Terminology

 A proof is a valid and clear argument that demonstrates the truth of a

theorem.
Proofs  A proof is based on premises/axioms/definitions, statements already
assumed/known to be true, and inference rules.
Inference upon inference, leading to another inference. See Appendix I (real numbers), Appendix II (exponentials and logarithms), and
(Richard Keen) instructors web page (inequalities).
Any axiom/property of real numbers not involving division is also true for integers.
 A proof method usually has a form that can be justified by an inference rule.
CS 2233 Discrete Mathematical Structures Proofs 2

Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Where Do Theorems Come From?

Where Do Theorems Come From? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
 We want to know the properties of mathematical structures.
Proving P (x) Implies Q(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
 We want to ensure that certain consequences happen.
Types of Proofs for p implies q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
 Consider:
Setting Up Proofs of p implies q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Examples of Direct Proofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 comparing x and x2.
Examples of Indirect Proofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 When is x < x2, x = x2 , or x > x2?
Examples of Proofs by Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 What implies x < x2, x = x2 , or x > x2?
Examples of Using Cases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 What does x < x2 , x = x2, or x > x2 imply?
Other Proofs 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 comparing 2x and x2 .
Other Proofs comparing x + y and xy.
2 ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Proving 2 is Irrational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 CS 2233 Discrete Mathematical Structures Proofs 3
Halting Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Proving P (x) Implies Q(x)
We usually try to prove theorems of the form: P (x) implies Q(x).
Recall P (x) implies Q(x) means x(P (x) Q(x)).
Recall P (x) implies Q(x) is true if, whenever P (x) is true, Q(x) is also true.
Recall P (x) implies Q(x) is false if there is any counterexample x = a where
P (a) is true and Q(a) is false.
First thing to check: Look for a counterexample. A counterexample proves
(P (x) implies Q(x)), which is equivalent to x(P (x) Q(x)).
CS 2233 Discrete Mathematical Structures Proofs 4

1 2
Types of Proofs for p implies q Examples of Direct Proofs
I use p implies q as shortcut for P (x) implies Q(x).  Prove x < 0 implies x < 1
Type Of Proof How To Show It  Assume x < 0. Want to show x < 1.
Counterexample Find a value where p is true Proof: We know 0 < 1.
of p implies q and q is false. x < 0 and 0 < 1 implies x < 1.
Direct Proof Assume p is true. Derive a  Prove x < 0 implies x < x(x 1)
of p implies q chain of implications which  Assume x < 0. Want to show x < x(x 1).
ends with q. Proof: x < 0 implies x 1 < 0.
Indirect Proof Prove q implies p with x < 0 and x 1 < 0 imply x(x 1) > 0.
of p implies q a direct proof. x < 0 and x(x 1) > 0 imply x < x(x 1).
Proof by Do a direct proof of CS 2233 Discrete Mathematical Structures Proofs 7
Contradiction (p q) implies false, that
of p implies q is, implies a contradiction.
CS 2233 Discrete Mathematical Structures Proofs 5 Examples of Indirect Proofs
 Prove x < 0 implies x < 1
Setting Up Proofs of p implies q  Assume x 1. Want to show x 0.
Proof: We know 1 0.
Type Of Proof How To Set It Up
x 1 and 1 0 imply x 1.
Direct Proof Assume: p
of p implies q Want to show: q  Prove x < 0 implies x < x(x 1)
Proof:  Assume x x(x 1). Want to show x 0.
Indirect Proof Assume: q Proof: x x(x 1) implies x x2 x.
of p implies q Want to show: p x x2 x implies 2x x2.
Proof: We know x2 0.
Proof by Assume p q 2x x2 and x2 0 imply 2x 0.
Contradiction Want to show: contradiction 2x 0 implies x 0.
Proof: CS 2233 Discrete Mathematical Structures Proofs 8
CS 2233 Discrete Mathematical Structures Proofs 6

3 4
Examples of Proofs by Contradiction
 Prove xy = 0 implies x = 0 y = 0
 Assume xy = 0 and x 6= 0 y 6= 0.
Want to show a contradiction.
Proof: x 6= 0 and y 6= 0 imply xy 6= 0.
xy 6= 0 contradicts xy = 0.
 Prove x + y < xy y < 0 implies x < 1
 Assume x + y < xy y < 0 and x 1.
Want to show a contradiction.
Proof: x 1 implies y < x + y.
y < x + y and x + y < xy imply y < xy.
y < 0 and y < xy imply 1 > x
1 > x contradicts x 1
CS 2233 Discrete Mathematical Structures
Examples of Using Cases
 Prove xy > 0 implies x > 0 y < 0
 Assume xy > 0. Want to show x > 0 y < 0.
Proof: Two ways to get a positive product.
Case 1: x > 0 and y > 0.
Case 2: x < 0 and y < 0.
Both cases imply x > 0 y < 0.
 Prove xy > 0 implies x > 0 y < 0
 Assume x 0 y 0. Want to show xy 0.
Proof: Two cases. Some value is 0 or neither.
Case 1: x = 0 or y = 0 implies xy = 0.
Case 2: x < 0 and y > 0 imply xy < 0.
Both cases imply xy 0.
CS 2233 Discrete Mathematical Structures
5 6
Proofs of xP (x) and xP (x)
To prove xP (x), find a value for x that makes P (x) true. Alternative: find a
calculation for x.
 Prove xy(x < y 2 ). Proof: choose x = 1.
 Prove yx(y 2 < x). Choose x = y 2 + 1.
To prove xP (x), show that P (x) follows from the properties of the domain.
 Prove x(x2 0).
 Proof: x can be positive, zero, or negative.
Case 1: x > 0 implies x2 > 0.
Case 2: x = 0 implies x2 = 0.
Case 3: x < 0 implies x2 > 0.
All cases imply x2 0.
CS 2233 Discrete Mathematical Structures Proofs 11
Proofs 9
Proof by Contradiction of xP (x)
To prove xP (x) by contradiction, assume xP (x) and show the properties
of the domain results in a contradiction.
 Prove x < x2 + 1.
 Assume x x2 + 1.
Want to show a contradiction, that is,
want to show x x2 + 1 is always F.
Proof:
x x2 + 1 and x2 + 1 1 imply x 1.
x x2 + 1 and x2 + 1 > x2 imply x > x2.
x 1 and x > x2 imply 1 > x.
x 1 and 1 > x is a contradiction.
CS 2233 Discrete Mathematical Structures Proofs 12
Proofs 10

Proving 2 is Irrational
Definition: A number x is rational if can be expressed as x = a/b where a and
b are integers.
Property: We can eliminate common factors to get the same x.
Proof by contradiction:

 Assume 2 = a/b, where a and b are integers with no common divisors.

 2 = a/b implies 2 = a2 /b2, and 2b2 = a2 .
2
 This implies a is even, which implies a is even, and that c = a/2 is an
integer.
2 2 2 2
 Then 2b = 4c , which is equiv. to b = 2c .
 This implies b is even, which is a contradiction.
CS 2233 Discrete Mathematical Structures Proofs 13

Halting Problem Cant Be Totally Solved

Proof by Contradiction:
 Assume program Halt(P, I) always returns T if program P halts on input
I, and F otherwise.
 Let K be the following program:
procedure K(P : program)
if Halt(P, P )
then perform an infinite loop
else return T
 Consider what Halt(K, K) might return.
Case 1: Halt(K, K) = T implies K(K) does not halt.
Case 2: Halt(K, K) = F implies K(K) halts.
Both cases are contradictions.
CS 2233 Discrete Mathematical Structures Proofs 14