ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

For information about adsorption, chemical thermodynamics, R

_z - H i
exp f- p
2
exp f-
2 v 2y p SS
2 S
reactors, and mass transfer kinetics, refer to the CHEMICAL Q 1 y 1
C=
2ruv y vz 2 v 2z
ENGINEERING and FLUID MECHANICS sections.
T V
For information about fluids, refer to the CIVIL
_z + H i W
+ exp f- 2 pW
2
ENGINEERING and FLUID MECHANICS sections. 1
For information about geohydrology and hydrology, refer to v 2z W
the CIVIL ENGINEERING section. X
where
For information about ideal gas law equations, refer to the C = steady-state concentration at a point (x, y, z) (g/m3),
THERMODYNAMICS section.
Q = emissions rate (g/s),
For information about microbiology (biochemical pathways,
y = horizontal dispersion parameter (m),
cellular biology and organism characteristics), refer to the
BIOLOGY section. z = vertical dispersion parameter (m),
For information about population growth modeling, refer to u = average wind speed at stack height (m/s),
the BIOLOGY section. y = horizontal distance from plume centerline (m),
For information about sampling and monitoring (Students z = vertical distance from ground level (m),
t-Distribution, standard deviation, and confidence intervals), H = effective stack height (m) = h + h
refer to the MATHEMATICS section. where h = physical stack height
h = plume rise, and
AIR POLLUTION
x = downwind distance along plume centerline (m).
Activated carbon: refer to WATER TREATMENT in this
section. Concentration downwind from elevated source
K 1 aH kO
Air stripping: refer to WATER TREATMENT in this section. J 2 N
Q
C_maxi = ruv v exp K-
Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling (Gaussian) y z K 2 v 2z OO
y and z as a function of downwind distance and stability L P
where variables as previous except
class, see following figures.
C(max) = maximum ground-level concentration

vz = H for neutral atmospheric conditions

2
Atmospheric Stability Under Various Conditions
Day Night
Surface Wind Solar Insolation Cloudinesse
Speeda (m/s) Cloudy Clear
Strongb Moderatec Slightd (4/8) (3/8)
<2 A ABf B E F
23 AB B C E F
35 B BC C D E
56 C CD D D D
>6 C D D D D
Notes:
a. Surface wind speed is measured at 10 m above the ground.
b. Corresponds to clear summer day with sun higher than 60 above the horizon.
c. Corresponds to a summer day with a few broken clouds, or a clear day with sun 35-60 above the
horizon.
d. Corresponds to a fall afternoon, or a cloudy summer day, or clear summer day with the sun 15-35.
e. Cloudiness is defined as the fraction of sky covered by the clouds.
f. For AB, BC, or CD conditions, average the values obtained for each.
* A = Very unstable D = Neutral
B = Moderately unstable E = Slightly stable
C = Slightly unstable F = Stable
Regardless of wind speed, Class D should be assumed for overcast conditions, day or night.

Turner, D.B., "Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates: An Introduction to Dispersion Modeling," 2nd ed., Lewis Publishing/CRC Press, Florida, 1994.

170 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING



STANDARD DEVIATION, METERS

DISTANCE DOWNWIND, x, METERS

VERTICAL STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF A PLUME

STANDARD DEVIATION, METERS

DISTANCE DOWNWIND, x, METERS

HORIZONTAL STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF A PLUME

A EXTREMELY UNSTABLE
B MODERATELY UNSTABLE
C SLIGHTLY UNSTABLE
D NEUTRAL
E SLIGHTLY STABLE
F MODERATELY STABLE

Turner, D.B., Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, DC, 1970.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 171


A EXTREMELY UNSTABLE
B MODERATELY UNSTABLE
C SLIGHTLY UNSTABLE
D NEUTRAL
E SLIGHTLY STABLE
F MODERATELY STABLE

( )
Cu
Q
max, m2

NOTE: Effective stack height shown on curves numerically.

( )
Cu
Q
max = e
[a + b lnH + c (lnH) 2 + d(lnH) 3]

H = effective stack height, stack height + plume rise, m

Values of Curve-Fit Constants for Estimating (Cu/Q) max from H as a Function of Atmospheric Stability

Constants
Stability a b c d
A 1.0563 2.7153 0.1261 0
B 1.8060 2.1912 0.0389 0
C 1.9748 1.9980 0 0
D 2.5302 1.5610 0.0934 0
E 1.4496 2.5910 0.2181 0.0343
F 1.0488 3.2252 0.4977 0.0765
Adapted from Ranchoux, R.J.P., 1976.

Turner, D.B., "Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates: An Introduction to Dispersion Modeling," 2nd ed., Lewis Publishing/CRC Press, Florida, 1994.

172 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Cyclone Cyclone 50% Collection Efficiency for Particle Diameter
Cyclone Collection (Particle Removal) Efficiency
R V0 . 5
1 S 9nW W
h= 2 , where dpc = S
S 2r NeVi `t p - tg j W
W , where
1 + ` dpc dpj
T X
dpc = diameter of particle collected with 50% efficiency, dpc = diameter of particle that is collected with 50%
dp = diameter of particle of interest, and efficiency (m),
= fractional particle collection efficiency. = dynamic viscosity of gas (kg/ms),
W = inlet width of cyclone (m),
Ne = number of effective turns gas makes in cyclone,
Vi = inlet velocity into cyclone (m/s),
p = density of particle (kg/m3), and
g = density of gas (kg/m3).

Cyclone Collection Efficiency

Cyclone Efficiency (%)

dp
Particle Size Ratio
d pc

Cyclone Effective Number of Turns Approximation

Ne = 1 = Lb + c G, where
L
H 2
Ne = number of effective turns gas makes in cyclone,
H = inlet height of cyclone (m),
Lb = length of body cyclone (m), and
Lc = length of cone of cyclone (m).

Cyclone Ratio of Dimensions to Body Diameter

Dimension High Efficiency Conventional High Throughput
Inlet height, H 0.44 0.50 0.80
Inlet width, W 0.21 0.25 0.35
Body length, Lb 1.40 1.75 1.70
Cone length, Lc 2.50 2.00 2.00
Vortex finder length, S 0.50 0.60 0.85
Gas exit diameter, De 0.40 0.50 0.75
Dust outlet diameter, Dd 0.40 0.40 0.40
Adapted from Cooper, David C. and F.C. Alley, Air Pollution Control: A Design Approach, 2nd ed., Waveland Press, Illinois, 1986.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 173

Baghouse Electrostatic Precipitator Efficiency
Deutsch-Anderson equation:
Air-to-Cloth Ratio for Baghouses
= 1 e(WA/Q)
Shaker/Woven
Reverse Pulse where
Air/Woven Jet/Felt = fractional collection efficiency
Dust [m3/(minm2)] [m3/(minm2 )] W = terminal drift velocity
alumina 0.8 2.4 A = total collection area
asbestos 0.9 3.0
Q = volumetric gas flow rate
bauxite 0.8 2.4
carbon black 0.5 1.5
coal 0.8 2.4 Note that any consistent set of units can be used for W, A,
cocoa 0.8 3.7 and Q (for example, ft/min, ft2, and ft3/min).
clay 0.8 2.7
cement 0.6 2.4 Incineration
cosmetics 0.5 3.0 Win - Wout
DRE =
Win # 100%
enamel frit 0.8 2.7
feeds, grain 1.1 4.3
where
feldspar 0.7 2.7
fertilizer 0.9 2.4 DRE = destruction and removal efficiency (%)
flour 0.9 3.7 Win = mass feed rate of a particular POHC (kg/h or lb/h)
fly ash 0.8 1.5 Wout = mass emission rate of the same POHC (kg/h or lb/h)
graphite 0.6 1.5
gypsum 0.6 3.0 CE = CO2 100%
iron ore 0.9 3.4 CO2 + CO #
iron oxide 0.8 2.1
iron sulfate 0.6 1.8 CO2 = volume concentration (dry) of CO2
lead oxide 0.6 1.8 (parts per million, volume, ppmv)
leather dust 1.1 3.7 CO = volume concentration (dry) of CO (ppmv)
lime 0.8 3.0 CE = combustion efficiency
limestone 0.8 2.4
mica 0.8 2.7 POHC = principal organic hazardous contaminant
paint pigments 0.8 2.1
paper 1.1 3.0
plastics 0.8 2.1
quartz 0.9 2.7
rock dust 0.9 2.7
sand 0.8 3.0
sawdust (wood) 1.1 3.7
silica 0.8 2.1
slate 1.1 3.7
soap detergents 0.6 1.5
spices 0.8 3.0
starch 0.9 2.4
sugar 0.6 2.1
talc 0.8 3.0
tobacco 1.1 4.0
zinc oxide 0.6 1.5
U.S. EPA OAQPS Control Cost Manual, 4th ed., EPA 450/3-90-006 (NTIS PB 90-169954), January 1990.

174 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

FATE AND TRANSPORT kd = microbial death rate or endogenous decay rate
Microbial Kinetics constant (time1)
BOD Exertion km = maximum growth rate constant (time1)
Ks = saturation constant or half-velocity constant
yt = L _1 - e- k1t i
[= concentration at max/2]
where S = concentration of substrate in solution
k1 = deoxygenation rate constant (base e, days1) (mass/unit volume)
L = ultimate BOD (mg/L) Y = yield coefficient [(mass/L product)/(mass/L food used)]
t = time (days) = specific growth rate (time1)
yt = the amount of BOD exerted at time t (mg/L) max = maximum specific growth rate (time1) = Ykm
Stream Modeling: Streeter Phelps
Monod growth rate constant as a function of limiting food
D = k1L0 8exp _- k1t i - exp _- k2t iB + D0exp _- k2t i concentration.
k2 - k1
R V
_ k2 - k1i W
k2 - k1 SS k1 f - 0 k1L0 pWW
1 S k2

GROWTH RATE CONSTANT, (1/t)

tc = ln 1 D
T X
DO = DOsat D m

where
D = dissolved oxygen deficit (mg/L) m
DO = dissolved oxygen concentration (mg/L) 2

D0 = initial dissolved oxygen deficit in mixing zone

(mg/L)
Ks
DOsat = saturated dissolved oxygen concentration (mg/L)
k1 = deoxygenation rate constant, base e (days1) LIMITING FOOD CONCENTRATION, S (mg/L)
k2 = reaeration rate constant, base e (days1)
X1 = product (mg/L)
L0 = initial BOD ultimate in mixing zone (mg/L )
Vr = volume (L)
t = time (days)
D = dilution rate (flow f /reactor volume Vr; hr1)
tc = time which corresponds with minimum dissolved
oxygen (days) f = flow rate (L/hr)
i = growth rate with one or multiple limiting substrates
Monod KineticsSubstrate Limited Growth (hr1)
Continuous flow systems where growth is limited by one Si = substrate i concentration (mass/unit volume)
substrate (chemostat): S0 = initial substrate concentration (mass/unit volume)
n=
YkmS
k n S k YP/S = product yield per unit of substrate (mass/mass)
Ks + S - d = max Ks + S - d p = product concentration (mass/unit volume)
Multiple Limiting Substrates x = cell concentration (mass/unit volume)
x0 = initial cell concentration (mass/unit volume)
max = 81 _ S1iB 82 _ S2iB 83 _ S3iB f 8n _ SniB t = time (time)

Si
where ni = for i = 1 to n
Ksi + Si

Non-steady State Continuous Flow

dx = Dx + _n - k - Di x
0 d
dt

Steady State Continuous Flow

n = D with kd << n Davis, M.L. and D. Cornwell, Introduction to Environmental Engineering, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1998.

Product production at steady state, single substrate limiting

X1 = YP / S( S0 - Si)

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 175

Partition Coefficients Organic Carbon Partition Coefficient Koc
Bioconcentration Factor BCF
Koc = Csoil /Cwater
The amount of a chemical to accumulate in aquatic organisms.
where
BCF = Corg /C
Csoil = concentration of chemical in organic carbon
where component of soil (g adsorbed/kg organic C, or ppb)
Corg = equilibrium concentration in organism (mg/kg or ppm)
C = concentration in water (ppm) Cwater = concentration of chemical in water (ppb or g/kg)

Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient Retardation Factor R

The ratio of a chemicals concentration in the octanol phase to R = 1 + (/)Kd
its concentration in the aqueous phase of a two-phase octanol-
water system. where
= bulk density
Kow = Co/Cw
= porosity
where
Kd = distribution coefficient
Co = concentration of chemical in octanol phase
(mg/L or g/L) Soil-Water Partition Coefficient Ksw = K
Cw = concentration of chemical in aqueous phase Ksw = X/C
(mg/L or g/L)
where
X = concentration of chemical in soil (ppb or g/kg)
C = concentration of chemical in water (ppb or g/kg)
Ksw = Koc foc
foc = fraction of organic carbon in the soil (dimensionless)

Steady-State Reactor Parameters

Comparison of Steady-State Retention Times () for Decay Reactions of Different Order a
Equations for Mean Retention Times ()
Reaction Order r Ideal Batc h Ideal Plug Flow Ideal CMFR
Zerob k Co (C o Ct ) (C o C t)
k k k
First kC 1 ln (C o C t ) ( Co Ct ) 1
k k k
( Co Ct ) 1 ( Co Ct ) 1
2
Second kC 1
kCo kCo kC t
a
Co = initial concentration or influent concentration; Ct = final condition or effluent concentration.
b
Expressions are valid for k Co; otherwise Ct = 0.

Comparison of Steady-State Performance for Decay Reactions of Different Order a

Equations for Ct
Reaction Order r Ideal Batc h Ideal Plug Flow Ideal CMFR
Zerob t Co/k k Co kt Co k Co k
t > Co/k 0
First kC Co[exp(kt)] Co[exp(k)] Co
1 + k
Second kC2 Co Co 1

1 + ktCo 1 + kCo
(4kCo + 1) 2 1
2k
a
Co = initial concentration or influent concentration; Ct = final condition or effluent concentration.
b
Time conditions are for ideal batch reactor only.

Davis, M.L. and S.J. Masten, Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2004.

176 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

LANDFILL Soil Landfill Cover Water Balance
Break-Through Time for Leachate to Penetrate a SLC = P R ET PERsw
Clay Liner where
d2 h SLC = change in the amount of water held in storage in a
t=
K _d + hi unit volume of landfill cover (in.)
where P = amount of precipitation per unit area (in.)
t = breakthrough time (yr) R = amount of runoff per unit area (in.)
d = thickness of clay liner (ft) ET = amount of water lost through evapotranspiration per
= porosity unit area (in.)
K = coefficient of permeability (ft/yr) PERsw = amount of water percolating through the unit area
h = hydraulic head (ft) of landfill cover into compacted solid waste (in.)

Typical porosity values for clays with a coefficient of

NOISE POLLUTION
permeability in the range of 106 to 108 cm/s vary from 0.1
to 0.3. SPL (dB) = 10 log10 ` P 2 P02j

Effect of Overburden Pressure SPLtotal = 10 log10 R10SPL 10

p
SWp = SWi + Point Source Attenuation
a + bp
SPL (dB) = 10 log10 (r1/r2)2
where
SWp = specific weight of the waste material at pressure Line Source Attenuation
p (lb/yd3) (typical 1,750 to 2,150) SPL (dB) = 10 log10 (r1/r2)
SWi = initial compacted specific weight of waste
(lb/yd3) (typical 1,000) where
SPL (dB) = sound pressure level, measured in decibels
p = overburden pressure (lb/in2)
P = sound pressure (Pa)
a = empirical constant (yd3/in2)
P0 = reference sound pressure (2 105 Pa)
b = empirical constant (yd3/lb)
SPLtotal = sum of multiple sources
Gas Flux SPL (dB) = change in sound pressure level with distance,
Dh 4 3 aCAatm - CA fill k measured in decibels
NA = r1 = distance from source to receptor at point 1
L
r2 = distance from source to receptor at point 2
where
NA = gas flux of compound A, [g/(cm2 s)][lb mol/(ft2 d)] POPULATION MODELING
CAatm = concentration of compound A at the surface of the Population Projection Equations
landfill cover, g/cm3 (lb mol/ft3) Linear Projection = Algebraic Projection
CAfill = concentration of compound A at the bottom of the Pt = P0 + kt
landfill cover, g/cm3 (lb mol/ft3)
L = depth of the landfill cover, cm (ft) where
Pt = population at time t
Typical values for the coefficient of diffusion for methane P0 = population at time zero
and carbon dioxide are 0.20 cm2/s (18.6 ft2/d) and 0.13 cm2/s k = growth rate
(12.1 ft2/d), respectively.
t = elapsed time in years relative to time zero
D = diffusion coefficient, cm2/s (ft2/d)
gas = gas-filled porosity, cm3/cm3 (ft3/ft3) Log Growth = Exponential Growth = Geometric Growth
= porosity, cm3/cm3 (ft3/ft3) Pt = P0ekt
ln Pt = ln P0 + kt
where
Pt = population at time t
P0 = population at time zero
k = growth rate
t = elapsed time in years relative to time zero

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 177

RADIATION Ionizing Radiation Equations
Effective Half-Life Daughter Product Activity

ae- m1t - e- m2t k

Effective half-life, e, is the combined radioactive and m1N10
N2 =
biological half-life. m2 - m1
1 1 1 where 1, 2 = decay constants (time1)
xe = xr + xb
N10 = initial activity of parent nuclei
where t = time
r = radioactive half-life
b = biological half-life Daughter Product Maximum Activity Time
ln m2 - ln m1
Half-Life tl =
m2 - m1
N = N0e 0.693 t/
where Inverse Square Law
N0 = original number of atoms
_ R2i
2
I1
N = final number of atoms
I2 = _ R i2
t = time 1

= half-life
where I1, 2 = Radiation intensity at locations l and 2
Flux at distance 2 = (Flux at distance 1) (r1/r2)2
R1, 2 = Distance from the source at locations l and 2
The half-life of a biologically degraded contaminant assuming
a first-order rate constant is given by:

t1 2 = 0.693
k
k = rate constant (time1)
t1/2 = half-life (time)

SAMPLING AND MONITORING

Data Quality Objectives (DQO) for Sampling Soils and Solids

Confidence Minimum Detectable Relative

Investigation Type Level (1 ) (%) Power (1) (%) Difference (%)
Preliminary site investigation 7080 9095 1030
Emergency clean-up 8090 9095 1020
Planned removal and
9095 9095 1020
remedial response operations

EPA Document "EPA/600/889/046" Soil Sampling Quality Assurance User's Guide, Chapter 7.
Confidence level: 1 (Probability of a Type I error) = 1 = size probability of not making a Type I error.
Power = 1 (Probability of a Type II error) = 1 = probability of not making a Type II error.

CV = (100 * s)/ x
CV = coefficient of variation
s = standard deviation of sample
x = sample average

Minimum Detectable Relative Difference = Relative increase over background [100 (s B)/B] to be detectable with a
probability (1 )

178 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Number of samples required in a one-sided one-sample t-test to achieve a minimum detectable relative difference at confidence
level (1 ) and power (1 )

Coefficient of Confidence Minimum Detectable Relative Difference

Variation Power Level (%)
(%) (%) (%)
5 10 20 30 40
15 95 99 145 39 12 7 5
95 99 26 8 5 3
90 78 21 6 3 3
80 57 15 4 2 2
90 99 120 32 11 6 5
95 79 21 7 4 3
90 60 16 5 3 2
80 41 11 3 2 1
80 99 94 26 9 6 5
95 58 16 5 3 3
90 42 11 4 2 2
80 26 7 2 2 1
25 95 99 397 102 28 14 9
95 272 69 19 9 6
90 216 55 15 7 5
80 155 40 11 5 3
90 99 329 85 24 12 8
95 272 70 19 9 6
90 166 42 12 6 4
80 114 29 8 4 3
80 99 254 66 19 10 7
95 156 41 12 6 4
90 114 30 8 4 3
80 72 19 5 3 2
35 95 99 775 196 42 25 15
95 532 134 35 17 10
90 421 106 28 13 8
80 304 77 20 9 6
90 99 641 163 43 21 13
95 421 107 28 14 8
90 323 82 21 10 6
80 222 56 15 7 4
80 99 495 126 34 17 11
95 305 78 21 10 7
90 222 57 15 7 5
80 140 36 10 5 3

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 179

 RISK ASSESSMENT/TOXICOLOGY Sequential absorption-disposition-interaction of foreign
For information about chemical process safety, refer to the compounds with humans and animals.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING section.
Dose-Response Curves
ELIMINATION
The dose-response curve relates toxic response
(i.e., percentage of test population exhibiting a specified
symptom or dying) to the logarithm of the dosage EXPOSURE ABSORPTION
[i.e., mg/(kgday) ingested]. A typical dose-response curve is
ABSORPTION
shown below. DISPOSITION TISSUE DOSE
TOXICANT
100
TOXIC RESPONSE (PERCENT)

TISSUE INTERACTION EFFECT

DISTRIBUTION

50

10

TD 10 TD 50 Selected Chemical Interaction Effects

LOGARITHM OF THE DOSE Relative toxicity
Effect Example
LC50 (hypothetical)
Median lethal concentration in air that, based on laboratory Additive 2+3=5 Organophosphate
tests, expected to kill 50% of a group of test animals when pesticides
administered as a single exposure over one or four hours. Synergistic 2 + 3 = 20 Cigarette smoking
+ asbestos
LD50
Median lethal single dose, based on laboratory tests, expected Antagonistic 6+6=8 Toluene +
to kill 50% of a group of test animals, usually by oral or skin benzene or
exposure. caffeine + alcohol
Similar definitions exist for LC10 and LD10, where the
corresponding percentages are 10%.

Comparative Acutely Lethal Doses
Actual
Ranking LD 50 (mg/kg)
No.
1 15,000
2 10,000
3 4,000
4 1,500
5 1,375
6 900
7 150
8 142
9 2
10 1 Nicotine
11 0.5
12 0.001
Toxic Chemical
PCBs
Alcohol (ethanol)
Table saltsodium chloride
Ferrous sulfatean iron
supplement
Malathionpesticide
Morphine
Phenobarbitala sedative
Tylenol (acetaminophen)
Strychninea rat poison
Curarean arrow poison
Williams, P.L., R.C. James, and S.M. Roberts, Principles of Toxicology: Environmental and Industrial
2,3,7,8-TCDD (dioxin) Applications, 2nd ed., Wiley, New Jersey, 2000.

13 0.00001 Botulinum toxin (food poison)

180 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Hazard Assessment Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
The fire/hazard diamond below summarizes common The MSDS indicates chemical source, composition,
hazard data available on the MSDS and is frequently shown hazards and health effects, first aid, fire-fighting
on chemical labels. precautions, accidental-release measures, handling and
storage, exposure controls and personal protection,
physical and chemical properties, stability and reactivity,
B toxicological information, ecological hazards, disposal,
transport, and other regulatory information.
A C
D The MSDS forms for all chemical compounds brought on
site should be filed by a designated site safety officer. The
MSDS form is provided by the supplier or must be
developed when new chemicals are synthesized.
Position A Hazard (Blue)
0 = ordinary combustible hazard
1 = slightly hazardous
2 = hazardous Exposure Limits for Selected Compounds
3 = extreme danger Allowable Workplace
N Chemical (use)
Exposure Level (mg/m3 )
4 = deadly
1 0.1 Iodine
Position B Flammability (Red) 2 5 Aspirin
0 = will not burn 3 10 Vegetable oil mists (cooking oil)
1 = will ignite if preheated 1,1,2-Trichloroethane
4 55
2 = will ignite if moderately heated (solvent/degreaser)
3 = will ignite at most ambient temperature 5 188
Perchloroethylene
(dry-cleaning fluid)
4 = burns readily at ambient conditions
6 170 Toluene (organic solvent)
Position C Reactivity (Yellow) Trichloroethylene
7 269
0 = stable and not reactive with water (solvent/degreaser)
1 = unstable if heated Tetrahydrofuran
8 590
2 = violent chemical change (organic solvent)

3 = shock short may detonate 9 890 Gasoline (fuel)

4 = may detonate 10 1,590 Naphtha (rubber solvent)

1,1,1-Trichloroethane
11 1,910
Position D (White) (solvent/degreaser)
ALKALI = alkali American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) 1996 and Williams, P.L.,
R.C. James, and S.M. Roberts, Principles of Toxicology: Environmental and Industrial Applications,
OXY = oxidizer 2nd ed., Wiley, New Jersey, 2000.
ACID = acid
Cor = corrosive
W = use no water
= radiation hazard

Flammable
Describes any solid, liquid, vapor, or gas that will ignite easily
and burn rapidly. A flammable liquid is defined by NFPA and
DOT as a liquid with a flash point below 100F (38C).

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 181

 HAZARDOUS WASTE COMPATIBILITY CHART

182
Reactivity Group

No. Name
Acid, Minerals, 1
1 Non-Oxidizing
Acids, Minerals, 2
2 Oxidizing KEY
G 3
3 Acids, Organic H REACTIVITY
H H CODE CONSEQUENCES
4 Alcohols & Glycols H 4
F P
H HEAT GENERATION
H H H

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
5 Aldehydes P F P
5 F FIRE
H G INNOCUOUS & NON-FLAMMABLE GAS
6 Amides H 6
GT GT TOXIC GAS GENERATION
Amines, Aliphatic & H GF FLAMMABLE GAS GENERATION
7 H H H 7
Aromatic GT
E EXPLOSION
Azo Compounds, H H H H
8 H 8 P POLYMERIZATION
Diazo Comp, Hydrazines G GT G G
S SOLUBILIZATION OF TOXIC MATERIAL
H H H
9 Carbamates G G
9 U MAY BE HAZARDOUS BUT UNKNOWN
GT

H H H H H 10
10 Caustics G
GT GT GT EXAMPLE:
11 Cyanides GF GF GF G 11
H H H GF H
12 Dithiocarbamates GF GF GF GT U G 12 H HEAT GENERATION,
F F GT
F FIRE, AND TOXIC GAS
H H 13
13 Esters H F G H GT GENERATION
H
14 Ethers H F 14

15 Fluorides, Inorganic GT GT GT 15

16 Hydrocarbons, Aromatic H 16
F
H H H
H F H H 17
17 Halogenated Organics GT GT G GF
GT
H H
H F H H H H P H U
18 Isocyanates G G P P G G 18
GT G

19 Ketones H H H H H 19
F G
Mercaptans & Other H H
20 GT F H H H 20
Organic Sulfides GF G
GT
Metal, Alkali & Alkaline GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF GF
21 H H H H H GT H GF GF GF 21
Earth, Elemental H H H H H H H E H H H
F F F F F H

Oxidizing Agents, H F H H H H H H
104 H H H H F GT H F E F H H H H F H F F
GT GT F F E F F F GT F 104
Strong GT H GT GT GT GT GT GE
H H GF H GF GF GF H
105 Reducing Agents, H H H GF H H H H
GF F GF GF H GF G F T H H H F 105
Strong GT F F GT E
106 Water & Mixtures H H G H GF GF
Containing Water G H GT 106

107 Water Reactive EXTREMELY REACTIVE! Do Not Mix With Any Chemical or Waste Material 107
Substances

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 101 102 103 104 105 106 107

Risk Reference Dose
Risk characterization estimates the probability of adverse Reference dose (RfD) is determined from the
incidence occurring under conditions identified during Noncarcinogenic Dose-Response Curve Using NOAEL.
exposure assessment.
RfD = NOAEL
UF
Carcinogens and
For carcinogens the added risk of cancer is SHD = RfD * W = NOAEL * W
calculated as follows: UF
Risk = dose toxicity = daily dose CSF where
Risk assessment process SHD = safe human dose (mg/day)
NOAEL = threshold dose per kg test animal [mg/(kgday)]
from the dose-response curve
UF = the total uncertainty factor, depending on nature and
reliability of the animal test data
W = the weight of the adult male (typically 70 kg)

NO THRESHOLD LINEAR
AT LOW DOSE

CARCINOGENIC DOSE
RESPONSE CURVE

Noncarcinogens

NONCARCINOGENIC DOSE
RESPONSE CURVE

Dose is expressed

d n
mass of chemical
body weight : exposure time

NOAEL = No Observable Adverse Effect Level. The dose

below which there are no harmful effects.
CSF = Cancer Slope Factor. Slope of the dose-response
curve for carcinogenic materials.

For noncarcinogens, a hazard index (HI) is calculated as

follows:
HI = chronic daily intake/RfD

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 183

 Exposure
Residential Exposure Equations for Various Pathways
Ingestion in drinking water
CDI = (CW)(IR)(EF)(ED) where ABS = absorption factor for soil contaminant (unitless)
(BW)(AT) AD = absorbed dose (mg/[kgday])
Ingestion while swimming AF = soil-to-skin adherence factor (mg/cm2)
CDI = (CW)(CR)(ET)(EF)(ED) AT = averaging time (days)
(BW)(AT)
BW = body weight (kg)
Dermal contact with water
CA = contaminant concentration in air (mg/m3)
AD = (CW)(SA)(PC)(ET)(EF)(ED)(CF)
(BW)(AT) CDI = chronic daily intake (mg/[kgday])
Ingestion of chemicals in soil CF = volumetric conversion factor for water
= 1 L/1,000 cm3
CDI = (CS)(IR)(CF)(FI)(EF)(ED)
(BW)(AT) = conversion factor for soil = 106 kg/mg
Dermal contact with soil CR = contact rate (L/hr)
AD = (CS)(CF)(SA)(AF)(ABS)(EF)(ED) CS = chemical concentration in soil (mg/kg)
(BW)(AT) CW = chemical concentration in water (mg/L)
a
Inhalation of airborne (vapor phase) chemicals ED = exposure duration (years)
CDI = (CA)(IR)(ET)(EF)(ED) EF = exposure frequency (days/yr or events/year)
(BW)(AT) ET = exposure time (hr/day or hr/event)
Ingestion of contaminated fruits, vegetables, fish and shellfish FI = fraction ingested (unitless)
CDI = (CF)(IR)(FI)(EF)(ED) IR = ingestion rate (L/day or mg soil/day or kg/meal)
(BW)(AT)
= inhalation rate (m3/hr)
PC = chemical-specific dermal permeability constant
(cm/hr)
SA = skin surface area available for contact (cm2)

Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund. Volume 1, Human Health Evaluation Manual (part A). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/540/1-89/002, 1989.
a
For some workplace applications of inhalation exposure, the form of the equation becomes:

Dosage =
( )( BR)( C )( t )
( BW )
where
Dosage = mg substance per kg body weight
= fraction of chemical absorbed by the lungs (assume 1.0 unless otherwise specified)
BR = breathing rate of the individual (1.47 m3/hr for 2 hr or 0.98 m3/hr for 6 hr; varies some with size of individual)
C = concentration of the substance in the air (mg/m3)
BW = body weight (kg), usually 70 kg for men and 60 kg for women
t = time (usually taken as 8 hr in these calculations)
Based on animal data, one may use the above relations to calculate the safe air concentration if the safe human dose (SHD) is known, using the following
relationship:
SHD
C=
( )( BR)( t )

184 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Intake Rates
EPA Recommended Values for Estimating Intake
Parameter Standard Value
Average body weight, adult 70 kg
a
Average body weight, child
01.5 years 10 kg
1.55 years 14 kg
512 years 26 kg
Amount of water ingested , adult 2 L/day
Amount of water ingested , chi ld 1 L/day
Amount of air breathed , adult 20 m3/day
Amount of air breathed , child 5 m3/day
Amount of fish consumed , adult 6.5 g/day
Contact rate, swimming 50 mL /hr
Inhalation rates
adult (6-hr day) 0.98 m3/hr
adult (2-hr day) 1.47 m3/hr
child 0.46 m3/hr
S ki n s u rface av a i la b l e, a d ul t mal e 1.94 m 2
S ki n s u rface av a i la b l e, a d ul t fe mal e 1.69 m 2
Skin surface available, child
36 years (average for male and female) 0.720 m2
69 years (average for male and female) 0.925 m2
912 years (average for male and female) 1.16 m2
1215 years (average for male and female) 1.49 m 2
1518 years (female) 1.60 m2
1518 years (male) 1.75 m2
Soil ingestion rate, children 16 years 2 0 0 mg /d a y
Soil ingestion rate, persons > 6 years l00 mg/day
Skin adherence factor, potting soil to hands 1.45 mg/cm2
Skin adherence factor, kaolin clay to hands 2.77 mg/cm 2
Exposure duration
Lifetime (carcinogens, for non-carcinogens use actual exposure duration) 70 years
At one residence, 90th percentile 30 years
National median 5 ye ars
Averaging time (ED)(365 days/year)
Exposure frequency (EF)
Swimming 7 days/year
Eating fish and shellfish 48 days/year
Exposure time (ET)
Shower, 90th percentile 12 min
Shower, 50th percentile 7 min
a
Data in this category taken from: Copeland, T., A. M. Holbrow, J. M. Otan, et al., "Use of probabilistic methods to understand the conservatism in California's
approach to assessing health risks posed by air contaminants," Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, vol. 44, pp. 1399-1413, 1994.
Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund. Volume 1, Human Health Evaluation Manual (part A). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/540/l-89/002, 1989.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 185

WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND Solids loading rate = Q X/A
TECHNOLOGIES For activated sludge secondary clarifier Q = Q0 + QR
Activated Sludge Organic loading rate (volumetric) = Q0S0 /Vol
icY _ S0 - Sei Organic loading rate (F:M) = Q0S0 /(Vol XA)
XA =
i _1 + kd ici Organic loading rate (surface area) = Q0S0 /AM
Steady State Mass Balance around Secondary Clarifier: s = density of solids (kg/m3)
(Q0 + QR)XA = Qe Xe + QR Xw + Qw Xw A = surface area of unit
Vol ^ XAh AM = surface area of media in fixed-film reactor
c = Solids residence time =
QwXw + QeXe Ax = cross-sectional area of channel
M _100i M = sludge production rate (dry weight basis)
Sludge volume/day: Qs =
ts _% solidsi Q0 = influent flow rate
Qe = effluent flow rate
Sludge volume after settling _ mL Li * 1, 000
SVI =
MLSS _ mg Li Qw = waste sludge flow rate
s = wet sludge density
1
kd = microbial death ratio; kinetic constant; day ; typical R = recycle ratio = QR/Q0
range 0.10.01, typical domestic wastewater
QR = recycle flow rate = Q0R
value = 0.05 day1
Xe = effluent suspended solids concentration
Se = effluent BOD or COD concentration (kg/m3)
Xw = waste sludge suspended solids concentration
S0 = influent BOD or COD concentration (kg/m3)
Vol = aeration basin volume
XA = biomass concentration in aeration tank (MLSS or
MLVSS kg/m3) Q = flow rate
Y = yield coefficient (kg biomass/kg BOD or COD
consumed); range 0.41.2
= hydraulic residence time = Vol/Q

DESIGN AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS FOR ACTIVATED-SLUDGE

TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
Hydraulic
Mixed liquor
Mean cell Volumetric residence BOD5
Food-to-mass ratio suspended Recycle Air supplied
residence loading time in Flow removal
Type of Process [(kg BOD5/ solids ratio (m3/kg
time ( kgBOD5/m3) aeration regime* efficiency
(daykg MLSS)] (MLSS, (Qr /Q) BOD5)
( c, d) basin (%)
mg/L)
(, h)
Tapered aeration 515 0.20.4 0.30.6 48 1,5003,000 0.250.5 PF 8595 4590
Conventional 415 0.20.4 0.30.6 48 1,5003,000 0.250.5 PF 8595 4590
Step aeration 415 0.20.4 0.61.0 35 2,0003,500 0.250.75 PF 8595 4590
Completely mixed 415 0.20.4 0.82.0 35 3,0006,000 0.251.0 CM 8595 4590
Contact stabilization 415 0.20.6 1.01.2 0.251.0 4590
Contact basin 0.51.0 1,0003,000 PF 8090
Stabilization basin 46 4,00010,000 PF
High-rate aeration 415 0.41.5 1.616 0.52.0 4,00010,000 1.05.0 CM 7590 2545
Pure oxygen 820 0.21.0 1.64 13 6,0008,000 0.250.5 CM 8595
Extended aeration 2030 0.050.15 0.160.40 1824 3,0006,000 0.751.50 CM 7590 90125
*PF = plug flow, CM = completely mixed.
Metcalf and Eddy, Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, 1991 and McGhee, Terence and E.W. Steel, Water Supply and Sewerage, McGraw-Hill, 1991.

186 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

 Aerobic Digestion Anaerobic Digestion
Design criteria for aerobic digestersa Design parameters for anaerobic digesters
Parameter Value Parameter Standard-rate High-rate
Solids residence time, d 3090 1020
Hydraulic retention time, 20C, db
Volatile solids loading, kg/m3/d 0.51.6 1.66.4
Waste activated sludge only 1 015
Digested solids concentration, % 46 46
Activated sludge from plant without primary settling 1218
Volatile solids reduction, % 3550 4555
Primary plus waste activated or trickling-filter sludgec 1520
Solids loading, lb volatile solids/ft3d 0.10.3
Gas production (m3/kg VSS added) 0.50.55 0.60.65
Oxygen requirements, lb O2/lb solids destroyed Methane content, % 65 65
Cell tissued ~2.3 Standard Rate
BOD5 in primary sludge 1.61.9
Reactor Volume = Vol1 + Vol2 tr + Vol2ts
Energy requirements for mixing 2
Mechanical aerators, hp/103 ft3 0.71.50 High Rate
Diffused-air mixing, ft /10 ft min 3 3 3
2040 First stage
Dissolved-oxygen residual in liquid, mg/L 12 Reactor Volume = Vol1tr
Reduction in volatile suspended s olids , % 4 050 Second Stage
a
Adapted in part from Water Pollution Control Federation: Sludge Reactor Volume = Vol1 + Vol2 tt + Vol2ts
Stabilization, Manual of Practice FD-9, 1985 2
b
Detention times should be increased for operating temperatures below 20C
where
c
Similar detention times are used for primary sludge alone Vol1 = raw sludge input (volume/day)
d
Ammonia produced during carbonaceous oxidation oxidized to nitrate Vol2 = digested sludge accumulation (volume/day)
per equation

C5H7O2N + 7O2 5CO2 + NO3 + 3H2O + H
+ tr = time to react in a high-rate digester = time to react and
thicken in a standard-rate digester
Note: lb/ft3d 16.0185 = kg/m3d
3
hp/10 ft 26.3342 3
= kW/103m3 tt = time to thicken in a high-rate digester
ft3/103ft3min 0.001 = m3/m3min ts = storage time
0.556(F 32) = C
Biotower
Tank Volume Fixed-Film Equation without Recycle
Qi _ Xi + FSi i
Vol = Se qn
Xd ` kd Pv + 1 icj S0 =
e- kD
where
Vol = volume of aerobic digester (ft3) Fixed-Film Equation with Recycle
n
Qi = influent average flowrate to digester (ft3/d) Se
= e- kD q
_1 + Ri - R ce- kD q m
Xi = influent suspended solids (mg/L) Sa n

F = fraction of the influent BOD5 consisting of raw primary

sludge (expressed as a decimal) where
Se = effluent BOD5 (mg/L)
Si = influent BOD5 (mg/L)
S0 = influent BOD5 (mg/L)
Xd = digester suspended solids (mg/L)
R = recycle ratio = Q0/QR
kd = reaction-rate constant (d1)
QR = recycle flow rate
Pv = volatile fraction of digester suspended solids
(expressed as a decimal) S + RSe
Sa = o
1+R
c = solids residence time (sludge age) (d)
D = depth of biotower media (m)

60 q = hydraulic loading (m3/m2 min)

VOLATILE SOLIDS REDUCTION, %

50 = (Q0 + RQ0 )/Aplan (with recycle)

40 k = treatability constant; functions of wastewater and
medium (min1); range 0.010.1; for municipal
30
wastewater and modular plastic media 0.06 min1
20 @ 20C

10 kT = k20(1.035)T20
0
n = coefficient relating to media characteristics; modular
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 plastic, n = 0.5
TEMPERATURE C SLUDGE AGE, DAYS Tchobanoglous, G. and Metcalf and Eddy, Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse,
3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, 1991.
VOLATILE SOLIDS REDUCTION IN AN AEROBIC DIGESTER AS A FUNCTION Peavy, HS, D.R. Rowe and G. Tchobanoglous Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1985.
OF DIGESTER LIQUID TEMPERATURE AND DIGESTER SLUDGE AGE
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 187
Facultative Pond Depth of Sorption Zone
BOD Loading
Zs = Z = G
VZ
Mass (lb/day) = Flow (MGD) Concentration (mg/L) VT - 0 . 5VZ
8.34(lb/MGal)/(mg/L)
Total System 35 pounds BOD5/acre-day where Q in
VZ = VT VB Co
Minimum = 3 ponds
ZS = depth of sorption zone
Depth = 38 ft
Z = total carbon depth Co
Minimum t = 90120 days
VT = total volume treated at
exhaustion (C = 0.95 C0) Z
WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES Zs
VB = total volume at breakthrough
Activated Carbon Adsorption (C = C = 0.05 C0)
Freundlich Isotherm C0 = concentration of contaminant
x 1 n in influent
m = X = KCe Q out
where Air Stripping Ce
x = mass of solute adsorbed Pi = HCi
m = mass of adsorbent Pi = partial pressure of component i, atm
X = mass ratio of the solid phasethat is, the mass of H = Henrys Law constant, atm-m3/kmol
adsorbed solute per mass of adsorbent
Ci = concentration of component i in solvent, kmol/m3
Ce = equilibrium concentration of solute, mass/volume
K, n = experimental constants
(Q W , C in ) (Q A , A out )
WATER INLET AIR OUTLETS
Linearized Form
ln mx = l n ln C + l n K
e

For linear isotherm, n = 1

Langmuir Isotherm
(Q W , C out )
x aKCe WATER OUTLET AIR INLETS (BLOWER)
m = X = 1 + KCe (Q A , A in )
where
a = mass of adsorbed solute required to saturate completely a Aout = H'Cin
unit mass of adsorbent
QW Cin = QA H'Cin
K = experimental constant
QW = QA H'
Linearized Form H' (QA/ QW) = 1
m= 1+ 1 1
x a aK Ce where
Aout = concentration in the effluent air (kmol/m3)
EXHAUSTION QW = water flow rate (m3/s)
0.95C O
QA = air flow rate (m3/s)
Ain = concentration of contaminant in air (kmol/m3)
C, Cout = concentration of contaminants in effluent water
mg/l (kmol/m3)
C = BREAKTHROUGH Cin = concentration of contaminants in influent water
0.05C O (kmol/m3)
VB VZ Stripper Packing Height = Z
THROUGHPUT VOLUME V VT
Z = HTU NTU
Assuming rapid equilibrium:
_Cin Cout i _ RS - 1i + 1
NTU = d n ln f p
RS
RS - 1 RS

188 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

where
NTU = number of transfer units Typical Primary Clarifier Efficiency Percent Removal
H = Henrys Law constant Overflow rates
1,200 1,000 800 600
H' = H/RT = dimensionless Henrys Law constant (gpd/ft2) (gpd/ft2) (gpd/ft2) (gpd/ft2)
T = temperature in units consistent with R 48.9 40.7 32.6 24.4
(m/d) (m/d) (m/d) (m/d)
R = universal gas constant, atm m3/(kmol K) Suspended
54% 58% 64% 68%
RS = stripping factor H(QA/QW) Solids
BOD5 30% 32% 34% 36%
Cin = concentration in the influent water (kmol/m3)
Cout = concentration in the effluent water (kmol/m3)
L Design Data for Clarifiers for Activated-Sludge Systems
HTU = Height of Transfer Units =
MW KLa
O ve r f l ow r a t e , Loading Depth
where (m)
L = liquid molar loading rate [kmol/(sm2)] m3/m2 d kg/m2 h

MW = molar density of water Type of Treatment Average Peak Average Peak

(55.6 kmol/m3) = 3.47 lbmol/ft3 Settling following
air-activated
KLa = overall transfer rate constant (s1) sludge (excluding
extended aeration) 1632 4048 3.06.0 9.0 3.55
Clarifier
Settling following
Overflow rate = Hydraulic loading rate = Vo = Q/Asurface extended aeration 816 2432 1.05.0 7.0 3.55
Weir overflow rate = WOR = Q/Weir Length Adapted from Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. [536]
Horizontal velocity = Approach velocity = Vh
= Q/Across-section = Q/Ax
Hydraulic residence time = Vol/Q =
where
Q = flow rate
Ax = cross-sectional area
A = surface area, plan view
Vol = tank volume

Design Criteria for Sedimentation Basins

Type of Basin Overflow Rate (gpd/ft 2 ) Hydraulic Residence Time (hr)
Water Treatment
Presedimentation 300500 34
Clarification following coagulation and flocculation
1. Alum coagulation 350550 48
2. Ferric coagulation 550700 48
3. Upflow clarifier s
a. Ground water 1,5002,200 1
b. Surface water 1,0001,500 4
Clarification following lime-soda softening
1. Conventional 5501,000 24
2. Upflow clarifier s
a. Ground water 1,0002,500 1
b. Surface water 1,0001,800 4
Wastewater Treatment
Primary clarifiers 6001,200 2
Fixed film reactors
1. Intermediate and final clarifiers 400800 2
Activated sludge 8001,200 2
Chemical precipitation 8001,200 2

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 189

Weir Loadings Filtration Equations
1. Water Treatmentweir overflow rates should not exceed Effective size = d10
20,000 gpd/ft Uniformity coefficient = d60 /d10
2. Wastewater Treatment dx = diameter of particle class for which x% of sample is
a. Flow 1 MGD: weir overflow rates should not less than (units meters or feet)
exceed 10,000 gpd/ft
b. Flow > 1 MGD: weir overflow rates should not Head Loss Through Clean Bed
exceed 15,000 gpd/ft Rose Equation
Monosized Media Multisized Media
Horizontal Velocities
1. 067 _Vsi LCD 1. 067 _Vsi L CDijxij
2 2
1. Water Treatmenthorizontal velocities should not
hf = hf = !
exceed 0.5 fpm gh 4 d gh 4 dij
2. Wastewater Treatmentno specific requirements
(use the same criteria as for water)
Carmen-Kozeny Equation
Dimensions Monosized Media Multisized Media
1. Rectangular tanks
f lL _1 - hi Vs2 L _1 - hi Vs2 f lijxij
a. Length:Width ratio = 3:1 to 5:1 hf = hf = !
h3gdp h3g dij
b. Basin width is determined by the scraper width
(or multiples of the scraper width)
f l = friction factor = 150 c - m + 1.75
1 h
c. Bottom slope is set at 1% Re
d. Minimum depth is 10 ft
2. Circular Tanks where
a. Diameters up to 200 ft hf = head loss through the cleaner bed (m of H2O)
b. Diameters must match the dimensions of the sludge L = depth of filter media (m)
scraping mechanism = porosity of bed = void volume/total volume
c. Bottom slope is less than 8%
Vs = filtration rate = empty bed approach velocity
d. Minimum depth is 10 ft
= Q/Aplan (m/s)
Length:Width Ratio
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Clarifier 3:1 to 5:1
V td
Filter bay 1.2:1 to 1.5:1 Re = Reynolds number = sn
Chlorine contact chamber 20:1 to 50:1 dij, dp, d = diameter of filter media particles; arithmetic
Electrodialysis average of adjacent screen openings (m); i = filter media
In n Cells, the Required Current Is: (sand, anthracite, garnet); j = filter media particle size
I = (FQN/n) (E1/E2) xij = mass fraction of media retained between adjacent
sieves
where
I = current (amperes) f lij = friction factors for each media fraction
CD = drag coefficient as defined in settling velocity equations
F = Faradays constant = 96,487 C/g-equivalent
Q = flow rate (L/s) Bed Expansion
Monosized Multisized
N = normality of solution (g-equivalent/L)
Lo _1 - hoi xij
n = number of cells between electrodes L fb = 0 . 22 L fb = Lo _1 - hoi ! 0 . 22
1 - d Bn 1-e B o
V V
E1 = removal efficiency (fraction) Vt Vt , i , j
E2 = current efficiency (fraction)
0 . 22
h fb = d
Vt n
Voltage VB
E = IR
where
where
Lfb = depth of fluidized filter media (m)
E = voltage requirement (volts)
VB = backwash velocity (m/s), Q/Aplan
R = resistance through the unit (ohms)
Vt = terminal setting velocity
Required Power
fb = porosity of fluidized bed
P = I 2R (watts)
Lo = initial bed depth
o = initial bed porosity

190 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Lime-Soda Softening Equations Rapid Mix and Flocculator Design
50 mg/L as CaCO3 equivalent = 1 meq/L P = cHL
G=
nVol tn
1. Carbon dioxide removal
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3(s) + H2O Gt = 104 105
2. Calcium carbonate hardness removal where
Ca (HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O G = mixing intensity = root mean square velocity gradient
3. Calcium non-carbonate hardness removal P = power
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3(s) + 2Na+ + SO42 Vol = volume
4. Magnesium carbonate hardness removal = bulk viscosity
Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3(s) + = specific weight of water
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H2O HL = head loss in mixing zone
5. Magnesium non-carbonate hardness removal t = time in mixing zone
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3(s) +
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2Na+ + SO42 Reel and Paddle
6. Destruction of excess alkalinity CDAP t f V p3
P=
2HCO3 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3(s) + CO32 + 2H2O 2
7. Recarbonation where
Ca2+ + 2OH + CO2 CaCO3(s) + H2O CD = drag coefficient = 1.8 for flat blade with a L:W > 20:1
Ap = area of blade (m2) perpendicular to the direction of
travel through the water
n
Molecular Molecular Equivalent
# Equiv per f = density of H2O (kg/m3)
Formulas Weight Weight
mole
Vp = relative velocity of paddle (m/sec)
CO32 60.0 2 30.0
Vmix = Vp slip coefficient
CO2 44.0 2 22.0
slip coefficient = 0.5 0.75
Ca(OH)2 74.1 2 37.1
CaCO3 100.1 2 50.0
Ca(HCO3)2 162.1 2 81.1 Turbulent Flow Impeller Mixer
CaSO4 136.1 2 68.1 P = KT (n)3(Di)5f
Ca2+ 40.1 2 20.0 where
H+ 1.0 1 1.0 KT = impeller constant (see table)
HCO3 61.0 1 61.0 n = rotational speed (rev/sec)
Mg(HCO3)2 146.3 2 73.2 Di = impeller diameter (m)
Mg(OH)2 58.3 2 29.2
MgSO4 120.4 2 60.2 Values of the Impeller Constant KT
Mg2+ 24.3 2 12.2 (Assume Turbulent Flow)

Na+ 23.0 1 23.0 Type of Impeller KT

Na2CO3 106.0 2 53.0 Propeller, pitch of 1, 3 blades 0.32
OH 17.0 1 17.0 Propeller, pitch of 2, 3 blades 1.00
SO42 96.1 2 48.0 Turbine, 6 flat blades, vaned disc 6.30
Turbine, 6 curved blades 4.80
Fan turbine, 6 blades at 45 1.65
Shrouded turbine, 6 curved blades 1.08
Shrouded turbine, with stator, no baffles 1.12
Note: Constant assumes baffled tanks having four baffles at the tank
wall with a width equal to 10% of the tank diameter.
Reprinted with permission from Industrial & Engineering Chemistry,
"Mixing of Liquids in Chemical Processing," J. Henry Rushton, 1952,
v. 44, no. 12. p. 2934, American Chemical Society.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 191

Reverse Osmosis Settling Equations
Osmotic Pressure of Solutions of Electrolytes General Spherical
r = zv n RT 4 3 g _t p - t f i d
Vol Vt =
CD t f
where
CD = 24 Re _Laminar; Re # 1. 0i
= osmotic pressure, Pa
= 24 Re + 3 ^Reh + 0 . 34 _Transitionali
1 2
= osmotic coefficient
v = number of ions formed from one molecule of = 0 . 4 aTurbulent; Re $ 10 4k
electrolyte
n = number of moles of electrolyte Vt td
Re = Reynolds number = n
Vol = specific volume of solvent, m3/kmol
where
R = universal gas constant, Pa m3/(kmol K)
g = gravitational constant
T = absolute temperature, K
p and f = density of particle and fluid respectively
d = diameter of sphere
CD = spherical drag coefficient
PRESSURIZED
SALINE FEED
= bulk viscosity of liquid = absolute viscosity
PRODUCT
WATER Vt = terminal settling velocity

SELECTIVELY
Stokes Law
g `t p - t f j d 2
PERMEABLE
WASTE BRINE
MEMBRANE
Vt =
A CONTINUOUS-FLOW 18n
REVERSE OSMOSIS UNIT

Approach velocity = horizontal velocity = Q/Ax

Salt Flux through the Membrane Hydraulic loading rate = Q/A
Js = (Ds Ks / Z)(Cin Cout) Hydraulic residence time = Vol/Q =
where where
Js = salt flux through the membrane [kmol/(m2 s)] Q = flow rate
Ds = diffusivity of the solute in the membrane (m2/s) Ax = cross-sectional area
Ks = solute distribution coefficient (dimensionless) A = surface area, plan view
C = concentration (kmol/m3) Vol = tank volume
Z = membrane thickness (m)
Js = Kp (Cin Cout) Ultrafiltration
Kp = membrane solute mass transfer coefficient = fr 2 # D P
Jw =
DZ _ L t, m si
DsKs 8nd

where
Water Flux = membrane porosity
Jw = Wp (P ) r = membrane pore size
where P = net transmembrane pressure
Jw = water flux through the membrane [kmol/(m2 s)]
= viscosity
Wp = coefficient of water permeation, a characteristic of the
particular membrane [kmol/(m2 s Pa)] = membrane thickness
P = pressure differential across membrane = Pin Pout (Pa) Jw = volumetric flux (m/s)
= osmotic pressure differential across membrane
in out (Pa)

192 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING