Control

Control Systems
Systems Design
Design

2007131 1

iTextbook:
Richard C. Dorf and Robert H. Bishop, MODERN CONTROL SYSTEMS 10th Edition
iReference:
Benjamin C. Kuo, AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 7th Edition
Katsuhiko Ogata, Modern Control Engineering" 2th Edition
iMATLAB and SIMULINK:
Mathworks Inc., Matlab Users Guide and Simulink Users Guide


i
i MATLABSIMULINK

2007131 2

i Chapter1 Introduction to Control Systems
i Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems
i Chapter 3 State Variable Models
i Chapter 4 Feedback Control System Characteristics
i Chapter 5 The Performance of Feedback Control Systems
i Chapter 6 The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
i Chapter 7 The Root Locus Method
i Chapter 8 Frequency Response Methods
i Chapter 9 Stability in The Frequency Domain
i Chapter 10 The Design of Feedback Control Systems

2007131 3
 CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Control Systems

2007131 1
 FIGURE 1.2

Open-loop control system (without feedback).

An open-loop control system utilizes an actuating

device to control the process directly without using
feedback

2007131 2
 Control :

Input Output
Reference Results

Plant or
Process

Manual Control
Automatic Control
Automobile Cruise-Control
Airplane Flight Control
Robot Arm Control
Inkjet Printer Head Control
Disk Drive Read/Write Head Positioning Control
M

2007131 3
 FIGURE 1.3 Closed-loop feedback control
system (with feedback).

A closed-loop control system uses a measurement of

the output and feedback of this signal to compare it
with the desired output (negative feedback).

2007131 4
 FIGURE 1.4 Multivariable control system.

2007131 5
2007131 6
FIGURE 1.5 Watts flyball governor.
 Advantages of Feedback:
Increased accuracy (reduced the steady-state error)
Reduced sensitivity to parameter variations
Reduced effects of disturbances
Increased speed of response and bandwidth

Computer Aided Control System Design (CACSD)

Matlab & Simulink
Matrixx
Simnon
Program CC
M

2007131 7
 FIGURE 1.19 The control system design process.
2007131 8
CHAPTER 2
Mathematical Models of Systems
Differential Equations of Physical System
Linear Approximations of Physical System
The Laplace Transform
The Transfer Function Of Linear System
Block Diagram Models
Signal-Flow Graph Model
Computer Analysis of control system
Design Examples
The Simulation of System Using Matlab
2007131 1
Differential Equations of Physical System

The approach to dynamic system problem can be listed as follow:

1. Define the system and its components

2. Formulate the mathematical model and list the necessary assumptions.

3. Write the differential equations describing the model.

4. Solve the equations for the desired output variables.

5. Examine the solutions and the assumptions.

6. If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system

2007131 2
 FIGURE 2.1 (a) Torsional spring-mass
2007131 3
system.(b) Spring element.
 d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
M + b + ky (t ) = r (t )
dt 2 dt

2007131 4
2007131 5
 ; Linear Approximations of Physical Systems
A linear system satisfied the properties of superposition and homogeneity.

r(t) y(t)
system

r (t ) y (t ) y (t ) = g [ r (t )]

r1 (t ) y1 (t )
r (t ) = r1 (t ) + r2 (t ) y (t ) = y1 (t ) + y2 (t )
r2 (t ) y2 (t )

g [r1 (t ) + r2 (t )] = g [ r1 (t )] + g [ r2 (t )]

2007131 6
2007131 7
 Linearization of a nonlinear systems:
y (t ) = g [ x (t )]
Expanding the nonlinear equation into a Taylor series about the operation point,
then we have
d ( x xo ) d 2 ( x xo ) 2
y = g ( x ) = g ( xo ) + g ( x ) + 2 g ( x) +L
dx x= x 1! o dx x= x 2! o

Neglecting all the high order terms, to yield

d ( x xo )
y = g ( xo ) + g ( x) = y0 + m ( x xo )
dx x= x 1!
o

y y 0 = m ( x xo )
or y = m x
y = g ( x1 ,L, xn )
g g g
= g ( x1o ,L, xno ) + x = xo ( x1 x1o ) + x = xo ( x2 x2 o ) + L + x = xo ( xn xno )
x1 x2 xn
2007131 8
Example 2.1 Pendulum oscillator model

T = Mgl sin
sin
T T0 Mgl | = 0 ( 0 )

where T0 = 0.
T = Mgl (cos 00 )( 0)
= Mgl

2007131 9
 ; Rotational Motion
1. Inertia
Newtons Law for rotation motion :
(t )
d d2
T ( t ) = J ( t ) = J ( t ) = J 2 ( t ) J
dt dt
T (t )
T : Torque J : Inertia : Angular acceleration
: Angular velocity : Angular displacement

2. Torsional Spring (t )
T ( t ) = k ( t )
k T (t )
k : Torsional spring constant

3. Friction for rotational motion : viscous, static, coulomb friction

d
T (t ) = B (t )
dt (t )
B : Viscous friction coefficient
B T (t )
2007131 10
 t
v(t ) dv(t ) 1
+C + v(t ) dt = r (t )
R dt L0

2007131 11
 ; The Transfer Function of Linear Systems
Definition:
The ratio of the Laplace transform of the output variable to the
Laplace transform of the input variable, with all initial conditions
assumed to be zero.
The Laplace transform of the impulse response, with all the initial
conditions set to zero.

r(t) y(t)
system

Y ( s)
= G( s)
R( s )
or
G ( s ) = L[ y (t )]

2007131 12
 Example : Mass-Spring-Friction System

y (t )
k

m f (t )

d d2
f1 (t ) = ma (t ) = m v (t ) = m 2 y (t )
dt dt
f 2 (t ) = ky (t )
d
f 3 (t ) = B y (t )
dt

2007131 13
 f (t ) = f1 + f 2 + f 3
d2 d
= m 2 y (t ) + B y (t ) + ky (t )
dt dt
B k 1
&y&(t ) + y& (t ) + y (t ) = f (t )
m m m
Taking the Laplace transform with zero initial conditions, we have

B k 1
s 2Y ( s ) + s Y ( s) + Y ( s) = F ( s)
m m m
Then the transfer function between Y(s) and F(s) is obtained

Y ( s) 1
= 2
F ( s ) s m + sB + k

2007131 14
 1. Inertia
Newtons Law for rotation motion :
(t )
d d2
T ( t ) = J ( t ) = J ( t ) = J 2 ( t ) J
dt dt
T (t )
T : Torque J : Inertia : Angular acceleration
: Angular velocity : Angular displacement

2. Torsional Spring (t )
T ( t ) = k ( t )
k T (t )
k : Torsional spring constant

3. Friction for rotational motion : viscous, static, coulomb friction

d
T (t ) = B (t )
dt (t )
B : Viscous friction coefficient
B T (t )
2007131 15
 Field-current controlled DC motor (Homework #1)
Armature-controlled DC motor

Mathematical modeling of PM DC motor:

Ra La
Ra Armature resistance La Armature inductance
+ J,B v a (t ) Applied voltage ia (t ) Armature current
ia (t )
va (t ) eb (t ) TLoad eb (t ) Back-emf kb Back-emf constant
km Torque constant Tm (t ) Motor torque
, T (t ) Load torque Td Disturbance torque
J Rotor inertia B Viscous friction coefficient
The air-gap flux of the dc motor is (t ) Rotor displacement (t ) Rotor angular velocity

(t ) = k f i f (t )
and the torque developed by by the dc motor is

Tm (t ) = k1 (t )ia (t ) = k1k f i f (t )ia (t )

= k1k f I f ia (t ), i f (t ) = constant
= k mia (t )
2007131 16
 If La/Ra 0, the approximate model of the dc motor is obtained as

( s) km
=
Va ( s ) JRa s + ( BRa + kb k m )
k

s + 1
where
JRa km
= , k=
BRa + kb km BRa + kb km

 Relation between km and kb

The power input to the rotor = The power delivered to the shaft

eb (t )ia (t ) = T (t ) (t ) km = kb
kb (t )ia (t ) = kmia (t ) (t )

2007131 17
 The cause and effect equation for the motor circuit are
d
va (t ) = Ra ia (t ) + La ia (t ) + eb (t )
dt
eb (t ) = kb (t ) = kb (t )
d
T (t ) = J (t ) + B (t ) + Td
dt
d2 d
= J 2 (t ) + B (t ) + Td
dt dt
The motor torque is equal to the torque delivered to the load, that is

Tm (t ) = T (t )

Hence the transfer function of the dc motor, with Td=0, is

( s) km
=
Va ( s ) ( Ra + sLa )( Js + B ) + kb km

2007131 18
 Tachometer
d
et (t ) = kt (t ) = kt (t )
dt

Potentiometer

Vapp Vapp
e p (t ) = k p (t ), k p = ep
2N

Incremental encoder (Homework #2)

1. Measuring angular displacement
2. Measuring angular velocity

2007131 19
 DC motor Filed-controlled
Home work 2:

( s)
=?
V f ( s)

2007131 20
Homework 3

V2 ( s )
=?
V1 ( s )

2007131 21
Homework 4:
L = n m
T
m
Tm
=?
TL
T
L

2007131 22
The block diagram

FIGURE 2.26 Multiple-loop feedback control

system.

2007131 23
2007131 24
 FIGURE 2.27 Block diagram reduction of the system of
Fig.2.26
2007131 25
Signal-flow Graph Modes

V f (s ) G (s ) (s )

FIGURE 2.28 Signal-flow graph of the dc

motor.
2007131 26
Signal-flow Graph Modes

Branch:
Nodes:
Forward-path gain:
Loop gain:
Non-touching:

FIGURE 2.31 Two-path

interacting system.
2007131 27
Masons signal-flow gain formula:

Tij =
k
Pij ijk
=
input node
output node
Pijk :
:
ijk :

2007131 28
Example 2.11
G7
G8

R G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 Y
H4
H1
H2

H3

2007131 29
The Simulation of System
Assuming that a mode and the simulation are reliably accurate,computer
simulation has the following advantages:
1. System performance can be observed under all conceivable conditions.
2. Results of field-system performance can be extrapolated with a simulation
model for prediction purposes.
3. Decisions concerning future system presently in a conceptual stage can be
examined.
4. Trials of system under test can be accomplished in a much-reduceed period
of time.
5. Simulation results can be obtained at lower cost than real experimentation.
6. Study of hypothetical situation can be achieved even when the hypothetical
situation would be unrealizable in actual life at the present time.
7. Computer modeling and simulation is often the only feasible or safe
technique to analyze and evaluate a system.
2007131 30
2007131 FIGURE 2.34 Analysis and design 31
using a system model.
 Example 2.12 Electric traction motor control

( s)
=?
vin ( s )

FIGURE 2.35 Speed control of an electric traction

motor.
2007131 32
 FIGURE 2.35 Speed control of an electric traction motor.
2007131 33
The simulation of system using Matlab

M&y& + by& + ky = r (t )
The unforced dynamic response,y(t), of the spring-mass-damper mechanical system is
y ( 0)
y (t ) = e nt sin(n 1 2 t + )
1 2

2007131 34
 FIGURE 2.40 Script to analyze the spring-mass-
2007131 damper. 35
 FIGURE 2.41 Spring-mass-damper unforced response.
2007131 36
Exercises

E2.8 E2.9

2007131 37
CHAPTER 4
Feedback Control System Characteristics
Open and Closed-Loop Control.
Sensitivity of Control System to Parameter Variations.
Control of the Transient Response of Control system.
Disturbance Signals in a Feedback Control system.
Steady-state Error.
The cost of Feedback

2007131 1
 ; Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control Systems
Open-loop

R(s) C(s)
G(s)

C ( s)
Transfer function: G( s) =
R( s)

Error signal: E ( s ) = R ( s ) C ( s )

Output: C ( s ) = G ( s ) E ( s ) = G ( s )[ R ( s ) C ( s )]

2007131 2
2007131 3
 Closed-loop

R (s ) + E (s ) C(s)
G (s )
m
H (s )
B(s)

Error signal: E ( s ) = R ( s ) B ( s )

Feedback signal: B ( s ) = H ( s )C ( s )

Output: C ( s ) = G ( s ) E ( s ) = G ( s )[ R ( s ) B ( s )]

C ( s) G( s)
Transfer function: T ( s) = =
R( s ) 1 G ( s ) H ( s )
E ( s) 1
Error transfer function: =
R( s) 1 G ( s) H ( s)

2007131 4
Sensitivity of Control Systems to Parameter variations

Definite: System sensitivity is the ratio of the change in the system transfer
function to the change of a process transfer function( or parameter) for a
small incremental change

T (s) T ( s ) / T ( s ) T ( s ) G ( s )

G(s)
= =
G ( s ) / G ( s ) G ( s ) T ( s )
T ( s ) G ( s ) T ( s ) G ( s )
= lim =
0 G ( s ) T ( s ) G ( s ) T ( s )
ln(T ( s ))
=
ln(G ( s ))

T (s) T (s) G(s)
The chain rule: =
G(s)

2007131 5
 Open-loop

C ( s)
Transfer function: T ( s) = = G( s)
R( s)
T ( s ) G ( s )

T (s)
= =1
G(s) G ( s ) T ( s )

Closed-loop

C ( s) G( s)
Transfer function: T ( s ) = =
R( s ) 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )

T ( s ) G ( s ) 1

T (s)
= =
G(s) G ( s ) T ( s ) 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )

2007131 6
 Rf

Ri
Vin Ka
en Vo
K a = 3000

Homework
Answer the questions:
1. The necessary assumptions, such that the transfer function of the inverse amplifier can
be obtained as follows: V (s) = R
o f

Vin ( s ) Rin

2. The largest ratio of the Rf and R , why?

in

3. S ATo
4. S RT f

2007131 7
Control of then Transient Response of Control System

Open-loop

Transfer function: Y (s) b

T (s) = =
R(s) s + a

b A
G( s) = , R( s) =
s+a s
b A
Output: Y ( s) = G ( s) R( s) =
s+a s
Ab
y (t ) = L1{Y ( s )} = (1 e at ), t 0
a

1
Time constant: =
a Settling time: 5
2007131 8
 Error signal: As + (a Ab)
E ( s) = R( s) Y ( s) =
s( s + a)
a Ab Aa (a Ab) at
e(t ) = L1{E ( s )} = + e
a a

Rise time: tr = t2 t1

y (t ) |t =t2 = 0.9 Cy () 1 .2

1
t 2 = ln(0.1) 0 .8

a
c(t ) |t =t1 = 0.1 y ()
0 .6

0 .4

1
t1 = ln(0.9) 0 .2

t1 t2
a 0
0 1 2 3 4 5

1 1
tr = ln(0.1) + ln(0.9)
a a

2007131 9
 Closed-loop ( H ( s ) = 1)

C ( s) b
Transfer function: T ( s ) = =
R ( s ) s + ( a + b)

Output: b A
Y ( s) = T ( s) R( s) =
s + ( a + b) s
Ab
y (t ) = L1{Y ( s )} = (1 e ( a +b )t ), t 0
a+b
1
Time constant: =
a+b
Error signal:
As + Aa
E ( s) = R( s) Y ( s) =
s ( s + a + b)
Aa Ab at
e(t ) = L1{E ( s )} = + e
a+b a+b

2007131 10
Disturbance Signal in a Feedback Control System

Open-loop
d

R(s) + + Y(s)
G(s)

Output due to R(s): YR ( s ) ( s ) |d =0 = G ( s ) R ( s )

Output due to d: Yd ( s ) |R =0 = 1 d ( s )

Total output: Y ( s ) = YR ( s ) ( s ) + Yd ( s ) ( s )
= G ( s) R( s) + d ( s)

2007131 11
 Closed-loop
Td (s )

+ +
R (s ) + Y(s)
G (s )

H (s )

G(s)
Output due to R(s): YR ( s ) ( s ) |Td =0 = R( s)
1 + G (s) H (s)

1
Output due to Td(s): YTd ( s ) |R =0 = Td ( s )
1 + G (s) H (s)

Total output: Y ( s ) = YR ( s ) + YTd ( s )

G (s) 1
= R( s) + Td ( s )
1 + G (s) H (s) 1 + G (s) H (s)

2007131 12
 Td (s )
Homework #5
Y (s )
R (s ) 8
s+5

Fig. H5a

3
r (t )
t
0
1
td (t )
t
5

y (t ) t

2007131 13
 Y (s )
R (s ) 8
s+5

Fig. H5b N d (s )

3
r (t )
t
0
1
nd (t )
t
5

y (t ) t

2007131 14
Steady-state Error
ess = e(t ) |t = e( )
= lim e(t ) = lim s E ( s )
t s 0

Open-loop
Error signal: E ( s ) = R ( s ) Y ( s ) = (1 G ( s )) R ( s )
A
Steady-state error: if R ( s ) =
s
ess = lim(1 G ( s )) R ( s ) = A(1 G (0))
s 0
Closed-loop
1
Error signal: E ( s) = R( s)
1 + G( s) H ( s)

Steady-state error: A
if R ( s ) = when H ( s ) = 1 ess = lim
1
s 0 1 + G ( s )
s
A
ess = lim( sE ( s )) =
s 0 1 + G ( 0) H ( 0)
2007131 15
The Cost of Feedback System

1. Loss of gain
2. Increased number of components and complexity
3. Possibility of instability

2007131 16
  Lab #1
Introduction to Matlab and Simulink
Simulation (Lab #3,4,5,6)
How can the Simulink be applied to measure the angular
velocity and angular displacement in which an incremental
encoder are used in control systems?

Exercises:
E4.1 E4.3 E4.6 E4.7 P4.4 P4.14 AP4.6 AP4.7

2007131 17
CHAPTER 5
The Performance of Feedback
Control Systems
Introduction
Test Input Signal
Performance of a Second-order System
The S-Plane Root Location and The Transient Response
The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control System
Performance Indices

2007131 1
Introduction

2007131 2
Test Input Signal
Step-function
A t 0
u (t ) = or u (t ) = A us (t )
0 t < 0 u (t )

A
U ( s ) = L{u(t )} =
s t
Ramp-function
At t 0
r (t ) = or r (t ) = At us (t )
0 t < 0 r (t )

A
R ( s ) = L{r (t )} =
s2 t

2007131 3
 Parabolic-function
1 2
At t0 1 2
p(t ) = 2 or p (t ) = At us (t )
0 t<0 2 p (t )
A
P ( s ) = L{ p (t )} =
s3
t

General Form

tn A
r (t ) = A us (t ) R ( s ) = n +1
n! s

2007131 4
 Performance of a Second-order System
G(s) K n2
Y (s) = R( s ) = 2 R( s) = 2
1 + G(s) s + ps + K s + 2n s + n2

With a unit step input, we obtain

n2
Y (s) =
s ( s 2 + 2n s + n2 )

n is held constant while the damping ratio is varied

>1 : Overdamped s1, 2 = n n 2 1
=1 : Critically damped s1, 2 = n
0< <1 : Underdamped s1, 2 = n j n 1 2

=0: Undamped s1, 2 = j n

<0 : Negatively damped s1, 2 = n j n 1 2
2007131 5
Performance of a Second-order System
n2
1
Y ( s) = 1 2
s ( s 2 + 2n s + n2 )

when 0 < < 1

1 n t
y (t ) = 1 e sin(n t + ) = 1 2

y (t )

y max
Overshoot

1
0 .9
= 2 % or 5 %

0 .5

0 .1
t (sec)
0 td tp ts
t1 t2
tr=t2-
t1
Typical unit-step response of a control system
2007131 6
 dy (t ) n
= e nt sin n 1 2 t = 0
dt 1 2
e nt = 0 t
sin n 1 2 t = 0 n 1 2 t = n
n
t= n =1 t = tp
n 1 2

tp =
n 1 2
M p = 1 + e / 1 2

y max y fin
P.O = 100% = e / 1 2
100%
y fin

Settling Time: Damping Factor : = n

1
e nt s < 0.02
1 2

1 4
ts = ln(0.02 1 2 ) , for ess < 0.02
n n

2007131 7
2007131 8
 The S-plane Root Location and the Transient Response

d = n 1 2

2007131 9
 B
S-plane
Second-order step response
A
C
System A

Draw the step responses of the system B and

C,. respectively
2007131 10
 n 3 > n 2 > n 1 j 3 > 2 > 1 1 j
2
n2 3 =0
n1

n3

constant n constant

2 < 1 < 0 j d 2 > d1 j

d 2
3 > 0
d1

1 2 3

constant constant d
2007131 11
 0<<1 0>>-1
=0

=1 =-1
-
>1 <-1

=0
0<<1 0>>-1

2007131 12
 j j
c(t ) c(t )
S -
S -

1 =0
1
0 0
>1

0 t 0 t

j j
c(t ) S - c(t )
S -

1

0 0 1
=1
1 < < 0
0 t 0 t

j j
c(t ) S - c(t )
S -

0 < <1
1 1
0 0
< 1

0 t 0 t

Step response
2007131 13
2007131 14
The Steady-state Error of Feedback Control System
Type of Control Systems
R (s ) + E (s ) C(s)
G (s )
Loop transfer function:

Q( s) H (s )
G( s) H ( s) =
P( s )
bm s m + bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0
=
an s n + an 1s n 1 + an 2 s n 2 + L + a1s + a0
m
K ( s + z j )
j =1
= n N
s N ( s + pi )
i =1

The loop transfer function as s approaches zero depends on the

number of integrations N.
The number of integrations is often indicated by labeling a
system with a type number that simply is equal to N.
2007131 15
 1
Error function: E ( s ) = R( s)
1 + G( s) H ( s)

Steady-state error: ess = lim s E ( s )

s 0

if H ( s) = 1
Step-function input
1 A
ess = lim s
s 0 1 + G(s) s
A
=
1 + lim G ( s )
s 0

Define the position error constant as: K p = lim G ( s )

s 0
A
ess =
2007131 1+ Kp 16
 Ramp-function input
1 A A
ess = lim s 2 =
s 0 1 + G ( s) s lim sG ( s )
s 0
Define the velocity error constant as: K v = lim sG ( s )
s 0
A
ess =
Kv

Parabolic-function input
1 A A
ess = lim s 3=
s 0 1 + G ( s) s lim s 2G ( s )
s 0

Define the acceleration error constant as: K a = lim s 2G ( s )

s 0
A
ess =
Ka

2007131 17
 Summary of steady-state errors (unit feedback)

Type of Error Constant Steady-state error ess

system
K p Kv Ka A A A
N
1+ Kp Kv Ka
0 K 0 0 Constant
1 K 0 0 Constant
2 K 0 0 Constant

3 0 0 0

2007131 18
 Performance indices

A performance index is a
quantitative measure of the
performance of a system and is
chosen so that emphasis is given to
the important system specifications.
A system is consider an optimum
control system when the system
parameters are adjusted so that the
index reaches an extreme value,
commonly a minimum value.

The Integral of the Square of the Error:

T
ISE = e 2 dt
0

2007131 19
2007131 20
CHAPTER 6
The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems
The Concept of Stability
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
The Relative Stability of Feedback Control Systems

2007131 1
The Concept of Stability

Stability Absolute stability

Relative stability

The methods for the determination of stability j

S-plane
of linear continuous-time systems:
Routh-Hurwitz criterion
stable unstable
Nyquist criterion
Bode diagram
stable unstable

A stable system is a dynamic system with a

bounded response to a bounded input

2007131 2
 S-plane

2007131 3
2007131 4
2007131 5
 Bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stability:
u (t ) y (t )
System
(t ) h (t )

y (t ) = u (t ) h ( )d
0

y (t ) = u (t ) h ( )d y (t ) u (t ) h( ) d
0 0

If u(t) is bounded, u (t ) M

y (t ) M h ( ) d
0

Thus, if y(t) is to be bounded, or y (t ) N <

M h( ) d N <
0

h ( ) d Q <
0

M , N and Q are finite positive number

2007131 6
 ; The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Consider the characteristic equation of a linear SISO system

q ( s ) = an ( s r1 )( s r2 ).....( s rn ) = 0
=a n s n an (r1 + r2 + ... + rn ) s n 1 + an (r1r2 + r2 r3 + ...) s n 2
+ an (r1r2 r3 + r1r2 r4 + ...) s n 3 + .... + an (1) n r1r2 ... = 0
an 1 n 1 a a
q( s) = s n + s +L+ 1 s + 0 = 0
an an an
an 1
an = all roots
an 2
an = products of the roots taken two at a time
an 3
an = products of the roots taken three at a time
M
a0
an = ( 1) n products of the roots
2007131 7
The necessary condition to guarantee that all roots of q(s)=0 with
negative real part are:
All the coefficients of the equation have the the same sign.
None of the coefficients vanishes.
Necessary but not sufficient!
q( s) = an s n + an 1s n 1 + ..... + a1s + a0 = 0

sn an a n2 a n4 a n 6 ...... a n 1a n 2 a n a n 3 a n 1a n 4 a n a n 5
b1 = b2 =
s n 1 a n 1 a n 3 a n 5 a n 7 .... an an

s n2 b1 b2 b3
c1 =
b1a n 3 a n 1b2
b1
s n 3 c1

. .
. The Routh-Hurwitz criterion states that the number of roots of q(s)
.
.
s .
with positive real parts is equal to the number of changes in sign
of the first column of the Routh array
s0

2007131 8
Case1:No element in the first column is zero
Second-order system Third-order system
q ( s ) = a2 s 2 + a1s + a0 = 0 q ( s ) = a3 s 3 + a2 s 2 + a1s + a0 = 0

s2 a2 a0 s3 a3 a1
s1 a1 0 s2 a2 a0
a1a0 a2 0 1 a2 a1 a3a0
s0 b1 = = a0 bs1 = 0
a1 a2
s0 a0

The system is stable if all the coefficients a3 ~ a0 > 0

set
have the same sign.
The system is stable if a a 2 1 > a3a0

2007131 9
Case 2: Zeros in the first column while some other elements of the row containing a
zero in the first column are nonzero.
q( s ) = s 5 + 2 s 4 + 2 s 3 + 4s 2 + 11s + 10 = 0
>0 4 12 12
s5 1 2 11 c1 =

s4 2 4 10
6c1 10
s3 0 6 0 d1 6
c1
s2 c1 10 0
s1 d1 0 0
s0 10 0 0

F ( s) s= =
1
1
x5
+ 2 x1 + 2 x1 + 4 x1 + 11 x1 + 10
4 3 2 1
x

= 1
x5
(1 + 2 x1 + 2 x 2 + 4 x 3 + 11x 4 + 10 x 5 )
1
x5
F ( x)

2007131 10
Case 3: Zeros in the first column, and the other element of the row containing the
zero are also zero.

This condition occurs when the polynomial contains singularities that are symmetrically
located about the origin of the s-plane.

S-plane S-plane S-plane

2007131 11
q( s) = s 3 + 2s 2 + 4s + 8 = 0

s3 1 4
2 A( s ) = 2 s 2 + 8 = 0
s 2 8
= s2 + 4 = 0
s1 0 0 s = j2
s0
( 2)
(1)
dA( s )
s+2 = 2s
ds
s 2 + 4 s 3 + 2s 2 + 4s + 8
s3 1 4
s3 + 4s
2s 2
+8 s2 2 8
2s 2 +8 s1 2 0

q ( s ) = ( s + 2)( s + j 2)( s j 2) = 0 s0 8
The system has not any pole on the RHP,
but system is marginally stable.
2007131 12
 (1)
Case 4: Repeated roots of the characteristic equation A( s ) = s 4 + 2 s 2 + 1 = ( s 2 + 1) 2 = 0
on the imaginary axis. s = j , j , j , j

(2)
q( s) = s 5 + s 4 + 2s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 1 = 0
s +1

5
A( s ) = s 4 + 2 s 2 + 1 = ( s 2 + 1) 2 = 0 s 4 + 2s 2 + 1 s5 + s 4 + 2s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 1
s 1 2 1
4
s = j , j , j , j s5 + 2s 3 +s
s 1 2 1
3
s4 + 2s 2 +1
s 0 0 0
2
s4 + 2s 2 +1
s
.
dA( s )
s 5
1 2 1 = 4s 3 + 4s
4
ds The system has not any root on the RHP,
s 1 2 1 but the system is unstable.
s3 4 4 0 Repeated roots on the imaginary axis

s2 1 1 0
s1 0 0 0
. The resulted of Routh array is Falsely
indicated.
2007131 13
q( s) = s 3 + 2s 2 + 4s + k = 0 q ( s ) = s 3 + 3ks 2 + (k + 2) s + 4 = 0
s3 1 4
Ans: k>0.528, system is stable.
2
s 2 k
8k
s1 0
2
s0 k
(1) k > 8
(2) k > 0

Ans: k>8, system is stable.

2007131 14
2007131 15
q ( s ) = s 4 + 8s 3 + 17 s 2 + (k + 10) s + ka = 0

s4 1 17 ka
s3 8 (k + 10) 0
s 2 b1 ka
s1 c1
s 0 ka

126 k b (k + 10) 8ka

b1 = , and c1 = 1
8 b1
k < 126
ka > 0
(k + 10)(126 k ) 64ka > 0

2007131 16
2007131 17
 Exercises and Problems
E6.1,E6.2,E6.6,E6.17
P6.6,P6.12,P6.15,P6.18
AP6.4,DP6.1

2007131 18
CHAPTER 7
The Root Locus Method
The Root Locus Concept
The Root Locus Procedure
The Root contour
The Root Locus Using Matlab

2007131 1
 Y ( s ) p( s)
T ( s) = =
R ( s ) q( s )
Roots to find out the solution of the characteristic R (s ) + E (s ) C(s)
G (s )
equation.

q( s ) = 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) = 0 H (s )

q( s ) = 1 + KG1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = 0
1
G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = 1
K

q( s ) = s 3 + 2 s 2 + Ks + 4 K = 0
1
| G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) |= = s 3 + 2 s 2 + K ( s + 4) = 0
|K |
180 2k , for K > 0 s+4
= 1+ K 2 =0
G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = 00 2k , for K < 0 s ( s + 2)
where k = 0,1,2... s+4

G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = 2
s ( s + 2)

2007131 2
2007131 3
 1
q( s ) = 1 + G ( s ) H ( s ) = 1 + K =0
s ( s + 2)
1
| G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) |s = s1 = = s1
s( s + 2) s = s1
G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) |s = s1

2007131 4
2007131 5
2007131 6
 ; The Root Locus Procedure
Step Related equation or Rule
1. Write the characteristic equation so that F ( s ) = 1 + KG1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) = 0
the parameter of interest K appears as a
multiplier.
m
2. Factor G1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) in terms of n poles and (s + z j )
j =1
m zeros. G1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) = n
( s + pi )
i =1

3. Locate the open-loop poles and zeros of  : poles, {: zeros,

F (s ) in the s-plane with selected symbols. or : roots of characteristic equation
4. Locate the segments of the real axis that a). Locus begins at a pole and ends at zero.
are root locus. b). Locus lies to left of an odd number of
poles and zeros ( K 0 ).
5. The number of branch on the root loci, . = n, when n m;
n: number of finite poles, m: number of finite zeros
6. The root loci are symmetrical with respect
to the horizontal real axis.
7. Intersect of the asymptotes (Centroid)
=
pi z j or = Re( pi ) Re( z j )
nm nm
8. Angles of asymptotes of the root loci. ( 2k + 1)
, K 0
k = n m ; k = 0,1,2,L, n m 1
2k
, K < 0
nm
2007131 7
 9. Breakaway points (saddle points) on the Roots of d G ( s ) H ( s ) = 0 or d K = 0
1 1
root loci. ds ds
10. Intersection of root loci with imaginary Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
axis.
11. Angles of departure and angles of arrival ( 2k + 1) K 0
G1 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) = , k = 0,1,2,L
of the root loci. 2 k K < 0
at s = pi or s = z j .
12. Calculation of K at a specific root si . n
(s + p ) i
K= i =1
m
(s + z j )
j =1
s = si

2007131 8
2007131 9
 Step 4: The root locus on the real axis always lies in a section of the
real axis to the left of an odd number of poles and zeros.

Odd segments

Step 5: Determine the number of separate loci,SL.The number

of separate loci is equal to the number of poles

2007131 10
Step 6: The root loci must be symmetrical with respect to the horizontal real
axis.
Step 7: The linear asymptotes are centered at a point on the real axis given
by = poles zeros The angle of the asymptotes with respect to the
nm
A

( 2q + 1) ( 2q + 1)
real axis is A = 1800 n = 4, m = 1, 1 = 1800 , q = 0,1,2, n m 1
nm 4 1

2007131 11
Step 8:The actual point at which the root locus crosses the imaginary axis is
readily evaluated by utilizing the Routh-Hurwitz criterion.
dK
Step 9: Determine the breakaway point =0
ds
the tangents to the loci at the breakaway point are equally over 3600

1
1 + KG1 ( s ) = 1 + K =0
( s + 2)( s + 4)

2007131 12
K = ( s + 2)( s + 4)
dK
= ( 2 s + 6) = 0, s = 3
ds

dK
ds
2
s

-2

2007131 13
Step 10:Determine the angle of departure of the locus from a pole and the
angle of arrival of the locus at a zero,using the phase angle criterion.

2007131 14
 ; Examples

1
F ( s) = 1 + K
1 F ( s) = 1 + K
s ( s + 2) s( s + 2)( s + 3)

2 6

1.5
4

2
0.5
Imag A xis

Imag Axis
0 0

-0.5
-2

-1

-4
-1.5

-2 -6
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real A xis Real Axis

Effects adding poles to G1(s)H1(s)

2007131 15
 1
F ( s) = 1 + K s+4
s( s + 2)( s + 3)( s + 4) F ( s) = 1 + K
s( s + 2)( s + 3)
4 5

3 4

3
2
2
1
1
Imag Axis

Imag A xis
0 0

-1 -1

-2
-2
-3
-3
-4

-4 -5
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis Real A xis

Effects adding poles to G1(s)H1(s) Effects adding zeros to G1(s)H1(s)

2007131 16
 1 1
F ( s) = 1 + K F ( s) = 1 + K
s 4 + 12 s 3 + 64 s 2 + 32 s s( s + 3)( s 2 + 2 s + 2)
6 4

3
4

2
1

Imag A xis
Imag A xis

0 0

-1
-2

-2

-4
-3

-6 -4
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Real A xis Real A xis

Effects adding poles to G1(s)H1(s) -<K<

 Lab #3
Written a M-file to plot the root loci step by step. (rlocfind)

2007131 17
q( s ) = s 3 + s 2 + s + = 0 s
1+ =0
s + s +
3 2

s3 + s2 + = 0

1+ =0
s ( s + 1)
2

2007131 18
R (s ) Y (s )
k1
s(s + 2)

k2s

Specifications:
1. Steady-state error for a ramp input 35%
2. Damping ratio of dominant roots 0.707 sec.
3. Settling time to within 2 % of the final value 3 sec.

1 + GH ( s ) = s 2 + 2 s + s + = 0
= k2k1 , = k1

2007131 19
2007131 20
2007131 21
 s +1
1 + G1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) = 1 + K =0
s (s + a)
2

Root Locus
Root Locus Root Locus
10
8 8

6 6
6

4 4
4

2
2
2
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis
0
0
0
-2

-2
-4 -2

-6 -4
-4

-8
-6
-6
-10
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Real Axis -8
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -8

a = 10
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Real Axis
Real Axis

a=9 a =8

Root Locus
8 Root Locus Root Locus
5 0.4

6
4
0.3

3
4
0.2

2
2
0.1
Imaginary Axis

Imaginary Axis
Imaginary Axis

0
0 0

-2 -1
-0.1

-2
-4
-0.2

-3

-6
-0.3
-4

-8 -0.4
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 -5
-2 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 -1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2
Real Axis Real Axis

a=7
Real Axis

a=2 a =1
2007131 22
2007131 23
2007131 24
2007131 25
2007131 26
CHAPTER 8
Frequency Response Methods
Introduction
Frequency Response Plots
Polar Plot
Bode Plot
Log Magnitude and Phase Plot
Frequency Response Measurements
Performance Specifications in The Frequency Domain
2007131 1
 ;Introduction
r(t) c(t)
T(s)
R(s) C(s)

Output: C ( s ) = T ( s ) R ( s )

If r (t ) = A sin( t ) c(t ) = C sin( t + )

For sinusoidal steady-state analysis, we replace s by j, and

output c(t) becomes

C ( j ) = T ( j ) R ( j ) = C ( j ) C ( j ) = C ( j ) e jC ( j )

For a closed-loop system

G ( j )
T ( j ) = T ( s ) s = j =
1 + G ( j ) H ( j )
= T ( j ) T ( j )
or R( w) + jX ( w)
2007131 2
 where
G ( j )
T ( j ) =
1 + G ( j ) H ( j )

T ( j ) = G ( j ) 1 + G ( j ) H ( j )

and
R ( ) = Re[T ( j )] T ( j ) = Re[T ( j )] + j Im[C ( j )]
X ( ) = Im[T ( j )] R ( ) + jX ( )
T ( j ) = R 2 ( ) + X 2 ( )
X ( )
T ( j ) = tan 1
R ( )

2007131 3
 The Laplace transform pair
C ( s ) = L{c(t )} = 0 c(t )e st dt

1 + j
c(t ) = L1{C ( s )} = C ( s ) e st
ds
2j j

The Fourier transform pair

C ( j ) = F {c(t )} = c(t )e jt dt

and
1
c(t ) = F 1{C ( j )} =
j
C ( j ) e jt
d
2
The Fourier transform exists for f(t) when

c(t ) dt <

2007131 4
 ;Frequency Response Plots
Polar plot
A plot of the magnitude versus phase in the polar coordinates as is
varied from 0 .
Find T(j); | T(j)|, T(j), R (j) and X(j).
To Determine the behavior of the magnitude and phase of T(j) at
0 and .
lim T ( j ) ; lim T ( j )
0 0

lim T ( j ) ; lim T ( j )

To Determine the the intersection

R ( ) = = 0 X ( ) = =
i i

X ( ) = = 0 R ( ) = =
r r

To Determine the the asymptotic line

lim T ( j ) = lim[R ( ) + jX ( )] = a + jb
0 0

2007131 5
 Case 1: Integral and derivative factor s 1

0
1
A). T ( j ) = B ). T ( j ) = j
j
Case 2: First-order factor T ( s ) = (1 + s ) 1

0 0
1 1
= i
1
A). T ( j ) = B ). T ( j ) = 1 + j
1 + j
2007131 6
 Case 3: Quadratic factor

n2
A). T ( s ) = 2
s + 2 n s + n2
0
1
=
1 1 n
s 2
+ 2 s +1
n 2
n
1
T ( j ) =
1 + 2 (j ) + (j ) : small
2
n n

1
=
1 ( ) + j 2 ( )
2
n n

s 2 + 2 n s + n2
B ). T ( s ) = 0
n2
1

2007131 7
 Bode plot
The Bode plot of the function T(j) is composed of two plots:
The amplitude of T(j) in decibels (dB) versus or log10 .
The phase of T(j) in degree versus or log10 .

T ( j ) = T ( j ) e jT ( j )
Logarithmic gain = 20 log10 T ( j )
100

50

0
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

-50

-100

-50

-100

-150

-200

-250

-300
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
2007131 8
 Constant factor: K

K dB = 20 log K

and

0 for K > 0
K =
180 for K < 0
15

14.5

14
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

13.5

13

12.5

200

100

-100
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec)

2007131 9
 T ( j ) dB = 20 log ( j ) p = 20 p log( )

d
[ 20 p log( )] = 20 p dB / decade
d (log )

and 200

100

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

( j ) p = p 90 0

-100

-200

200

100

-100

-200

-300
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec)

2007131 10
 Simple zero: 1 + s

T ( j ) dB = 20 log T ( j ) = 20 log 1 + ( ) 2
<< 1 T ( j ) dB 20 log(1) = 0
>> 1 T ( j ) dB 20 log ( ) 2 = 20 log( )
and 25

T ( j ) = tan ( )
1 20

15

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

10

1 T ( j ) dB = 20 log 2 3
-5

= 100

T ( j ) = tan (1) = 45
1
80

60

40

20

0
0 1 2
10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec)

2007131 11
 1
Simple pole:
1 + s
T ( j ) dB = 20 log T ( j ) = 20 log 1
1+ ( ) 2

<< 1 T ( j ) dB 20 log(1) = 0
>> 1 T ( j ) dB 20 log( )

and 5

T ( j ) = tan ( )
1
-5

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

-10

-15

1 T ( j ) dB = 20 log 2 3 -20

= 0

T ( j ) = tan (1) = 45
1
-20

-40

-60

-80

-100
0 1 2
10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec)

2007131 12
 Quadratic poles: 2
n

s 2 + 2 n s + n2

T ( j ) dB = 20 log 1
[1( n )] [2 ( ) ]
2 2+
n
2

<< 1 T ( j ) dB 20 log(1) = 0
n

>> 1 T ( j ) dB 20 log( ) = 40 log( )
2

n n n

and
2 ( )
T ( j ) = tan 1
2
n

1 ( ) n

<< 1 T ( j ) = 0
n

>> 1 T ( j ) = 180
n
2007131 13
 = n T ( j ) dB = 20 log(2 )
= n T ( j ) = 90

20

= 0.1, 0.2
0

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

-20

-40

-50

-100

-150

-200
0 1 2
10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Log Magnitude and Phase Plot

2007131 14
 ;Performance Specifications in The Frequency Domain
Resonant peak: Mp
The resonant peak is the maximum value of |T(j)|.
Resonant frequency: r
The resonant frequency is the frequency at which the peak resonant occur.
Bandwidth: BW (B)
The bandwidth is the frequency at which T(j) drops to 70.7% of, or 3 dB
down from, its zero-frequency value.
Cutoff rate
The cutoff rate is the slop of log-magnitude curve near the cutoff frequency.

M p
1
0.707

r B

2007131 15
2007131 16
2007131 17
2007131 18
2007131 19
2007131 20
2007131 21
2007131 22
2007131 23
2007131 24
2007131 25
2007131 26
2007131 27
2007131 28
2007131 29
2007131 30
2007131 31
2007131 32
2007131 33
2007131 34
2007131 35
2007131 36
2007131 37
2007131 38
2007131 39
2007131 40
2007131 41
2007131 42
2007131 43
2007131 44
 CHAPTER 9
Stability in the Frequency Domain
Introduction
Mapping Contours in the s-Plane
The Nyquist Criterion
Relative Stability and the Nyquist Criterion
Time-Domain performance Criteria Specified in
the Frequency Domain

2007131 1
 Introduction

Time-domain
Routh-Hurwitz criterion
Root-Locus
by locating the roots of characteristic equation in the s-plane.

Frequency domain
Nyquist stability criterion
based on the theorem of complex variables due to Cauchy,
commonly known as principle of argument.
H. Nyquist 1932

2007131 2
 F ( s) = 2s + 1

Enclose

A : F ( s ) |s =1+ j = 2 s + 1 = 2 + 2 j + 1 = 3 + 2 j Clockwise and eyes right

B : F ( s ) |s =1 j = 2 s + 1 = 3 2 j

2007131 3
 s
F (s) =
s+2

s F

Cauchys Theorem:If a contour in the s-plane encircles Z zeros and P poles of

s
F(s) and does not pass through any poles or zeros of F(s) and the traversal is in the
clockwise direction along the contour, the corresponding contour F in the F(s)-plane
encircles the origin of the F(s)-plane N=Z-P time in the clockwise direction
2007131 4
 s
F ( s) =
s + 0.5

s F

2007131 5
 | s + z1 || s + z 2 |
F ( s ) =| F ( s ) | F ( s ) = (s + z1 + s + z 2 s + p1 s + p2 )
| s + p1 || s + p2 |
=| F ( s ) | ( z1 + z2 p1 p2 ) =| F ( s ) | F
F = z p

2007131 6
 P = 1, Z = 3, N = Z P = 3 1 = 2

2007131 7
 Nyquist contour (Nyquist path)
Since the Nyquist contour must not pass through any poles and zeros
of F(s), the small semicircles shown along the j-axis are used to
indicate that the path should go around these poles and zeros if they
fall on the j-axis.
j
j
d

c
j 1
b

a
0
j e

i

h
j1
g

f
j
2007131 8
 j Path ab:
s=j ; 0<<1
j
d Path bc:
s=j1+ej; 0 and -90 <<90
c
j1 Path cd:
b s=j ; 1<<
Path def:
a
s=Rej; R and 90 <<-90
0
j e

i Path fg:
s=j ; -<<-1
h
j1 Path gh:
g s=-j1+ej; 0 and -90 <<90
Path hi:
f
j s=j ; -1< <0
Path ija:
s=ej; 0 and -90 <<90

2007131 9
 K
GH ( s ) =
s (s + 1)

j 3. : ~ - , s = Re j , R , : 90 ~ 90
1. : 0 0 , : 90 ~ 90, s = e
+
K K
GH ( s ) |s = Re j = lim = 2 e j 2 0e j 2 ,180 ~ +180
K
R Re ( Re + 1)
j j
R
G ( s ) = lim
= e j ,900 ~ 900
0 e (e
j j
+ 1)

2. : 0 + , s = j 4. : 0
K K The portion of the polar plot from = to = 0
GH ( s ) = = , , | GH ( j ) | 0, 180 0
j ( j + 1) + j
2 is symmetrical to the polar plot from = 0 + to = +

2007131 10
 100
G ( s) =
( s + 1)( s + 1)
10

2007131 11
 Nyquist criterion and the GH(s) plot
Since the open-loop transfer function GH(s) is generally known, it
would be simpler to construct the GH(s) plot that corresponds to the
Nyquist path, and the same stability conditions of the closed-loop
system can be obtained by observing the number of encirclements of
the (-1,j0) point in the GH(s)-plane.
F ( s ) = 1 + GH ( s ) GH ( s ) = 1 F ( s )

j jv
GH(s)
+ j
s
s-plane ( 1, j 0)
u

2007131 12
 Stability requirements
For the closed-loop system to be stable, there should be no zeros
of F(s) in right half s-plane; i.e.,
Z=0
this condition is met if
N=ZP=0 P= P
The special case of P=0, means open-loop stable system, the
closed-loop system is stable if
N=ZP=0
N 0 = Z 0 P0
N ( s)
Open loop : GH ( s) = P1 = P0 poles of L( s ) = F ( s )
D( s)
N ( s) D( s) + N ( s) N 1 = Z 1 P1
closed loop : F ( s ) = 1 + GH ( s ) = 1 + =
D( s) D( s) Z 1 = 0 stable for closed - loop
N 1 = 0 P1 = P1

2007131 13
 K
GH ( s ) =
s ( 1s + 1)( 2 s + 1)
1. : 0 0 + , s = e j , 0, : 90 ~ 90
K
GH ( s ) = lim j j
= e j , | GH ( S ) |= , : 90 ~ 90
0 e ( e + 1)( 2e + 1)
j
1

2. : 0 + , s = j ,
K
GH ( s ) =
j ( j 1 + 1)( j 2 + 1)
Re =
K ( 1 + 2 ) jK ( 1 )(1 2 1 2 )
= = Re + J Im
1 + 2 ( 12 + 22 ) + 4 12 22

1
Let Im=0 =
1 2

The magnitude of the real part,Re of the GH(jw) at this frequency is

K ( 1 + 2 ) 1
Re = , =
1 + ( 1 + 2 ) + 1 2
2 2 2 4 2 2
1 2
- K 1 2 3. : + -, s = re j , r , : 90 ~ 90
=
1 + 2 GH ( s ) = lim j
K
0e j 3
r re ( r e j
1
j
+ 1)(r 2 e + 1)

2007131 14
 K
GH ( s ) =
s ( s + 1)( s + 1)
K =1 K =3
K =2
stabl unstab

2007131 15
System with a pole in the right-hand s-plane

K1
GH ( s ) = , K2 = 0 1. = 0 0 +
s ( s 1)

2007131 16
1.w : 0 0 + , s = e j , : 90 ~ 90
K
GH ( s ) = lim
= e j = 180
0 e (e
j j
1)

2.w : 0 + , s = jw
K K
GH ( jw) = = 900 tan 1 ( w)
jw( jw 1) 1
( w4 + w )
2 2

K
= 1
90 + tan 1 ( w)
( w4 + w )
2 2

3.w : , s = re j , : 90 ~ 90

2007131 17
closed loop
Y ( s) K1
= 2 , F ( s ) = s 2 + K1 K 2 s s + K 1 = 0
R( s ) s + ( K1 K 2 1) s + K1
K1 (1 + K 2 s)
F (s) = 1 + =0
s ( s 1)

2007131 18
 System with a zero in the right-hand s-plane N0 = 1
N 1 = 1

K ( s 2)
GH ( s ) =
( s + 1) 2

Z 0 = 1, N 0 = 1 P0 = 0
P1 = P0 = 1, N 1 = 1, Z 1 = 2
Closed-loop system is unstable

2007131 19
 Relative Stability and the Nyquist Criterion
The Nyquist stability criterion is defined in term of (-1,j0) points on the
polar plot or the 0 dB, -180 point on the Bode diagram or Log-magnitude-
phase diagram. Clearly, the proximity of L(j) locus to this stability point is
a measure of the relative stability of the system.

Definition
Phase Crossover
A phase crossover on the L(j) plot
is a point at which the plot intersects
the negative real axis. p
Phase Crossover Frequency: p
The phase crossover frequency is the
2
frequency at the phase crossover, or
where
1
L(jp)= 180

2007131 20
 Gain Crossover
The gain crossover is a point on L(j) plot at which the
magnitude of L(j) is equal to 1.
Gain Crossover Frequency: g
The gain crossover frequency is the frequency of L(j) at the
gain crossover, or where
|L(jg)|=1

( 1, j 0)

2007131 21
 Gain Margin: (GM)
The gain margin is the increase in the system gain when phase = - 180
that will result a marginally stable system with intersection of (-1,j0)
point on the Nyquist plot.
Gain margin is the amount of gain in decibels (dB) that can be added to
the loop before the closed-loop system become unstable.

GM = 20 log{1 L( j p ) }
= 20 log{ L( j p ) }
1 = p
or 20 log{ }
L( j p ) (1, j0)
L ( j p )

2007131 22
 Bode plot
Gm=15.563 dB (at 2.2361 rad/sec), Pm=43.21 deg. (at 0.77934 rad/sec)
50

0
GM
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

-50

-100

-150

-50

-100

-150
PM
-200

-250

-300
10
-2
10
-1
= g 10 0
= p 1
10
2
10

Frequency (rad/sec)

2007131 23
 K
GH ( s ) =
s ( 1s + 1)( 2 s + 1)

2007131 24
 60

40

20
PM
0
dB GM = g
-20
= p
-40

-60

-80

-100

-120
-280 -260 -240 -220 -200 -180 -160 -140 -120 -100 -80
degree

Log-magnitude-phase curve

2007131 25
 = 0.01PM

2007131 26
Y ( jw) G ( jw)
= T ( jw) = = M ( w)e j ( w)
R ( jw) 1 + GH ( jw)
G ( jw) = u + jv
1
G ( jw) u + jv u 2 + v2 2
M= = =
1 + G ( jw) 1 + u + jv (1 + u ) 2 + v 2
(1 M 2 )u 2 + (1 M 2 )v 2 2 M 2u = M 2
2
2 M 2u M 2 M 2 M 2
u +v
2 2
+ = +
1 M 2 1 M 2 1 M 2 1 M 2
2
M2
2
M
u + v2 =
2 2
1 M 1 M

v v
= T ( jw) = (u + jv) /(1 + u + jv) = tan 1 tan 1
u 1+ u
let N = tan
v
u2 + v2 + u =0
N
1 2 1 1
(u + 0.5) 2 + (v ) = 1 + 2
2N 4 N

2007131 27
2007131 28
2007131 29
 Time-Domain performance Criteria Specified in
the Frequency Domain
Nichols Charts
40

30

20 Mp=8dB
Open-Loop Gain (dB)

10

0 = r
-10 = B
-3dB
-20

-30

k = k2 k = k1
-40
-280 -260 -240 -220 -200 -180 -160 -140 -120 -100 -80

Open-Loop Phase (deg)

2007131 30
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 31
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 32
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 33
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 34
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 35
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 36
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 37
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 38
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 39
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 40
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 41
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 42
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 43
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 44
Table 9.6 Transfer Function Plots for Typical Transfer Functions

2007131 45
Exrcises
E9.1,E9.7,E9.8,E9.15,E9.21,P9.2,P9.4,P9.17,P9.21,AP9.4,

2007131 46
CHAPTER 10
The Design of Feedback Control Systems
The Design of Feedback Control System
Introduction
Time Domain Design
P-Control PI-Control PD-Control PID-Control
Phase-Lead Compensation Design
Phase-Lag Compensation Design
Frequency Domain Design
Phase-Lead Design Using Bode Diagram
Phase-Lag Design Using Bode Diagram
Design for Deadbeat Response

2007131 1
 ;Introduction

Design procedure
Determine what the system should do and how to it (design specifications).
Determine the controller or compenstaor configuration relative to how it is
connected to the controlled plant.
Determine the parameter values of the controller or compensator to achieve
the design goals.
Simulation verifications and recheck the specifications.
Experimental results.
Design specification
Time domain: maximum overshoot, rise time, settling time and steady-state
accuracy
Frequency domain: gain margin, phase margin, resonant peak, bandwidth

2007131 2
 Controller (Compensator) configuration
Cascade (series) compensation
Feedback compensation
Series-feedback compensation
Forward compensation with series compensation (two degree of
freedom)
Feedforward compensation (two degree of freedom)
State-feedback compensation

r (t ) e(t ) u (t ) y (t ) r (t ) e(t ) u (t ) y (t )
Gc (s ) G p (s ) G p (s )

Gc (s )
Figure 1 Cascade
Figure 2 Feedback

2007131 3
 r (t ) e(t ) u (t ) y (t )
Gc (s ) G p (s )

G H (s )

Figure 3 Series-feedback compensation

r (t ) e(t ) u (t ) y (t )
GcF (s ) Gc (s ) G p (s )

Figure 4Forward compensation with series compensation (two degree of freedom)

2007131 4
 GcF (s )

r (t ) u (t ) y (t )
Gc (s ) G p (s )

Figure 5 Feedforward compensation (two degree of freedom)

r (t ) u (t ) x (t ) y (t )
G p (s ) C

Figure 6 State-feedback compensation

2007131 5
 Time Domain Design
r (t ) e(t ) u (t ) y (t )
Gc ( s ) G p ( s)
PID Controller Design
d
u (t ) = K p e(t ) + K I e(t ) + K d e(t ) Kp
dt
U ( s ) = ( K p + K i 1s + K d s ) E ( s )
U (s)
U (s) E (s) 1
Gc ( s ) = = K p + K i 1s + K d s KI
s
E ( s)
db Kds

db
20 log K p

20db / decade

p Controller 900
db
I Controller
+ 20db / decade

+ 900 D Controller

2007131 6
 Closed-loop control with P-controller
PM , GM
P-control for first order system
R (s ) Y (s)
a
Kp
s+a
a>0
r (t )
Kp = 3 S plane
GH ( j ) plane
Kp = 2
Kp =1 Kp
t
a
Y (s) aK p
=
R ( s ) s + (aK p + a )
KP
y (t ) = (1 e a ( K P +1)t )
KP +1

2007131 7
P-control for second order system

R (s ) Y (s)
Y ( s) aK p a
= 2 Kp
R( s ) s + as + aK p s( s + a)
a
n = aK p , =
2 aK p a>0

K P1
K p1 > K p 2 > K p 3 GH ( j ) plane
K P2 S plane

K P3
1

GM

0+

2007131 8
PI-control for first order system
1
Gc ( s ) = K p + K I R (s ) b
Y (s)
s
Kp
Y (s)
=
a( K p s + K I ) s+a
R( s ) s 2 + (a + bK p ) s + bK I
a + bK p 1 a, b > 0
KI
n = bK I , = , A = 1, B = ( a + bK p ), C = bK I s
bK I
B 2 4 AC > 0, > 1
B 2 4 AC = 0, = 1
B 2 4 AC < 0, < 1
GH ( j ) plane S plane

GM

0+
2007131 9
PI-control for second order system
K I R (s ) Y (s)
K ps + KI b
b bK ( s + ) Kp
Y ( s) s
p
K s(s + a)
= , F (s) = 1 + P
R(s) b( K s + K I ) s ( s + a)
2
a, b > 0
1+ 2 p 1
s (s + a)
KI
s

KI
<< a
KP

GH ( j ) plane S plane

0+ a

KI

KP

2007131 10
PD-control for second order system
R (s ) b
Gc ( s ) = K p + K d s Kp
s(s + a)
Y (s) a( K d s + K p )
= 2 a, b > 0
R( s ) s + (a + bK d ) s + bK p
KDs
a + bK d
n = bK p , = , A = 1, B = (a + bK d ), C = bK I
bK p
B 2 4 AC > 0, > 1
B 2 4 AC = 0, = 1
B 2 4 AC < 0, < 1
GH ( j ) plane S plane

GM

0+
2007131 11
PID-control for second order system
R (s ) b Y (s)
1 Kp
Gc ( s ) = K p + K d s + K I s(s + a)
s
Y (s) b( K d s 2 + K p s + K I ) 1 a, b > 0
= KI
s
R( s ) s 3 + (a + bK d ) s 2 + bK p s + bK I
(a + bK d ) bK p > bK I
Kds
The Optimum Coefficients of T(s) Based on the ITAE
Criterion for a step Input (P.252 Table 5.6)

s 3 + 1.75n s 2 + 2.15n s + n3
GH ( j ) plane S plane

2007131 12
Phase-lead Compensation Network
V2 ( s ) R2 ( R1Cs + 1)
G(s) = =
V1 ( s) R1 + R2 {[ R1 R2 /( R1 + R2 )]Cs + 1}
R1 R2 R + R2
= C, = 1
R1 + R2 R2
(1 + s)
G(s) = , > 1
(1 + s )
1 1 1
m = zp = z= , p = ,z < p


= tan 1 , when = m ,
1 + ( )) 2
( / (1 / ) 1
tan m = =
1+1 2
1 1 + sin m
sin m = , =
+1 1 sin m

2007131 13
 Phase-Lag Compensation Network

Vo R2 + ( 1 ) R2Cs + 1
G(s) = = Cs =
Vin R1 + R2 + ( 1 ) ( R1 + R2 )Cs + 1
Cs
1 + s 1 s+z ( R + R2 )
= = , = R2C , = 1
1 + s s + p R2

1 1
z= ,p= , > 1, m = zp

2007131 14
Root Locus Method S plane
s+z
Gc ( s ) = ,z < p
Phase-Lead Compensation Design s + p

The s-plane root locus method is as follows: p z

1. List the system specifications and translate them into a desired root
location for the dominant roots.
2. Sketch the uncompensated root locus, and determine whether the
desired root locations can be realized with an uncompensated system.
3. If a compensator is necessary, place the zero of the phase-lead network
directly below the desired root location (or to the left of the first two
real poles).
4. Determine the pole location so that the total angle at the desired root
location is 1800
5. Evaluate the total system gain at the desired root location and then
calculate the error constant.
6. Repeat the steps if the error constant is not satisfactory.

2007131 15
 s+z R (s ) Y (s)
Gc ( s ) = K 2
s+ p Gc (s)
s2
The specification for the system are
Settling time(2% criterion) Ts 4 sec onds
a>0
Percent overshoot for a step input, 35%
S plane
Sol:

r1
P.O = e 1 0.35 0.32, = cos 1 = 710
2

4
Ts = 4 n 1 1
n
r2
Select the desired roots location are

r1r2 = 1 j 2 = 63.40 = 0.45 r1

= 2(1800 tan 1 2) + 900 = 2(1160 ) + 900 = 142

180 = p p = 380 p
p
1

2007131 16
 R + jQ
Q Q
= tan p , M = , p = z+m
M tan p
2 A
M= = 2.6 p = 1 + 2.6 = 3.6
0.7812 B C
p

2 K ( s + 1) z
GcG p ( s ) = , F ( s ) = 1 + KG1 H1 ( s ) = 0 p M
s 2 ( s + 3.6)
1 A * A * B 2.232 * 3.25
K= = = = 4.1
G1 H1 ( s ) s = r 2C 2*2
1

s +1
Gc ( s ) = 4.1
s + 3.6

2007131 17
Phase-Lag Compensation Design

The steps necessary for the design of a phase-lag network on the s-plane are as
follows:
1. Obtain the root locus of the uncompensated system.
2. Determine the transient performance specifications for the system and locate
suitable dominant root location on the uncompensated root locus that will
satisfy the specifications.
3. Calculate the loop gain at the desired root location and thus the system error
constant,
4. Compare the uncompensated error constant with the desired error constant,
and calculate the necessary increase that must result from the pole-zero ratio
of the compensator,.
5. With the known ratio of the pole-zero combination of the compensator,
determine a suitable location of the pole and zero of the compensator so that
the compensated root locus will still pass through the desired root location.
Locate the pole and zero near the origin of the s-plane in comparison to n .

2007131 18
 R (s ) Y (s)
K
Sol: Gc (s)
s ( s + 10) 2
Spec. : = 0.707, K v = 20
K
K v = 20 = lim G ( s ) = , K = 2000
s 0 10 2
If K=2000, the system will be unstable

= 0.707 s1, 2 = 2.9 j 2.9

K
= 236

z 2000
= = = 8.5
p 236
select z = 0.1, p = 0.1 / 9 = 0.0111

2007131 19
 Frequency Domain Design
Phase-Lead Design Using Bode Diagram

1. Determined the system DC-gain such that the error constant can be satisfied.
2. Evaluate the uncompensated system phase margin when the error constant are satisfied
3. Allowing for a small of safety(5~10 degree), determine the necessary additional phase
sin m + 1
lead, m m = d n + 30 ~ 100 =
1 sin m
4. Evaluate from Eq.(10.11).
5. Evaluate 10 log and determined the frequency where the uncompensated magnitude
curve is equal to -10 log . Because the compensation network provides a gain of
10 log atm ,this frequency is the new 0-dB crossover frequency and simultaneously.
p
6. Calculate the pole p = m and z =
7. Draw the compensated frequency response, check the resulting phase margin, and repeat
the steps if necessary. Finally, for an acceptable design, raise the gain of the amplifier in
order to account for the attenuation( 1 )

2007131 20
 dB

m log
10 log

1800

2007131 21
 R (s ) Y (s)
Example 10.1 p s+z 2
K
z s+ p s ( s + 2)
p s+z 1 1
Gc ( s ) = K , z= , p=
z s+ p
Spec. : K v < 5%, 0.4

The system dc-gain>=20

Phase margin 0
20:45
GH ( jw) =
jw(0.5 jw + 1)
1 find the new crossover frequency from the bode diagram
0 dB = 20 log 20 20 log w 20 log[(0.5w) 2 + 1] 2
p
= 20log20 - 20logw - 10log[(0.5w) 2 + 1] m = 8.4 p = m = 14.4, z = = 4.8

wc 6.2 p
K * ( ) = 20 * 3 = 60
n = 180 90 tan 1 (0.5wc ) = 180 162 = 180 z
s + 4.8
m = d n + 30 ~ 100 = 450 180 + 30 = 300 Gc ( s ) = 60
s + 14.4
1 + sin m 1 + 0.5
= = =3
1 sin m 1 0.5
10 log = 4.77 dB

2007131 22
 Bode Diagram
40

20

0
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-40

-60

-80
-90
Phase (deg)

-135

-180
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
2007131 23
 Bode Diagram
80

60

40
Magnitude (dB)

20

-20

-40
-90
Phase (deg)

-135

-180
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

2007131 24
Phase-lag Design Using the Bode Diagram

1. Obtain the Bode diagram of the uncompensated system with the gain adjusted for
the desired error constant.
2. Determined the phase margin of the uncompensated system and , if it is
insufficient, proceed with the following steps.
3. Determined the frequency where the phase margin requirement would be
0
satisfied if the magnitude curve crossed the 0-dB line at this frequency. ( allow 5
phase lag from the phase-lag network when determining the new crossover
frequency.
4. Place the zero of the compensator one decade below the new crossover frequency
and thus ensure only 50 of additional phase lag at c' due to the lag network.
5. Measure the necessary attenuation at c' to ensure that the magnitude curve
crosses at this frequency.
6. Calculate by noting that the attenuation introduced by the phase-lag network is -
20log at .
7. Calculate the pole as p = 1 = z / ,and the design is completed.

2007131 25
 dB

20 log

p z
log
'
c

z
p= c'
z=
10

1800

2007131 26
Example: R (s ) Y (s)
p s+z 20
s ( s + 2)
z s+ p
1
1 + s
( + s) p s+z
Gc ( s ) = = =
1 + s ( 1 + s ) z s + p

1 1
p= ,z =

20 Kv
GH ( jw) = = , K v = 20 / 2
jw( jw + 2) jw( j 0.5w + 1)
20dB = 20 log = 10
c' 1.5
Spec. :phase margin=450 the uncompensated system z = z = = = 0.15, p = p = z = 0.015
has a phase margin of 200 10 10
1 s + 0.15
Allowing for the phase-lag compensator, we locate Gc ( s ) =
10 s + 0.015
the frequency where (c' ) = 1300 which is to be
our new crossover frequency c = 1.5

The attenuation necessary to cause to be the new

crossover frequency is equal to 20 dB.

2007131 27
 Bode Diagram
60

40

20

d
itu B
e(d )
0

a
Mgn
-20

-40

-60
-90
e
se(dg)

-135
h
Pa

-180
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Bode Diagram
100

50
d
itu B
e(d)

0
a
Mgn

-50

-100
-90

-120
h
Pas e
e(dg)

-150

-180
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

2007131 28
Design for Deadbeat Response
Deadbeat response: proceeds rapidly to the desired level and
holds at that level with minimal overshoot.
F ( s ) = s 3 + n s 2 + n2 s + n3
A deadbeat response has the following characteristics:
1. steady-state error=0 F ( s ) = s 4 + n s 3 + n2 s 2 + n3 s + n4
2. Fast response: minimum rise time and settling time
3. 0.1%<= percent overshoot<2%
4. Percent undershoot<2%

2007131 29
Spec. : settling time 1.2 sec
R (s ) Y (s)
z s+z 2
K (s + z) 2 s+z
K
s+ p s(s + 2)
Gc G p ( s ) =
s + p s ( s + 2) Pre-filter
z Gc G p ( s ) 2 Kz
T ( s) = = 3
s + z 1 + Gc G p ( s ) s + (2 + p ) s 2 + (2 p + 2k ) s + 2kz

4.04
sol : nTs = 4.04,n = = 3.37
1.2
T (s) = s3 + n s2 + n2s + n3
= 1.9, = 2.2
T (s) = s3 + 6.4s2 + 24.98s + 38.27 = s3 + (2 + p)s2 + (2 p + 2k)s + 2kz
p = 4.4, K = 8.09, z = 2.36
s + 2.36
Gc ( s ) = 8.09
s + 4.4

2007131 30
2007131 31
 1.4

1.2

0.8

Uncompensated system step response

0.6

0.4

system step response with deadbeat compensated

0.2

0
0 5 10 15

2007131 32
 PD controller

2007131 33
 PI controller

2007131 34
 PID controller

2007131 35
Exercises:
E10.1, E10.2, E10.4, E10.8, P10.9 P10.11,
P10.14, P10.21, P10.39 ,AP10.9 AP10.10, DP10.4
DP10.5

2007131 36