hydro form Machine

The Hydraform dry-stack interlocking CSEB was developed by Hydraform Africa Ltd in 1988, where Hydraform
blocks are produced by stabilizing local available soils with small amounts of ordinary cement and mixed with small
amounts of water. The mix is the compressed by a mechanically operated Hydraform block making machine under a
compressive pressure of up to 10 N/mm2. Various forms mechanical electrical and diesel power generated Hydraform
block making machines are available.

Specification:

Size of the machine : 4000 x1500 x 2900 mm

Weight of machine : 820 kg
Size of block : 230 x 230 x 100mm
No. of blocks per cycle : 1 No.
 Type : Portable
Manpower required :1
Energy source : Hydraulic
Compaction by : Pressure.
Compressive strength : 10 MPa
Stabilization : 5 10 % Cement.
Production Methods

The production of stabilized mud block is based on the principle of densification of raw earth mixed with
stabilizer (cement or lime) in small quantities ranging from 5 -10% by weight of the mix. The production process
incorporates 3 main stages.

Sieving: Filling the mould humid and wet curing

Batching: Moulding final stage

Mixing: Block ejection, transportation and stacking.

Raw Material

The primary raw material for mud block production is raw earth or soil. The Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) in small quantities and water are other constituents. The coarse sand or stone dust or any other stabilizer may
be added depending on the raw soil quality. The soil is made up of grains of various sizes. The grain size distribution
of soil will determines its suitability for the manufacturing of stabilized mud blocks.

Moulds

A small metal box or mould is used where in the stiff clay shall be squeezed in to the mould. The moulds may
be single or multiple. The choice of mould depends upon the labour availability and requirement of the work, the
moulds can be formed from quality timber or steel or aluminum. The mould size is 125mm x 250mm x 375mm and
its weighs approximately 20kg. Generally the standard size of ordinary burnt bricks of about 9 X 4.5 X 3 or 12 X
6 X 4 is recommended. The size of the blocks may be varying depending upon the wall thickness and the man
handing capacity for making the blocks. The smaller size bricks show less damages and cracks while handling the
same for production and construction.

Preparation of adobe

The following steps to be adopted for the preparation of Adobe:

1) Select a leveled platform for molding the blocks.

2) Mix the raw soil with stabilizers thoroughly by hand or by using pug-mill or paddle mixer.
 3) The mixed soil should be in wet or in plastic state.

4) Select a suitable mould and the inner surface of the mould may be greased suitably and wetted before use.

5) Tamper the soil into the mould and level the top surface of the mould.

6) Lift the mould gently and allow the block to dry in sunlight.

7) Sometimes the direct sunlight for newly molded blocks will develop some shrinkage and cracking. Hence a
shaded platform will be recommended for the above.

8) After complete drying of these blocks in all sides, it should be stacked at an elevated place and covered by
plastic sheets to avoid damage during raining.

9) The blocks shall be stacked at a maximum of 4 courses and uniform height has to be maintained.

Requirements of good adobe

1) The adobe bricks should be hard.

2) The color should be uniform

3) The brick should have sufficient clay binding to withstand light and moderate rain for 15 to 30 min it should
show little erosion on the surface of the blocks due to rain.

4) The bricks should not be broken while handling for construction.

5) The average compressive strength of a block is expected to be 2 MPa.

Soil Suitability and Stabilization for CSEB

Not every soil is suitable for earth construction and there is need of basic knowledge and experiences on soil.
The topsoil and organic soils are not be used. Identifying the properties of a soil is essential to produce good quality
products. Some simple sensitive analysis can be performed a good soil is more sandy than clayey.

Soil identification

A very few laboratory test can identify soils for building purposes. The fallowing points are to be examined:

1) Grain size distribution, to know quantity of each grain size

 2) Plasticity characteristics, to know the quality and properties of the binders (clays and silts) Compressibility,
to know the optimum moisture content, which will require the minimum of compaction energy for the
maximum density

3) Cohesion, to know how the binders bind the inert grains

4) Humus content, to know if they are organic materials which might disturb the mix.

Quality of mud blocks

The suitability of mud blocks can be established after conducting certain tests on mud blocks. The objective

of these test can be measured its performance. The following two tests are to be carried out

1) Compressive test on mud block

2) Spray erosion on mud blocks

3) Water absorption test

Compression test

The cured wet compressed blocks are taken for compression test. The frog on the top of the block should be
filled up with Cement Mortar (CM) 1:1 and keep it for curing for a day with gunny bags. After curing, these blocks
are immersed in water for two days (48 hrs). Then take out from the water and wipe out the moisture present on the
surface. The top surfaces of the block are measured. A 3mm ply wood sheet on either face of the block is to be
provided before applying compressive load on the block. The load can be applied at the rate of 20kg/cm2/minute.
Minimum of five blocks are to be selected randomly from the stock, and then the average compressive strength are
calculated. The compressive strength of the blocks has to be tabulated.

The dry compressive strength of the block can be determined by testing the blocks in compressive tasting
machine. The blocks are tested only after drying. Normally 4% of the moisture may be present in the blocks at the
time of testing. The dry density of blocks and compressive strength of the blocks is also an indicator for the strength
of blocks.

Normally compressive strength of blocks 20kg/cm 2 may be used for two storied house construction with the
span of 3.6m or less. The strength of 12kg /cm 2 - 20kg/cm2 shall be suggested for single story building. The
Compressive strength less than 12kg/cm2 to 7kg/cm may be used for light roofed building. However lesser
compressive strength of block wall thickness of 30cm.

Spray Erosion Test

The erosion resistance of the pressed mud blocks can be evaluated using a spray erosion test. These tests are
carried out to find out the resistance against direct rain impact on the blocks. The test involves a normal shower rose
with water flowing at a pressure of 1kg/cm. The water allowed to impinge on a block surface at a distance of 17.5cm
from the shower rose. The test may be stopped when the block showing a tendency towards total erosion. The
maximum depth of the erosion and the time required for erosion can be estimated. The following interpretation may
be used. A maximum erosion depth of 2.5 cm or less in a 5 minutes time is an indication of a good block. Generally
red soils having more than 10% of clay content possesses good erosion resistance. The dry density of blocks in the
order of 1.9gm/cc will provide satisfactory erosion resistance. The erosion resistance of mud blocks can be improved
by mixing starch solution.

Soil stabilization

Many stabilizers can be used, However Cement and lime are the most common ones. Sometimes chemicals,
resins or natural products can be used as stabilizers which are highlighted above in stabilizing agents. The selection
of a stabilizer will depend upon the soil quality and the project requirements: Cement will be preferable for sandy
soils and to achieve quickly a higher strength. Lime will be rather used for very clayey soil, but will take a longer
time to harden and to give strong blocks.

Preparation of Compressed Earth Blocks

The required soil samples are collected and sieved in a 5mm size aperture sieve to remove the gravel and
roots. The sieved dry soil spread in thin layer of 10 to 15 cm thickness in flat on the ground. Select the stabilizer
which one is suitable for the soil. Take the required quantity of stabilizer and spread thinly on the soil. Mix with soil
and stabilizer thoroughly either with spade manually or using concrete mixer. Sprinkle of water on the soil and mix it
thoroughly. The adding of water is to be stopped when make a ball of soil on your hand and soil does not stick to the
hand. Take a scoop of mixed soil and pour it in to the machine mould with the lever held up right. After filling the
soil in to the mould, close the lid and lock it. Now press the toggle lever till it reaches the first fulcrum level. Open
the lid and press the lever down till the block is ejected. The soil should be pressed in to blocks within 30 minutes of
adding water (within the initial settling time of cement). Remove the blocks and stock it for curing and repeat the
same for required quantity of blocks.

Curing

The stocked soil-cement blocks must be cured by gently sprinkling water and then using gardening rose-can.
A layer of straw/gunny bags or polythene sheet may spread on the top most layers of the blocks. It is desirable to use
the blocks after 21 days of curing. A minimum of 7 days curing is required before commencement of wall works. The
curing process may be continued even on the wall surface.

Comparison of burnt and stabilized mud blocks

Materials Burn Blocks/ Bricks (B.B) Stabilized Mud Blocks (SMB)

Use of fire wood Usage of firewood No fire wood

Use of stabilizer - Cement/lime/gypsum/at maximum 10% of

 weight or volume used

Environmental pollution Smoke coming out while burning No smoke during casing

Skilled labour requirement No skilled labour required No skilled labour

Seasonal casting During monsoon seasons the Throughout the season the production is
production is not possible possible.

Initial cost Very high Low

Land requirements for casting More space required for the process Less space in enough for casting

Curing of blocks Does not require curing It requires water curing

Stocking of blocks for curing More gaps between blocks need for No gaps need for air circulation.
air circulation.

Water proof coating

The impact of rain water leads to deterioration of the walls. The fungal growth on the surface of the walls
may also affect the strength of the wall. Therefore it is necessary to prevent the moisture in the wall by apply suitable
productive coating. The bitumen coating or calcium soap coating have been recommended to prevent mud walls
against erosion.

Cost Effectiveness of mud blocks

Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks (CSEB) is most the time cheaper than fired bricks. This will vary from
place to place and specially according to the cement cost. The cost break up of a 5 % stabilized block would depend
on the local context.

The strength of a block is related to the level of compression and to the quantity of stabilizer. This implies that to
reduce the cost of a block one should try to reduce the quantity of cement but not the cost of the labour with unskilled
people. One should also not cut down the cost of the press with cheap quality machines, which would not last and
would not give strong blocks.

Advantages of Mud Blocks

Ideally, the production is made on the site itself or in the nearby area. Thus, it will save the transportation, fuel, time
and money.

Well-designed CSEB houses can withstand, with a minimum of maintenance, heavy rains, snowfall or frost
without being damaged. The strength and durability has been proven since half a century. Firewood is not needed to
produce CSEB. It will save the forests, which are being depleted quickly in the world, due to short view
developments and the mismanagement of resources. The blocks are produced locally it is easily adapted to the
various needs: technical, social, cultural habits. It is a simple technology requiring semi skills, easy to get. Simple
villagers will be able to learn how to do it in few weeks. Efficient training centre will transfer the technology in a
week time.

CSEB allow unskilled and unemployed people to learn a skill, get a job and rise in the social values. According
to the local context (materials, labour, equipment, etc.) the final price will vary, but in most of the cases it will be
cheaper than fired bricks. It can be produced locally by semi skilled people, no need import from far away expensive
materials or transport over long distances heavy and costly building materials. Equipment for CSEB is available from
manual to motorized tools ranging from village to semi industry scale. The selection of the equipment is crucial, but
once done properly, it will be easy to use the most adapted equipment for each case.

Limitations of Stabilized Mud Blocks

1) Proper soil identification is required or lack of soil.

2) Unawareness of the need to manage resources.

3) Ignorance of the basics for production & use.

4) Wide spans, high & long building are difficult to do.

5) Low technical performances compared to concrete.

6) Untrained teams producing bad quality products.

7) Over-stabilization through fear or ignorance, implying outrageous costs.

8) Under-stabilization resulting in low quality products.

9) Bad quality or un-adapted production equipment.

10) Low social acceptance due to counter examples (By unskilled people, or bad soil & equipment).

Rammed Earth walling

The soil preparation for rammed earth wall is same as that of adobe. The construction of such walls requires
laborers for transportation of materials from the site, lifting of mixed soil to fill up the moulds and ramming of
proposed wall. Care should be taken in putting the soil and proper compaction to achieve the strength of the masonry.
The steel or wooden weight of 7 to 10kg with three to four persons required to build up the wall of 3 to 4 cubic meter
per day

Pre cast concrete stone blocks masonry

The concrete stone blocks are prepared with larger sizes of stone spalls which are bounded together with the

mixture of lean cement concrete. About 25-30% of stone block volumes were filled with stone spalls. These spalls

are obtained from the broken boulders in a quarry or river site. The good quality of stones can be prepared from

granite; sand stone and blast of sizes vary from 50mm to 250mm. The rough irregular surfaces of the stone shows
better bonding with cement concrete. The soft stone and slate shale shall not be used. The ordinary Portland cement

with well graded clean river sand and downgraded coarse aggregate of single 10 mm stones chips are used for

preparing stone blocks. These stone blocks are more durable and showing good performance in the masonry

structures

Casting

It can be prepared on the leveled platform

1) Select a suitable steel mould and vibrator for compaction.

2) Prepare cement concrete 1:3:6 or 1:5:8 depending upon strength requirements with water cement ratio as

0.45.

3) Apply lubricant oil to the inner sides of the mould moulds and be placed on the leveled plat form.

4) Pour one layer of prepared cement concrete into the mould and then place large size of wet stone spalls over

the concrete. Them again pour another layer of cement concrete up to the top of the mould and then

compacted by the plate vibrator. The number of mortar layers may be decided depending upon the size of the

boulders selected for which making the blocks. The top surface of the mould shall be finished with exposed

cement slurry from cement concrete.

5) The blocks shall be de-moulded after casting within few minutes.

 6) All the blocks shall be cured by sprinkling water for 14 days and air cured for another 14 days before the use

of construction.

7) The blocks shall be tested for compressive strength at 28th day. The minimum compressive strength at 28th

day of individual blocks is recorded as a compressive strength of blocks. The water absorption of the

concrete blocks should not be exceeding 6%

Pre cast Solid Cement Concrete Blocks

The pre cast solid cement concrete blocks shall be prepared from the well graded concrete mix in a different

shape and sizes. The sizes of special blocks are also prepared to suit the masonry so as to increase the strength and

stability of structures.

Nominal size in mm Actual size in mm

Length mm Breadth mm Height mm Length Breadth mm Height mm
mm
A B A B
100 100 200 150 90 90 190 140
150 100 200 150 140 90 190 140
200 100 200 150 190 90 190 140
225 100 200 150 215 90 190 140
300 100 200 150 290 90 190 140

Concrete Block Casting

The steel mould shall be used for the preparation of stone blocks.

1) Arrange a level plat form and clean inside of the moulds for the soil block making.

2) Lubrication oil shall be applied on the mould for easy demoulding of the blocks.

3) The moulds are to be filled up with cement concrete and thoroughly compacted by using the plate vibrator

until the cement slurry appears under the moulds side. Then the mould shall be released within few minutes

of casting.
 4) All the demoulded blocks are cured on the casting yard for two days, and then water cured for 21 days and

air cured for another 15 days before the use of the blocks.

Method of wall construction

The solid block wall shall be constructed like any other masonry walls. The blocks shall be tested for

compressive strength before the use. The special blocks may be used for providing vertical reinforcement in seismic

design of wall structure. The thickness of the joints shall be maintained as 10mm. The bonding of solid block wall

shall be similar to that of conventional brick wall. The masonry wall shall be cured for 7 days.

Hollow Concrete Blocks

Cement concrete hollow blocks have an important place in modern building industry. They are cost effective and

better alternative to burnt clay bricks by virtue of their good durability, fire resistance, partial resistance to sound,

thermal insulation, Low dead load and high speed of construction. Concrete hollow blocks are being usually larger in

size than the normal clay bricks and also less mortar is required, faster of construction can be achieved. Also

building construction with cement concrete hollow blocks provides facility for concealing electrical conduit, water

and sewer pipes wherever so desired and requires less plastering.

Cement concrete hollow blocks are modern construction materials and they are used in all types of

constructions viz. residential, commercial and industrial building constructions. The demand for this product is

always high.

Raw Materials for Hollow Concrete Block

 Mineral aggregates (sand and stone chips) are normally divided into two fractions based on their particle

size. Aggregate particles passing through the No.4 or 4.7 mm Indian Standard sieve are known as fine aggregate. The

particles retained on this sieve are designated as coarse aggregate. Natural sand is often used as fine aggregate in

cement concrete mixture. Coarse aggregate are crushed stone chips. Crushed stone chips broken into particle sizes

passing through the 4.7 mm sieve may also be used as fine aggregate. The maximum size of the coarse aggregate that

may be used in cement concrete hollow blocks is 12.5 mm. However, the particle size of the coarse aggregate should

not exceed one third thickness of the thinnest web of the hollow blocks.

Manufacturing Process

The process of manufacture of cement concrete hollow blocks involves the following stages;

1) Proportioning
2) Mixing
3) Compacting
4) Curing
5) Drying
1) Proportioning:

The determination of suitable amounts of raw materials needed to produce concrete mixture for the desired quality

under given conditions of mixing, placing and curing is known as proportioning. Depending upon the strength

requirements, the cement, sand, chips and dust is used for the preparation of wet mix. Suitable water cement ratio

may be used for cement concrete mix.

2) Mixing

A thorough mixing of aggregates, cement and water is to ensure that the cement-water paste completely covers the

surface of the aggregates. All the raw materials including water are collected in a concrete mixer, which is rotated for

about 1 minutes. The prepared mix is discharged from the mixer and consumed within 30 minutes.

3) Compaction:

Compaction is to fill all air pockets with concrete as a whole without movement of free water through the concrete.

Excessive compaction would result in formation of water pockets or layers with higher water content and poor

quality of the product. Semi-automatic vibrating table type machines are widely used for making cement concrete
hollow blocks. The machine consists of an automatic vibrating unit, a lever operated up and down metallic mould

box and a stripper head contained in a frame work. The Wooden pallets are kept on the vibrating platform of the

machine. The mould box is lowered on to the pallet. Concrete mix is poured into the mould and evenly leveled. The

motorized vibrating causes the concrete to settle down the mould by approximately 1 to 1 inches. More of

concrete is then raked across the mould level. The stripper head is placed over the mould to bear on the leveled

material. Vibration causes the concrete come down to its limit position. Then the mould box is lifted by the lever. The

moulded hollow blocks resting on the pallet is removed and a new pallet is placed and the process repeated. The

machine can accommodate interchangeable mould for producing blocks of different sizes of hollow or solid blocks.

4) Curing

Hollow blocks removed from the mould are protected until they are sufficiently hardened to permit handling without

damage. This may take about 24 hours in a shelter away from sun and winds. The hollow blocks thus hardened are

cured in a curing yard to permit complete moisturisation for at least 21 days. When the hollow blocks are cured by

immersing them in a water tank, water should be changed at least every four days.

The greatest strength benefits occur during the first three days and valuable effects are secured up to 10 or 14 days.

The longer the curing time permitted the better the product.

5) Drying

Concrete shrinks slightly with loss of moisture. It is therefore essential that after curing is over, the blocks should be

allowed to dry out gradually in shade so that the initial drying shrinkage of the blocks is completed before they are

used in the construction work. Hollow blocks are stacked with their cavities horizontal to facilitate thorough passage

of air.

Generally a period of 7 to 15 days of drying will bring the blocks to the desired degree of dryness to complete their

initial shrinkage. After this the blocks are ready for use in construction work.

Cement concrete hollow blocks are usually of the following three dimensions: 100 X 200 X 400 mm,

150 X 200 X 400 mm and 200 X 200 X 400 mm. Although hollow blocks of all the three sizes could be made using

the same machinery and equipment proposed in the project, for computation purpose only one size viz 100 X 200 X

400 mm is considered in the sales turnover.

Advantages of Hollow Concrete Blocks

1) Highly Durable: The good concrete compacted by high pressure and vibration gives substantial strength to

the block. Proper curing increase compressive strength of the blocks.

2) Low Maintenance, Color and brilliance of masonry withstands outdoor elements.

3) Load Bearing, strength can be specified as per the requirement.

4) Fire Resistant

5) Provide thermal and sound insulation: The air in hollow of the block, does not allow outside heat or cold in

the house. So it keeps house cool in summer and warm in winter.

6) Economical

7) Environment Friendly, fly ash also be used as one of the raw materials.

Structural Advantages

1) In this construction system, structurally, each wall and slab behaves as a shear wall and a diaphragm

respectively, reducing the vulnerability of disastrous damage to the structure/building, during the natural

hazards.

2) Due to the uniform distribution of reinforcement in both vertical and horizontal directions, through each

masonry element, increased tensile resistance and ductile behaviour of elements could be achieved. Hence,

the construction system can safely resist lateral or cyclic loading, when compared to other conventional

masonry construction systems. This construction system has also been proved to offer better resistance under

dynamic loading, when compared to other conventional systems of construction.

Constructional Advantages

1) No additional formwork or any special construction machinery is required for reinforcing the hollow

block masonry.

2) Only semi-skilled labour is required for this type of construction.

3) It is a faster and easier construction system, when compared to the other conventional construction

systems.
 4) It is also found to be a cost-effective disaster resistant construction system, as explained in the next

section.

Thin Precast RCC Lintel

Normally lintels are designed on the assumption that the load from a triangular portion of the masonary

above which acts on the lintel. By this, a thickness of 15 cm is required. Thin precast RCC lintels are designed

for composite action of the lintel with the brick work. The brick work over the lintel is done with mortar not less

than CM 1:6. The thickness of the lintel is kept equal to the thickness of brick itself having a bearing of 230 mm

on either supports. Use of precast lintels speed up the construction of walls, and eliminating the shuttering and

centering. by the Adoption of these thin lintels results in up to 50% saving in cost of lintels.

Doors and Windows

Innumerable types and sizes of doors and windows are used in buildings. The additional use of skilled labour

on site and off site and also leads wastage of expensive materials like timber, glass etc. Economy can be achieved

by adopted the following

a) Standardizing and optimizing dimensions of joinerss

b) Evolving restricted number of doors and window sizes; and

c) Use of precast door and window frames.

Ferro cement doors/windows.

Ferro cement door is strong and durable, water resistant and easy to make. The weight of ferro cement door

of 12mm thickness is approximately 30kg/m2 whereas wooden door weight approximately 18kg/m2. Ferro cement

doors are economical and easy to repair.

Preparation of Ferro cements door /window:

1) Select hexagonal 22 gauge GI chicken mesh as reinforcement.

2) Cut the chicken mesh using wire mesh cutter to the door size with 100mm extra in all around sides. The
mesh should be flattened on the floor.

3) Fold the projecting mesh projecting 10mm beyond the door sizes in all-round.

4) Bound the mesh together with binding wires and flatten the mesh mat with square hammer.

5) Apply waste engine oil on the surface of the casting plat form for easily demoulding.

6) Prepare the cement mortar 1:1 : or 1:2 with water cement ratio of 0.45 and spread for a thickness of 5mm
and the level a surface of the flat form.

7) Place the steel mat on the mortar which is laid on the plat form.

8) With help of wooden or aluminum ruler the border of the door shall be finalized and apply mortar.

9) In order to get a smooth finish of door a dry cement mortar is sprinkled and rubbing the surface thoroughly
with trowel.

10) The Demoulding of doors shall be carried out after 12 hours of casting. It requires water curing for 20 days
and air curing for another two weeks before the use of the doors.

11) Suitable color paints may be applied on the surface of the door / windows to improve the appearance. Now
the door/ window are ready for the fitting of the hinges and locks. There is need of electrical power driller
with small drill bit will be useful to drill the holes for fitting of bolts nuts with washers

12) Extra care should be taken while handling the doors for fixing. The doors may be stocked vertically on the
largest side upward to each other.
Curing procedure

Curing is a necessary phase to obtain a necessary ferrocement product. Since the ferrocement units are

usually much thinner than normal concrete products,

Curing is the action by which the water trapped in the freshly cast structure is released slowly over a period

of time. This should take place slowly in order to prevent cracks which would weaken the product. For this purpose,

leave the freshly casted door in a place on the casting platform. Spread sand or coir dust layer evenly over the door

and sprinkle water. The sand or coir dust should be kept moist for about 15 to 21 days.

Demoulding process

After 20 days of curing time a ferrocement door is / window will attained its full structural strength.

For demoulding of the ferrocement door/ window, carefully insert a large masons trowel under one of the

long sides of the door/ window and move it slowly. The oil applied of reuse ensures that no bonding with mould and

mortar during the casting.

Once the ferrocement door/ window panel is loosened, two or three person could quickly lift up on one of its

long sides.

Assembling and final phase

Use 300mm to 460mm (18 in) steel T -hinges, tower bolts, aldrops and rim locks. for fixing a door size of 2m

x 0.90m, directly on a brick wall, pillar or even a wooden frame. The holes should be premarked for hinges and

locks. Use an electric power drill with a small diameter masonry drill bit to drill the required holes. Then the door /
window Attach on the three hinges with bolts, nuts, and washers. Fit tower bolts, aldrops and rim locks in the same

way.

The ferrocement surface will be prepared by etching the surfaces with solutions which will not harm the ferrocement

and Remove latence and salts on the ferrocement wash down with clean water and at least one month should be

allowed to elapse after the curing before applying any paint suitable thinners before painting

When choosing a paint it is advisable to check which type of filling agent will be compatible with the paint.

Also a procedure to be adopted for the use the filler, either directly on the hull or in between the coats of paint to be

applied.