UNDERSTANDING PROCESS CELL DIVISION

We know that our bodies built from millions Tues In this cell there is a center of activity known as the
nucleus. There are chromosomes in the nucleus that contains genes. Gen, this is the nature of our
control. For example it controls whether our hair curly or not.
Genes are genes that carry material genetic information.
Gene located in chromosome. If viewed through a microscope, chromosomes are structures in the
nucleus stranded Tues
Humans can grow and reproduce because the cell can divide. Two types of cell division is Mitosis and
Meiosis. Mitosis occurs in the entire body and cause each day we grow. The number of
chromosomes that results remain the same as the original genes [sometimes called the 'master
gene']. Meiosis also occurs in the testes or ovaries to produce sperm or ovum. Number of
chromosomes in sperm is half the number of cells holding. Human chromosome 23 has a half from
Stem cell chromosomes (46 chromosomes).
There are many differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

SUCCESSION CHARACTERISTICS
Scientists already know that organisms typically have a pair of chromosomes that carry a pair of
genes. Genes may be different or the same. There are two types of genes and gene dominant gene
resesif.
Gene dominant gene is a strong and able to highlight features in the organism. Resesif genes are
genes that weak. It can not be met if the features highlight a dominant gene. Gen.
resesif can only highlight the features if he came to the same pair resesif genes.Dominant gene will
result in a dominant nature. Based on several examples of genetic research scientist dominant nature
of human nature is such as wavy hair and the ability to roll tongue. [the ability to roll his
tongue].Resesif properties are properties such as hair is straight and can not roll tongue. How these
properties can be handed down from parents to children?.
Human cell has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs of genes). Sperm and ovum that results from Meiosis only
contain only 23 chromosomes. If the sperm carrying genes that control the nature of curly hair
(dominant) ovum mix that brings nature hair straight, then the resulting child will be curly-haired.
Chromosome structure in gamet:

Chromosomes X and Y chromosome known as the "sex chromosome". This chromosome determines
gender of a person .

SEX DETERMINATION AND THE OCCURRENCE OF TWINS

Sex Choromosomes

22 pairs of choromosomes are known as autosomes.The largest of the autosomes is referred to as

chromosome 1,the next largest as chromosomes 2, and so on, down to the smallest autosomes ,
which are chromosomes 21 and 22.The 23rd pair of the last two chromosomes are known as sex
chromosomes.Sex choromosomes are responsible for determining gender.There are two types of sex
chromosomes:
X chromosomes
Y chromosomes

Sex determination
Male chromosomes
The human male will have a genetic make up of pairs of autosomes and two types of sex
choromosomes X and Y

Female chromosomes

The human female will have a genetic make up of 22 pairs of autosomes and only one type of sex
chromosomes, XX.

Formation of twins
Under normal circumstances, one ovum is released in one menstrual cycle.During fertilision, one
ovum will be fertilised by one sperm to produce one zygote.Therefore, a single baby will be born,
There are two types of twins:
Non- identical twins
Identical twins
Non-identical twins
More than one ovum is produced in expectional cases.Each ovum will be fertilised by different
sperms, developing into zygotes
Formation of non-identical twins
Identical twins
Sometimes, one ovum is fertilised and then divides immediately into two or more zygotes through
division, resulting in twins.

The zygotes then develop into two embryos.Both embryos share one placenta with separate
amniotic sacs.Babies born in this wy are known as identical twins
 Formation of non-idential twins
Formation of idential twins

Siamese twin
In certain cases identical twins are born joined at identical sides.This happens because the zygote
failed to divide completely into two separate embryos.
Mutation
definition of mutation - Human traits can be altered by sudden changes in chromosomes or
genes.This is known as mutation
Mutation can happen in somatic or reproductive cells.The difference is mutation in somatic cells
cannot be inherited by the next generation.
Mutation that happens in either the sperm or ovum may be inherited by the next generation
although the parents do not possess these traits.
Type of mutationThere are two types of mutation:
Chromosome mutation occurs when changes take place in the structure of the chromosome or to
the number of choromosomes.
Gene mutation occurs when there is a change in the chemocal structure of a gene.
Examples of mutation:
Klinefelter's syndrome

Karyotype of an individual with Klinefelter's syndrome

turner's syndrome

Karyotype of an individual with turner's syndrome

down's syndrome

Karyotype of an individual with down's syndrome

 Non-disjunction in
meiosis I and meiosis II

Albinism
is a condition where there is an absence of the melanin pigment in the skin, hair and iris in
human.This condition is caused by a recessive gene taht affects the production of melanin.

Colour blindness
Colour blindness is a condition that arises from the mutation of the gene for colour vision.This causes
a person to be unable to differentiate between the colour green and red.The mutation produces a
recessive gene.

Haemophilia
is a disease where the blood fails to clot.As a result severe sufferers can bleed to death
without treatment .Even if with treatment, internal bleeding in the joints is the most
problematic complication since it leads to paintful arthritis.This disease is an example of a
sex-linked disease which is caused by a recessive allele on the X chromosome.

Haemophoilia man married to a normal female

A normal man married to a carrier female

Causes of mutation
Some mutations are induced and others are spontaneous.
Mutation is more likely to occur as a result of exposure to mutagens.Mutagens are factors that cause
mutation.Among the known mutgens are nuclear radiations,harmful rays and certain chemicals
called carcinogens.
Nuclear radiations will penetrate the nucleus of the cell and change the structure of the genes and
chromosomes in the nucleus.
Harmful rays are also mutagens
Chemical - There are many hundreds of known chemical mutagens such as
benzene,fungicides,herbicides,insecticides,pesticides and dioxins

Advantages and disadvantages of mutation

Advantages of mutation
mutation is one of the sources for the creation of new species.
mutation may lead to variation .Variation is the difference in traits between individual of the same
species.
If no mutation occurs,evolution could not have taken place.In other words mutation is a precursor of
the evolution process.
Disadvantages of mutation
The disadvantages of mutation to humans can be grouped into:
Physical deformities - is a type of physical deformity as a result of mutation.Suffers have
extra fingers or toes on both hands or feet.
Genetic diseases - Gene mutation many cause genetic diseases such as colour-blindness
and albanism.

Effects of Genetic Research on Human Life

Distributions of gebe
Amniocentesis is a test perfomed between 16 and 18 weeks of a woman's pregnancy.The drawn fluid
is then analysed.This fluid can be tested not only to check for genetic problems but also to
determine the sex of an unborn baby.
In gene therapy, a detective gene in unhealthy cells will be replaced with a new and healthy gene by
using a type of virus called retrovirus.

Selective breeding
Selective breeding is a technique which involves the choosing and breeding of animals or plants with
desirable traits to ensure that these traits are inherited by the next generation.
Oil palm is the highest yielding oil crop.Selective breeding between the oil palm species Pisifera and
Dura to produce a new species called Tenera is a good example.This is shown in Figure 3.32.The oil
palm is continually being improved through breeding.
Table shows comparison between Pisifera, Dura and Tenera

Advantages and disadvantages of genetic research

Advantages
Vaccines and better medicines are produced in medicine and healthcare through genetic research.
The quality of crops and livestock have been improved by genetic research.
Crops can be affected by many different diseases.Transgenic plants which are resistant to certain
diseases are produced to solve this problem
Disadvantages
Genetic research may lead to exitinction of species since new varieties replace them.
Cloning oe genetic engineering, especially on human beings may give rise to moral,ethical
and religious problems.
Genetically modified food may be harmful to human health.
Ecosystem can also be threatened by genetic technology.

Variation Among Living Things

Definition of variation
Variation is the difference in trais of an organism of the same species which can be passed
on from one generation to another.
Variation in humans
Human differ from each other in terms of
Physical characteristics
Physiologically
There are two types of variation
Continuous variation - differences in traits which are not very distict or discrete.This type of
variation tend to be quantitative. controlled by genetic factors and is often significantly
affected by environmental influences.
Discontinuous variation - is variation which deals with clear-cut differences in
traits.Discontinuous variation is completely controlled by genetic factors and is not effected
at all by environmental factors.
Factors that cause variation
There are two factors that lead to variation:
Genetic factors
variation that is controlled by genetic factors can be inherited.Crossing-over occurs at the start of
Prophase I during meiosis.
Chromosome separate randomly in gamete formation
Random fertilisation
Environmental factors
environmental factors which cause variation include climate.light, moisture,oxygen,pressure,soil
fertility,temperature,type of food and lifestyle.
The importantace of variation
The emergence of traits which can adapt well to changes in the environment enables the
organism to survive,breed and inherit new characteristics.
Variation ensures the survival of a species.Variation may encourage the formation of new
species,a process called speciation
There will be no diversity in organisms without variation.
Family tree
Pedigree analysis is another term for the construction of a family tree.
Pedigree analysis is a schematic chart that shows the flow of a certain trait from parents to the next
generation and other related members in a family through inheritance.
Table shows a a list of symbols commonly used in a human pedigree analysis.