RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATIONTable of Contents PCN Radiographic Interpretation Welds (Level 2) SYLLABUS. . PCN1 Radiographic Interpretation - Overview . RL Principles of film radiography . ce RUL Radiographic quality vis ie ts eseeesseenteeennee RLL Capabilities and limitations of radiography RL Duties of a radiographic interpreter R12 X and Gamma Radiation ..... R2 Properties of x-rays and gamma rays. R21 Blectromaguetic specttuit ..sesece+ seeeeeeess R21 Inverse square law R22 Scatter . : R22 Measuring radiation R23 Gamma ray generation R23 X ray generation . = R26 Comparison of x and gamma rays for industrial radiography... we R28 Half value thickness RAI Radiographic Film sevens RB ‘The make up of radiographic film R31 Film types RBZ Film speed R32 Intensifying Screens. General .. R41 Lead screens Ral Fluorescent screens . o RAL Fluorometallic screens 2 R42 Comparison of intensifying screens -R42 Image Formation . Film Processing . Developer coe see Stopbath coe vee -R6.2 Fixer . R62 Final wash Wetting agent Drying the film ..... Radiographic Quality - . Density Radiographic contrast Definition : Inherent (film) unsharpness Geometric unsharpness (penumbra). Minimum ££. charts from BS 2910 coteeteeee = RTS Determination of focal spot size RIT Fog ....+ we RIT Artifacts RIB R79 SensitivityRadiographic Techniques .. RS SWSI: source outside, film inside . eee R81 SWSI: (panoramic) source inside, film outside vee teeeeesesees RBZ DWSI . votes RB2 DWDI viet iettetseeteteeee : vteteteeeeress RBS Sandwich technique viet teteteteeteeeees R84 Parallax technique R84 Determination of Exposure Rd Considerations for exposures vette ROL Exposure charts ....0..cccceecseseeeseereseeeeeseeee : beeeeseees ROB Guideline exposures eee nee R94 Characteristic Curves of Films ..Radiographic Interpretation Candidates will be required to attempt wo theory papers. ‘The composite grade must be at least 80%. + General radiographic theory - 40 multi-choice questions to be answered in a ‘maximum of I hour. The minimum pass mark is 70% (paper 1) ‘Sector specific theory of the application ofthe radiographic method in the testing ‘of welds - 20 multi-choice questions covering the testing of welds and a further 10 multi-choice questions covering weld production processes and associated defects. Maximum time allowed is 45 minutes and the minimum pass mark is 10% (paper 2). * Sector specific practical examination requiring the candidate to read, mark up and report on a total of 6 radiographs per group. Maximum time allowed for 6 radiographs is 1 hour 30 minutes (15 minutes per radiograph) Metal Groups Group A: Fervtic steels including clad steels; manual metal-are, MIG, TIG and ‘mechanised fusion welding, oxy-acetylene welding, Group B: Austenitic steel and high nickel alloys (excluding Monel): manval metal are, MIG, TIG and mechanised fusion welding. Titanium alloys: MIG and TIG welding, Group C: Aluminium and its alloys: MIG and TIG welding. Magnesium and its, alloys: TIG welding Group D: Copper and its alloys and Monel: manual metal arc, MIG and TIG welding, Written Examination "| | Paper 1 - General Theory a. Introduction Brief history of the development of industrial radiography. Philosophy of Non-Destructive Testing. Kadiographic capabilities in relation (0 other NDT >| methods b. Principles of Radiation Electromagnetic spectrum, significance of wavelength, sourees of x-rays and gamma rays, their characteristics and key propertics. Interaction between radiation and matter, absorption and scatter Types and sources of radiation, d electromagnetic spectrum. ©. Nature and Properties of fonising Radiation i. Alltypes bafy, x and gamma in dopth, Ji, Particles, wave properties, electromagnetic waves, electicaltheary of mater, fundamentals of radiation pics. iii Interaction between penetrating radiation and mate, absorption, sate, pair al production, photoelectric effect, other secondary emission, ionising effects iv. Glossary of terms and unit of measurement PCNI-1Pehl PCN RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRE’ 4. Sources of Radiation for Radiography Characteristics and selection of x and gamma, basic types of x-ray generator, tube selection and uses; isotope types, spectra, activity including self absorption, half lives ©. Principles of Radiographic Image Formation Reetlinear propagation of rays, factors affecting penumbra, inverse square Jaw. “Types and choice of film used in industrial radiography. Types and uses ofscreens. Geometry of shadow projection. Use of formulae. f. Radiographic Sensitometry i. Chanetrsic curves, gradient density curves, gamma for ypca ims, eect of development conditions on characteristic curve. Types and choice of film used in industrial atiography. 4, Effect of intensifying. screens (metallic, tuoromeaite, sat) on exposure conditions and image quali. Films and Processing i. Photographic emulsion chemist, development, fixation, washing and drying of Fim, Temperture cont ii, Automatic and manual processing and handing faults including adventitious images. 1h, Fundamental Aspects of Radiographic Quality i Sensitivity fi, Density and density measurement ii Contast speed and definition, iv. Factors affeting ji. Cause ffet and contol of scattered radiation Paper 2 - Sector Specific Theory Exposure factors Radiation quality; effect of changing kV; significance and effect of type of ‘gamma or xray Source. Effect of time, milliamperage and ffd on exposure Use of exposure charts. Identification, marking out and setting up Radiographic calculations. ‘Techniques Factors. influencing radiographic techniques including masking, blocking ‘media, screens, filters and film type. The use of IQI. Determination of focal spot size. Multi-film and panoramic techniques. Assessment of depth of known defects. Causes of diffraction effects and their minimisation. An awareness of the principles of real time systems, Radiographic Quality Assessment i, Judging quality of processed radiographs for subsequent interpretation. Calculation of IQI sensitivity, use of densitometers, determination of film density li, Radiographic appearance of discontinuities including adventitious images, their causes ad effets. ii, Viewing conditions. Iluminator requirements, optimum viewing conditions, ‘masking, reduction of external lighting, viewing angle. iv. Judging quality of processed radiographs, taking into account codes, standards, specifications, procedures and techniques. Calculation of IQ sensitivity. v. Methods of reporting Standards, Codes and Specifications BBS 2600, BS 2910, BS 3683 and BS 3971 PCNI-2FONE FOREST CNS Sector Specific Product Technology Theory a. Basic Welding Process i. Terminology for welds. Basic principles of fusion welding processes. |i, Schematic layout and general method of producing weld z MMA, TG, MIGMAG, Submerged are Electroslag. Basic pes of welds x Filer welds ‘Butt welds in plate, pipe, nozle and nodes b. Fabrication defects i. Types of defect associated with particular parent metalwelding process combinations including: Lack of fusion all ypes). Porosity; worm holes, gas pores. (Cracks; centre line HAZ Visual defets including weld mismatch et. Lack of penetration. Stag. An explanation of how the above defects are formed. c_ Inservice defects i, Fatigue cracks. ii, Suess corosion cracks, iil, Grinding racks. 4. Stress relieving | What stress relieving is and why itis caried out ©. Normalising Definition of normalising and the differences to annealing. chasse PCNI-3Pen fo Ynndigrp typical nee 130.300 nn sts wekimens op siprasimatel 40 0 thines, Cohat 60 (Co60) bac ve igh pneratingponerrers stort eaelengthend sad on marries 20m on thik radian 192 1102) iccommonl selon steel weldments p30 0 thick Therefore fri92 reduces fogr wveeng ‘uation compare tn Cob DIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION - OVERVIEW Principles of film radiography Film radiography’ is carried out using x-ray machines or artificial gamma sources (eadivisotopes) Xcrays or gamma rays passthrough the object tobe radiographed and ord an image on & radiograph film placed on the opposite side. ‘The quality and. amount of radiation reaching the film willbe largely determined by the objets thickness and density, eg. a crack ina weld wil increase the amount of radiation falling onthe film in that area due to reduction in thickness {iis the wavelength of the radiation which governs its penotrating power. This is governed by the kilovoltage (kV) setting when using x-rays and isotope type with gamma rays, The intensity of the radiation is governed by the milli-amperage (eA) setting, when using x-rays and by the activity of the isotope type with gamma rays. Activity is measured in curies oF gigahecquerels When the film is processed a negative is produced. The thin areas of an object will be darker than the thicker areas, therefore most weld defects will show up dark in rolation to the surrounding areas, exceptions are excess weld metal, spatter, copper inclusions and tungsten inclusions. Radiographic quality ‘An overall assessment of radiographic quality is made by the use of image quality indicators (QF), the commonly used type consists of seven thin wires decreasing in thickness. At least one 1QI is pre-placed transversely across the weld being examined, After exposure, some of the wires will be visible on the resultant radiograph - the more wires visible the better the sensitivity. The density of an image on a radiograph, ie. its degree of blackness, is also measured tocensure ities within a specified range for optimum quality. Capabilities and limitations of radiography A major advantage of radiographic testing is that a permanent record is produced ics the radiograph 'A. major limitation of radiography is that it will only detect defects which have significant depth ia relation to the axis of the x-ray beam. AS o rough guide, the minim through thickness depth of a defect cate of being detected i about 27% of tho wall thickness in the same exis xs the x-ray beam, ex radiography Will not sully deter plat laminations, lek of inferrun fusion or eacks perpendicular othe X-radiography vs gamma radiography X-radiography requires bulky and expensive machinery ia comparison with gamma radiography, but x-radiography generally produces better quality radiographs and is safer. X-ray machines can be switched on and off, unlike gamma sources ins RI-LDuties of a radiographic interpreter Ieis the duty of a eadiographic interpreter to ensue tat all radiograph interpretation ‘| and any associated actions are carried out in accordance with the relevant specification(s) for the work being carried out A radiographic interpreter must have access to the relevant specification(s) and must know where to find and interpret relevant information. Specific duties when interpreting radiographs of welds are typically as follows: 1. Mask off any unwanted light on the viewer 2. View radiographs under subdued background light. 3. Ensure, as far as is reasonably practicable, each radiograph is correctly identified to the weld it represents. so] 4, Ensure that the weld locations are identified, e.g. has the correct number tape been used 5. Anesth quay ofthe etiogrph a. Measre agp deni Chun ot So ss ene he 19 ae oe cones ype an of” Srl pesiond c. Aken alfwaphic conrast eg tas ganna teen sal when only xniogaphy pein | "stone at nertyng sn we pn Rn fn bc intent aso he | 6. Check the radiograph to determine if any obstruction between the source of | © Geibion mae its referes with erin end ts Identify the type of weld if possible - normally already known. 8. Check the parent material on the radiograph for are strikes, hard stamping, “| ‘gouges, minimum seam offset etc., when applicable. | 9 Check the weld on the radiograph for defects, stating type and region. 10, State action to be taken. e.g. accept the radiograph and weld, reshoot, repair, remove the entire weld, visual check. grind and investigate, MPI check a ultrasonic check: ue R12Peel se AND GAMMA RADIATION Radiation can be either electromagnetic energy, eg. heat, visible light, infra-red, llteaviofet, x-rays, gamma rays: or corpuscular energy (sub-atomic particle energy), eg. electrons, alpha, beta, neutrons. Jonising radiation causes the charging of particles, ie. the formation of ions, in a ‘medium such as air or radiographic film. Tonising eadiation may be electromagnetic or corpuscular energy. ‘Two types of radiation are mainly used in industrial radiography - x-rays and gamma rays. These rays, like all types of electromagnetic radiation, are emitted in minute ‘energy packers known as plofons or quanta; x-rays and gamma rays only differ in their source of production. a Properties of x-rays and gamma rays Both x-rays and gamma rays have the following properties: 1, They have no effet on the human senses 2, They have adverse effects on the body tissue and blood, 3. They penetrate matter 4, They move in straight lines, ‘They are part of the electromagnetic spectrum and therefore travel at the speed of light (3 x 10 ms, 6. ‘They obey the inverse square law. 7. They ionise gases, 8. They may be scatered. 9. ‘They effect photographic emulsion, 10. ‘They make certain materials fluoresce. 11, They may be refracted, diffracted and polarized, Electromagnetic spectrum Photon energy, eV gaara | | a Kl i | | brs ATT eee LH conte | trea age | I TTT CIEL HET TF EEL 107 106 105 10¢ 197 107 10! t 10 18 10° Wavelengik, microns foe ames R2-1Psa UNIT R2 Le7 WN OUP EUN Ot Inverse square law The Wwerse square law states ‘At twice the distance from the source, the same radiation covers four times the area but the intensity of radiation is four times less. At four times the distance from the source the same radiation covers sixtcen times the area but the intensity of the radiation is sixteen times less, et." erefore, with regard to exposure, the greater the f.dusf.d. the greater the expasure should be to attain a given density “The inverse square law can be shown mathematically in relation to intensity RD 1 incensity distance ‘The following formula, based on the inverse square law, can be wsed to determine new exposures when the f..dJs.F., changes exposure Scatter When radio directions by the ators which form the object. This scatter results in an overall Jogging of the film and reduces the contrast and sharpness of the radiographic image. The thicker the object being radiagraphed, the greater the amount of scatter. phic exposures are being mavle, some of the radiation seattors in all Furthermore. the ground, a wall, or another object close to the object being radiographed which is struck by the radiation, will partially reflect the rays in the form of ack seater: this is also table 0 fog the fl Scatter radiation is less penetrating than primary radiation from which itis derived, ie. they have a longer wavelenath, Because scatter rays are less penetrating, they can be intercepted by a sheet of lead; this is one reason for using lead screens on either side of the film in a film cassette during exposure, although heavier filters may also be needled if the scater is heavy. R2-2Penal AND GAMMA RADIATION Measuring radiation | Wavelength The wavelength of x-rays ond gamma rays is measured in nanometres (nm) Inm = 10° m, of angstroms (A), 1A =10" m. The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation governs its penetrating power: the shorter the wavelength the greater the penetrating power. zx] Short wavelength radiation has an adverse affect on final radiographic quality: it also ‘more dangerous (o living matter. Radiation exposure ‘The unit of radiation exposure which is related to the ionisation of air is the coulomb/kilogram. ‘The od unit, the roentgen, however is still widely used. | 1 rocnrgen = 2.58 x 10" coutombykitogram (Cig) Absorbed dose ‘The unit used for measuring how much radiation has been absorbed is the gray. 1 geay (Gy) = Ljoule/kitogram U/kg), devefure the gray relates to energy acting on so} matter The old unit for absorbed dose the is still encountered: 100 rads = 1 gray Biological effect ‘The unit used for measuring the biological effect of radiation is the sievert. 1 sievert (Sv) = 1 joulefkilogram U/kg). therefore the sievert also relates to energy acting: on ‘The old unlt for te biological effect of radiation the rem is still encountered: 100 roms = 1 sievert. Gamma ray generation ‘Gamma rays used in industrial radiography are emitted from artificial radioactive ‘sotopes, also known as radionuclides. A radioactive isotope is an unstable state of a chemical element which has « different nutnber Of neutrons 10 the normal state of the so! same element, AS with all isotopes, the different number of neutrons will result in a change in mas therefore the mass number or A number will be different to the mass number of the ‘other isotopes possible for the specific element. The azomlc number or Z number however will be the same for all the isotopes of the specific element, because this number refers to the number of protons in the nucleus which have not changed, yore munberofpronsin | If 4 material is radioactive it spontaneously emits corpuscular and electromagnetic ‘the mates of arom ‘oncrgy the gamms endintion is 8 by-product produced from the disintegration of the ‘honged the cement fe “" oi econ raulionetive isotope, The activity or strength of a radioactive isotope is expressed in curies (Ci) oF hecquerels (Bq). ‘The highor the activity value, the greater the intensity of gamm vo) says produced. | becquerel = I disimegration per second: 3.7 x 10" becquorels = | eure; therefore: 3.7 x 10" disintegrations per sceond = 1 curie | ‘et ue R2-3Peon UNIT R2¢ X AND GAMMA RADIATION fino For industrial radiography, it is usually more practical (0 talk in terms of gigabocquerels (GBq): Giga = 10° 1 gigabecquerel = 10" becquerels 37 gigabecquerels = 1 curie ‘The activity of a radioactive isotope does not relate to the penetrating power of the ‘gamma rays produced: penetrating power depends on the wavelength of the gamma ays produced and this depends on the specific radioactive clement involved. For ‘example, cobalt 60 (Co60) has @ very high penetrating power and may be used on steel components up to 200mm thick, because the gamma radiation emitted has a very short wavelength, ‘There are three main radioactive isotopes used for industrial radiography: iridium 192 (ir192), cobalt 60 (Co60) and Yterbium 169 (Yb169) Radiowetive isotopes are used taking into consideration theie halftives; the half-life of ‘a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for the activity to drap t0 one-half of its initial sivength, rn R2-4‘synsad anydosSorpos ysaq ayy aar pum yoryas poy st wununydy xe “(oujaue J 1 sypiz/ey) eau J 10.noy sad ung sad suaSjus04 us uasssuug :s0}9nf ayo ainsodxy x R2-5 3 wu oT - 62 uur 21 01 dQ ost reno ¢z00'0 shop 22 OLT win FI z wus St - wut zt ody o0z 60£'0 £500 sev sep 1¢ 691 waiqon, a - =“ wu Cp - 02 Wu 96 - 9 00S 190 - 620 8r'0 skep pe 261 wnipuy s wus Gz - Gp wun pQT - Sz ose. 990 cco sueak og LET wniseeD ro = wun gz. - Gy uuu gor - sz og. Let ero io swad 12 ET wngsaeD B I = uw gst - gz wuigoz-os | oooz-ooor | eet-ert ze sivas 92°¢ 09 12405 g wu aaysuy | wus jaays uaearnba ous g sey WH = J29]8 UY 9} ANU) AAW 59H 1 5 aduesunuindg | uy a8uvs ajqissog | Kes-x-voaddy | ces-euureg, anda SHUT somes zZ SUNOS AVU-VWIAVD JO SOLLSIYALOVAVHO, = z 7 z = = = z 7 = = BF so & §Feo Weil Theanode it sometines fered fo athe sntbeathote LS TAD EVO) sg X-ray generation X-rays used in industrial radiography are produced from electrical machines usually referred to as t-ray ses: the x-rays themselves being produced from within an ¥-ra) ube or inser. An xcray tube consists of an evacuated glass bulb, enclosing an anode (the positive elecirodel, and a cathode (the negative electrode). The cathode contains a filament ‘within a curved reflector oF focusing cup. ‘When the filament is heated to a white hot state by a current flow of a few amperes, electrons are emitted and are attracted towards the anode in a concentrated beam formed by the focusing cup. ‘The beam sirikes a target sc into the anode which results inthe relcase of encray; this energy consists of approximately 97 10.99% heat and | 10 39% x-rays for conventional x-ray tubes up 1 300 KV. ray tube insert Nama eam Bocesse of the hi Jount of heat energy produced, the anode is made fran eupper to conduct the heat away. But, copper has @ low melting point, so to prevent the copper melting, a slip of metal with a high melting point is recessed into the anode at the point which is struck by the electron beam. ‘This elip of metal alzo serves another purpose, because, the higher te alumni number of the element struck by electrons, the greater will be the intensity and energy of the xrays produced. This slip of metal. or target, is usually made of tungsten because of its high molting point of 3 ind its high atomic number of 74 ‘The area on the targot which is struck by the electrons is called the Focal spot this area should be large enough to avoid local overheating, although from the radiographic image quality point of view, the focal spot should be as small as possible to provide good definition (sharpness) on the radiograph, Additional cooling is required to cool the anode: gas, ail or water normally being ‘employed for this purpose. ‘The cooling system and the insert are contained together in an earthed, lead lined container. the complete unit commonly being referred to as the x-ray tubehead. The Imhehoad is controlled from the cont pant. corigages R26RADIATION The x-ray equipment control panel ‘The three controfs that govern a radiographic exposure using x-rays are the timer, the ‘mA control and the kV control (om mnie eet) Timer ‘The timer is usualy calibrated in minutes. The exposure time for an exposure is preset; when the equipment is activated, the timer counts down from the preset value. ‘The exposure time will partially govern how much radiation is going to reach the film, Milliamps (mA) ‘The mA controls the intensity or quantity of x-rays. When the mA is increased, the ccurrent flow through the filament is increased, which causes the filament to get hotter resulting in an increase inthe intensity of electrons released. ‘The greater the intensity of electrons striking the target, the greater the intensity ofthe x-rays perduced The mA control on conventional x-ray equipment may only allow for a maximum of 6 to 12 mA to be used, the value being measured across the tube, ic. between the cathode. and the anode. The value required for a specific exposure is usually preset on the ppanel, this value is usually at, or close to, the maximum mA possible with the equipment forthe purpose of minimizing exposure time. Kilovoltage (kV) ‘The KV governs the wavelength or quality of x-rays produced which practically governs penetrating power. When the kV is increased, the speed of the electron flow from the cathode to the anode is increased. ‘Therefore, when the electrons strike the target, the kinetic energy is increased, which results in a reduction of wavelength, The kV meters on the control panels for conventional x-ray equipment are peak kV values measured across the tube, ie. between the cathode and the anode. The ‘maximum kV which can be used is primarily governed by the tubehead; typical maximum values ate 200 KV, 250 KV and 300 KV. The value required for a specific ‘exposure is usually preset on the panel. ‘An increase in KY, i. a shortening of wavelength, has an adverse affect on the contrast ‘and definition of a radiographic image. Certain standard specifications, e.g. BS 2910ft UNIT R2® X AND GAMMA RADIATION 1986 : The radiographic examination of fusion welded circumferential butt joints in steel, state maximum kV values for this reason. MAXIMUM X-RAY TUBE VOLTAGE BSz910 S Fime-geain fom T Hediva-speed fin ws _ | 5 wo Penetrated thickness. Comparison of x and gamma rays for industrial radiography Safety Using *-ray machines is normally safer than using. gamma sources because x-ray machines may be switched off ikea light bulb, whereas tere is a constant emission of radiation with a gamma source. Gamma sources most always be returned to theie shielding containers when notin use Quality of radiographic images ‘Assuming variables such as test material thickness, film type etc. remains constant rerays produced by conventional x-ray equipment, say up to 300 KV, produce better ‘quality radiographic images than 1r192 or Co60 isotopes, because these x-rays have longer wavelengths than the gamma sources, ‘Yuterbium 169 (¥b169) may produce radiographs comparable to those produced by using x-rays. arian R2-8Pei Sn seh Handling Gamma sources are easier to handle in comparison with bulky and fragile x-ray equipment. The size also allows for gamma sources to be used in difficult and ‘inaccessible ateas for x-ray machines, e.g. on pipe rack, Cost Gamma sources and containers are much cheaper than x-ray equipment. Versatility The intensity and wavelengths of x-rays can be adjusted from the x-ray control panel. ‘The intensity and wavelengths of gamma radiation cannot be adjusted, although the intensity (aetvity) reduces with time ~ see half-lives Certain gamma sources have a very high penetrating power which enables them to be used on very thick material, eg. 150 mm stcel. Most conventional x-ray machines will ‘ot penetrate more than 50 mm of ste! although there are huge x-ray machines, e.g. the linear accelerator and the betatron which can produce radiation of a wavelength which ‘can penetrate as much as, and usually more than, gamma radiation connie R29Peo ed Sorry Half value ter (HVL) is alieratve terminology use The tenth value thicknesses, (VN ofamateral wilt ‘reduce the radition intensity by one tenth, UNIT R2A * HALF VALUE He aS The half value thickness (HVT) of a material may be used as a guide for determining the thickness of a material to be used for shielding from radiation, e.g. for the construction of a radiation work bay in a factory. ‘The HVT of a specific material is the thickness which cuts down the radiation intensity by one half If the initial intensity of radiation increases, e.g. by increasing the mA when using x-ray equipment, the HVT will remain the same. However, if the wavelength (penetrating Power) of the radiation is changed, e-g. by changing KV ot isotope type, the FIVT of a specific matarial wil alter, ‘The following table shows examples of the HVT for lead, concrete and ste! Taergy ment ‘Steel Concrete Gam) _| HVT (am) BVT (mm) 150 kV 03 4 2 200 kV 045 6 26 250KV 10. 12 28 300kV is 15 30 1192 55 3B 8 C060 m 20 eS ‘The HVT of a material can also be used to explain subject contrast in relation to wavelength (KV): Figure J shows that side A of the specimen has four times the intensity of rediation ‘emerging from itin comparison with side B. Figure 2 shows that side A of the specimen has two times the intensity of radiation ‘emerging from it in comparison with side B. Figure 1 200 kV - steel, Figure 2-250 kV -steet bed teed bb bb biatid ‘Therefore, the resultant radiograph from the specimen in figure I will display higher radiographic contrast (because of an increase in subject contrast) compared tothe radiograph produced in figure 2 ‘The lower the KV (longer the wavelength), the higher the subject contrast and therefore the higher the radiogrephie contrast. Note: The radiographic density produced in figure J will be lower than figure 2 if the exposures are identical, so itis assumed that the exposure time for figure | is higher to compensate in order to give the same density on either side A or side B. ‘ohare TPO R2A-1Peo NEl The base & normale ited ie and wi herejore posses some dost. the bis of tn ts noo Itonspront | seh MOGRAPHIC FILM. ‘The make-up of a radiographic film Radiographic film is usually made up of seven layers: a central base layer and three coatings on either side consisting of a subbing layer, emulsion and supercoat. Base The physical characteristics of emulsion do not allow it to be used by itself without suppor, therefore itis applied fo @ substrate known as the base. The base must be Transparent, chemically inert and must not be susceptible to expansion and contraction, Glass iS an ideal substrate to meet these requirements, but for applications where the objects to be radiographed are curved, e.g. on pipes, it is necessary for a flexible base to be used. Polyester and cellulose triacetate, although not quite as stable as glass, are widely emplayed for such applications, Subbing layer (substratum) The subbing layers adhere the emulsion to the base: the material employed for this is gelatine plus a base solvent Emulsion ‘The layers of primary importance are the two emulsion layers, These layers consist of millions of silver halide crystals (usvally silver bromide); the sizes of the erystls are usually between 0.1. and 1.0 micrometres Gen) andl binding medium, o suspondad in a golatine Film emulsion is produced by mixing solutions of silver nitrate and salts, such as potassium bromide, with a solution of gelatine. The rate andl temperature of mixing governs the grain size: rapid mixing at low temporature produces the finest grain structure, whereas slow mixing at high temperature produces emulsions with larger grains. When large grain structures are required, to produce a fast emulsion, some silver iodide is usually included in the formula, ‘The sizes of these crystals and the distribution, effect the final radiogmphic quality/appearance; the larger the crystal size the greater the sensitivity to radiation. Various shapes of crystals exist, but these shapes have virtually no effect on the final ‘The reason for two layers of emulsion is to give a faster /ilm speed, i.e. the radiographs can be produced quicker, and higher radiographic contrast. ‘Supercoat (anti-abrasion layer) Radiographic emulsion is susceptible to mechanical and chemical damage. so to Prevent, or at least reduce this, the emulsion is coated with a layer of hardened gelatine. Although the supercoat offers some protection ayainst chemical attack, ¢. oil from the skin during handling, it must allow for chemical reactions to take place in the processing tanks. atamarrosa R31Peo Wel Dre rerminoiogy usd for vin sce nd speed on be Inilading. Me ome wat fre aenallorlaie 6. Jone gr fon yb onsen 0 bet or sow tependingom wha i Being ‘omparad gine aeN Film types Radiographic film may be graded in terms of grain size or speed: * Uta fine grain - exceptional radiographic quality but very slow speed, + Fine grain - slow speed, * Medium grain - medium speed. * Coarse grain - poor radiographic quality but fast speed, Radiographic fils are also divided into two types: direct-type or salt screen type. Direct-type films are intended for direct exposure to gamma or x-rays or for exposure using lead intensifying sereens. Some of these films may be suitable for use with fluorometallic or salt (Fluorescent intensifying sercens. Salt screen type films are designed to be used exclusively with salt (fluorescent) imensifying screens, They are able to produce radiographs with minimum exposure and are widely used in medical radiography. Film speed {A film factor is a number which relates 10 the speed of a particular film and is obtained from a films characteristic curve; see Unit R10 The SCRATA scale isa sealo ofion sel for film Facts: the smaller the fil factor the faster the film. Film manufacturers may have their own scale which may work in the same or opposite way to the SCRATA scale. Example to the SCRATA scale: A film with a factor of 10 will be vice as fast compared toa film with a factor of 20. This means to say ofthe fil with a factor of 20 took four minutes to expose then the film with a factor of 10 will require two minutes to give the same density ‘yes of Film with their coresponding SCRATA file factors: Manufacturer Name. Speed Grain [Film Factor Agfa Gevacrt RCF Fast Coarse Depont NDToI Fast Coarse Dupont NDT 75 Medien Fine 20 Kodak x Medlin Fine 25 Kodak AX Medium Fine 30 Agfa Gevaoet D7, Medivie Fine 35 Dupont NDT 55 Slow Very fine 80 Asia Gevaert Ds Slow Very fine 95 Kodak MX Slow Very fine 120 Agta Gevaert be Very stow [_uitra tine 200. vs R3-2Peo Nell (Otter metal serene exist Jorexs common ‘npcntions Inger avenge thn the primar buon om which & deriva and heen Jess porrating LOU CSUN aca e OOK General A radiographic film is normally sandwiched between two intensifying screens when exposed to x-rays or gamma rays. Intensifying sereens have an extra photographic effect on the emulsion thereby reducing the exposure needed f0 attain the required density ‘There are three main types of intensifying screens: 1, Lead sereens 2, Fluorescent (salt) screens 3. Flucrometallic screens. Close contaet between screens and film is essential in order to obtain sharp images. SSercens muist be kept free from dust and scratches, if this is not done they may be seen as light indications on the radiographic image - especially if using fluarametallie or fluorescent sereens. Lead screens Lead screens consist of a thin lead foil of uniform thickness, usually stuck onto a thin base card in the case of reusable screens, or stuck onto a thin sheet of paper when used ‘with pre-packed film, Lead screens intensify the image by emitting beta radiation (electrons) when struck by rays or gamma rays of sufficient enorgy. ‘The intensification action is only achieved with x-rays above approximately 120 KV and gamma rays above similar energy levels. Lead screens will also improve the radiographic ina radiation, 3 partially itoring out scatter ‘Two lead screens are used to sandwich the film; the thickness of the front sereen must ‘be matched to the wavelenath of radiation being used, so that i will pass the primary radiation while stopping a much of the secondary eadiation ae possible, ‘The rour screen cuts down the effect of back scattered radiation, IF it is technically feasible, it is better to use scroens of the same thickness, thus avoiding the problem of accidently loading a film casserte with the rear screen at the front. Screen thicknesses are usually etween 02 mn» and 0.15 ms, Lead screens are pliable and should be handled with care i buckling is to be avoided. If the lead sereens are to be used more than once, e.g. in cassettes as opposed t0 rol film o¢ pre-packed film, they become dusty and should be frequently dusted with a fine brush. If screens become 100 dirty or splashed with liquid, they may be cleaned with cotton wool damped with a weak detergent solution. When the screens become too seratched or dirty causing the radiographic quality to be impaired, they should be replaced by new screens. Fluorescent (salt) screens Fluorescent screens are made up from micro crystals of a suitable metallic salt, uswally calcium tungstate, applied to a supporting thin base eard. ‘These screens, when subjected to x-rays or gamma rays, emit light radiation to which the film is sensitive. This light radiation is in divect proportion to the received ‘radiation and results in a large increase of effective radiation. ian R41Pe eNeil he intnsfaton actor lites tothe rabton in ‘pose te. eg. an intenaenton ator of ft rate egret UNIT R4® INTENSIFYING SCREENS “There are 1wo types of fluocescent screen: 1. High definition (fine grain) screens. 2. High speed or rapid sereens. ‘The intensification action of high speed screens is at least twice that of the high definition screens. AA radiograph obtained using fluorescent screens will have a grainy appearance due 10 the screens salt grains resulting in low definition compared to a radiograph taken using lead sereens or no sereens at all Because of the resulting loss of image quality, fluorescent sercens are only used 10 avoid excessively long exposure times, e.g. on very thick specimens Fluorometallic screens Fluorometallic screens are a combination of a salt scroen and a lead screen; they are made up of from a base card, a lead layer, a salt layer (calcium tungstate) and a thin protective layer ‘There is more than one type of fluorometalic sereen: Type 1 for x-rays up 10 300 kV, Type 2 - for x-rays 300-1000 kV, tr 192, + Type 3- for Co60. Providing the coreet type of fluorometallic sereen and film are used withthe range of radiation being used, substantial reductions in expaswre time or KV can be achioved. Because the lead layer will partially filter out scatter radiation, the image produced on the radiograph will be better than one obtained using fluorescent sereens, but the image will stil rotain a grainy appearance due to the sat crystals. These screens are not commonly used due to high cost. Their application is similar to those applications where fluorescent screens may be used, i.e. on thick specimens. Comparison of intensifying screens Seren type | Orderof | Orderof | Intensification How speed Factor ication is achieved Lead 1 3 23 ‘Beta particles and characteristic x-rays Fluorescent 4 1 8.15 Light radiation Fluorometalie 3 2 5.10 Light radiation [_None 2 4 NYA N/A fa R4-2FeO ‘ona i that wih tl ae th fn enulsion, {form oro ge FORMATI When radiation passos through an object itis differentially absorbed depending, upon the thickness and any differing material densities. ‘The radiation finally emerging at the film side of the object will largely determine the final characteristics of the radiograph ‘The portions of radiographic film which receive sufficient quantities of actinic radiation undergo minute changes. These changes are so small they are invisible to the naked eye and also invisible when using conventional micrascopes; this hidden image is known as the Jaret mage. The latent image can be defined as the hidden ‘mage on a radiographic film after exposure 10 actinic radiation but before development Therefore, radiation alone does not convert a radiographic film into a visible readable image. The sequence of processes o attain a radiographic image are as follows: |. The silver halide erystals which have absorbed « sufficient quantity of radiation are partially converted into metallic silver - this is the latent image. 2. ‘The affected crystals are then essentially amplife developer camplatcly converts 3. The radiograph attains its final appearance by /ixation; the fixer removes the unexposed and therefore undeveloped crystals by the developer; the octed crystals into metalic silver ‘sn svn R5-1PeoNell UNIT 6° FILM PROCESSING Film processing may be carried out manually o¢ by using automatic film processors Manual film processing takes place in a darkroom under the illumination of safelights which usually consist of ordinary light bulbs behind orange filters, Other colours for filters exist, but the colour chosen must emit light of a wavelength which does not detrimentally affect the emulsion ‘The darkroom should preferably be divided into two sides, a dry side for loading and unloading of cassettes and a wet side for processing: this is so the films are not splashed prior to development. The wet side of the darkroom will usually have five tanks arranged in the following sequence: 1. Developer tank. Stopbath or rinse tank. 2, 3. Fixer tank 4. Final wash tank Wetting agent tank. Wien the exposed film has been unloaded from its cassette, itis placed into a frame (or spiral if its a long fili) and placed inta the developer. Developer Developer isan alkali and is wsually supplied asa liquid concentrate and x eiuted ‘with water at a ratio governed by the manufacts tod parts water ers instructions, e.g. 1 part devoloper Developer temperature and development time should be in accordance with the ‘manufacturers recommendations or specification, but for manual processing is typically 20°1°C for 4 to 5 minutes. The time should be taken from when the Film hits the developer with a suitable duekroom timer Once the film is in the developer it is agitated for approximately 20 seconds and then for upproximately 10 seconds every minute. Agitation allows for fresh developer to flow over the film and prevents the possibility of bromide streaking: agitation also ceuts down development time. The frames or spirals should be tapped against the tanks to prevents any air bubbles settling on the film which ean cause light spots on the finished radiograph, = Developer. Constituents Action Chemicals in Developing, Reduces the exposed silver halide | Metal agent(s) grains to metalli sitver Hydroguinone. Phenidone. Accelerator ‘A chemical which gives an alkaline { Borax rexction which speeds up development. | Sodium carbonate. Sodium hydroxide. Preservative Prevents oxidation of the developer Sodium sulphate, Restrain Controls the level ef development | Potassium bromide. fosging ‘Sequestering | Prevents the formation of scale Sodium Inexametaphasphate theme ares R61Feel fon Yoho css ‘hey wilt have been devel, Replenishment “The activity of the developer gradually decreases with use and age. Replenishment ensures that the activity of the developer and the developing time required remains Constant throughout the useful tfe of the developer. When approximately 1m of film has been developed, about 400ml (2 cups) of replenisher needs to be added. After continuous replenishment the quality of the image willbe affected and the developer will have to be changed. A common guide for the remixing time is when the replenisher added exceeds twice the volume ofthe original developer. Stopbath “The stopbath may be + Anacid stopbath # A water spray rinse. # A fresh water rank, ‘The most efficient type of stopbath is an acid stopbath which is typically made up of 29 glacial acetic acid in water. This stops the reaction of the developer, due to the developer being an alkali and the stopbath an acd. Films should be placed and agitated in the stopbathjrinse tank for at least 10 seconds: if this is not done properly, the fixer will soon become neutralised Fixer Fixer is an acid which is supplied as a Figuid concentrate and is to be diluted with water, typically at a ratio of 1 part fixer to 3 paris water (Follow manufacturers instructions}: a hardening agent is also added. Fixation is the process which removes the undeveloped silver halide crystals and fixes the remaining developed crystals, thereby producing radiographs of a diagnostic (readable) quality, ‘The fixer contains chemicals, e.g. ammonium or sodium thiosulphate, which convert the unwanted unexposed halides into water soluble compounds; they are then readily dissolved or removed atthe final wash stage. ‘The films must be agitated in the fixer, faiting to do so may result in ight spots on the film. ‘The fixing time is twice the time it takes for the image to clear, e.g. ifthe milky image disappears in 3 minutes. aftr looking under the illumination of the safe lights, the films are retuned to the fixing tank for another 3 minutes, ie. total fixing time 6 minutes. When the fixer becomes exhausted, e.g. as a guideline - when the fixing time is 0. 10 minutes, the fixer should be replaced, Fixers are not usually replenished. ‘The exhausted fixer is retained because silver may be reclaimed via electralysis methods. Final wash Films should be washed preferably in a tank with constant running water, for at least 20 minutes. This removes any soluble silver compounds left behind in the emulsion after fixing and removes the fixer which is an acid, Yellow fog appears on films | which have not been sufficiently washed. sue TT R6-2PEON INIT R6 FILM PROCESSING . Wetting agent Drying the film otherwise black marks will remain on the radiograph, R6-3Peo Nell UM Cae VND OLY Vase LOTR td Radiographic quality can be discussed using four main terms: 1. Density. The density of a radiograph relates its degree of blackness. 2. Contrast - Radiographic contrast is the degree of difference between density: ‘elds on a radiograph Definition - Radiographic definition is the degree of sharpness at the boundaries of density fields. 4. Sensitivity - Sensitivity is a tom used 0 give en indication of overall radiographic quality to] There are two qualities of a radiograph usually measured: density and sensitivity Density is monsured using a densitometer and sensitivity is measured using an image quality indicator LQ). Sensitivity measurements give an overall guide as 10 the radiographic technique's ability t0 detect fine defects. Sensitivity is affected dircetly by the contrast-and Aofinition, ic. if either of these qualities are lacking then the sensitivity is lacking, Density The density ofa radiograph relates its degree of blackness. “| A high density or dark area absorbs more light than a low density or light area. The greater the amount of black metallic silver grains present in an area on a radiograph the more light is absorbed andthe denser the area appears. More radiation passes through the thinner sections of a specimen, eg. areas where {racks or lck of fusion are present therefore these areas will eventually show up on A raph as dark (lense) areas, Density on a processed radiograph is measured using an instrument called a densitometer, this compares the incident light with the ransmitted light and expresses the result as logarithmic ratio, Incident tight is light from the viewer: transmitted light fo fight ronamitted through fies when de fh is on the Viewer incldent tigh Density = Logyy melden Hilt "Transmitted light The viewer must be enpable 7 oy white igi itensiies Example; Stable for ing Padlgraphsap tothe towice If the incident light was 316 times greater than the transonitted light: Deasit Login 316 Density = 2.5 Y he inci ight wos 10 the mrenctea/the remsninad | Before use, densitometers should be calibrated using a calibrated density strip» a stip git = 2 ywuetone | of film containing known densitieson the same viewer which is to be used for De 20. thx 0 = Xe interpreting the radiograph, The minimum density in the area of interest. ic. the Weld, required by specifications vwo| is typically beween 1.5 and 2.5. However. this is not always practical to determine ic acne R7-1