Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Bernoullis principle tells us that windows tend to explode rather than implode when
hurricanes. During the hurricanes, a very high speed of air outside the window leading to low
air pressure compare to inside, which the air is still. The differences of forces causing the
windows push outward and explode. That it is why to better open all windows during the
hurricane.
In his book, Daniel Bernoulli states that as the speed of a moving fluid (liquid or gas)
increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases. He comes up this principle and published in
his book Hydrodynamica in 1738. The book describes the theory of water flowing through a
tube and water flowing from a hole in a container which explained the hydronomic pressure.
This unit has been designed to be used with Hydraulics Bench for students to study the
characteristics of flow through both converging and diverging sections. During the
experiment, water is fed through a hose connector and students may control the flow rate of
the water by adjusting a flow regulator valve at the outlet of the test section.
AIM
This aim of the experiment is to determine Bernoullis theorem which can be applied to a
venturi meter consist of converging portion and diverging cone.
THEORY
Bernoullis principle is essentially a work energy conservation principle which states that an
ideal fluid or for situations where effects of viscosity are neglected, with no work being
performed on the fluid, the total energy is constant. This principle also states that the sum of
all forms of energy in a fluid flowing along an enclosed path (a streamline) is the same at any
two points in that path.
The pressure, speed and height (h) at two points in a steady-flowing, non-viscous,
incompressible fluid are related by the equation:
1 1
P1+ v 21+ gh 1=P2+ v 22+ g h2
2 2
This equation is the sum of the kinetic energy, potential energy and gravitational energy at
height. If the equation was multiplied through by the volume, the density can be replaced by
mass and the pressure replaced by force times distance. As the replacement, we can see that
the difference in pressure does work which can be used to change the kinetic energy and the
potential energy of the fluid for this equation.
The continuity equation of continuity states that for an incompressible fluid flowing in a tube
of varying cross-section, the mass flow rate is the same everywhere in the tube. The equation
of continuity can be written as:
1 A 1 v 1=2 A 2 v 2
The density stay at the constant and then it is simply the flow rate (Av) that is constant. The
velocity of fluid is greater in the narrow section as we applied the continuity equation.
Bernoulli's principle also states that if a non-viscous flow along a pipe of varying cross
section. Then, an increment in the speed of the fluid simultaneously with a drop in pressure or
a decrease in the fluids potential energy and the pressure increases when the pipe opens out
and the fluid stagnate. Thus, pressure would decreases when the velocity increases.
p v2
+ +z=h=Constant
g 2g
Where,
z = Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum
The sum of the pressure head (h), velocity head (hv) and the elevation head (z) is known as
the total head (h*). The total head h* at any cross section is constant according to the
Bernoullis theorem of fluid flow through a pipe. The results will deviate from the theoretical
ones in real flow due to friction, other imperfections and the measurement uncertainties.
The centerline of all the cross sections we are considering lie on the same horizontal plane
(which we may choose as the datum, z = 0, and thus, all the z values are zeros so that the
above equation reduces to:
p v2
+ =h =Constant
g 2g
Venturi Meter
The venturi meter is a tool used to measure the flow through a pipeline. This apparatus
consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The venturi tube has a converging
portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the figure below. The converging
portions function is to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower its static pressure. A
pressure difference between inlet and throat is thus developed, which pressure difference is
correlated with the rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves to change the area of the
stream back to the entrance area and convert velocity head into pressure head.
1 Manometer
2 Test Section
3 Water Inlet
4 Unions
5 Air Bleed Screw
6 Discharge Valve
7 Gland Nut
8 Hypodermic Probe
9 Adjustable Feet
PROCEDURE
General Start-Up Procedures
1. The clear acrylic is ensured that the test section is installed with the converging section
upstream. The unions are tighten
2. The apparatus is located on the flat top of the bench.
3. A spirit level is attached to baseboard and on top of the bench is levelled by adjusting
the feet.
4. The flexible inlet tube is connected using the quick release coupling in the bed of the
channel.
5. A flexible hose is connected to the outlet and directed into the channel.
6. The outlet flow control valve at the Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Unit is
gradually opened to allow the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench is filled.
7. The water is allowed to fill in the manometer tubes until all trapped air is removed.
8. Air bleed screw is opened and controlled to get a certain volumetric flow. The screw is
re-tightened when the manometer has reached a convenient height.
Experimental Procedures
h
2 g ( hi)
9. The velocity, V ic is calculated using the continuity equation where; V iC =Qav / A i
10. The difference between two calculated velocities is determined.
Volume of water: 3L
Cross
Using Bernoullis equation Using Continuity Difference
Section
hhi
Di 2 Q av
h =h H hf 2g A i= V ic = V iBV iC
i 4 Ai
(mm) (mm) V iB= (m/s)
( m2 (m/s)
(m/s)
Volume of water: 3L
Cross
Using Bernoullis equation Using Continuity Difference
Section
hhi
Di 2 Q av
h =h H hf 2g A i= V ic = V iBV iC
i 4 Ai
(mm) (mm) V iB= 2 (m/s)
( m (m/s)
(m/s)
Volume of water: 3L
Cross
Using Bernoullis equation Using Continuity Difference
Section
hhi
Di 2 Q av
h =h H hf 2g A i= V ic = V iBV iC
i 4 Ai
(mm) (mm) V iB= 2 (m/s)
( m (m/s)
(m/s)
There are a few things need to be calculated in order to determine the difference value
between ViBand ViC:
hhi
2 g ()
V iB=
As for example, we calculated the ViBof the cross section A of the 1st trial experiment;
g = 9.81 m/s2
161156
2(9.81)()
V iB =
0.3132 m/s
2. The area of each cross section of the tube are calculated using this equation
Di 2
A i=
4
(26)2
As for example; DA = 26 m therefore A i=
4
= 0.000531 m2
DB = 21.6 m DF = 26.0 m
DC = 16.0 m
DD = 20.0 m
DE = 22.0 m
3. Volumetric flow rate of each trial ( 1st, 2nd and 3rd) are calculated using equation;
volume of water (m 3)
Qav =
time taken(s)
As for example we calculated the Q of the cross section A of the 1st trial experiment;
Qav 0.003m3
=
43.20 s
Q av
V ic =
Ai
We calculated the difference value between ViBand ViC .For cross section A;
We had demonstrated the Bernoullis Theorem and from the result we had calculated
that when the diameter of the cross section smaller, there were increasing in velocities along
the distribution tube. The smallest cross section (which is cross section C) gave huge pressure
difference and had the highest velocities. The results had shown that larger pressure difference
gave out the most speed of fluid flow. Furthermore through the experiment, we had observed
as fluid flow through the venturimeter, the head is higher at the narrower tube and vice versa.
The narrower tube leads to high velocities and low pressure.
The volumetric flow rates are calculated for each trial. The speed of water was
controlled by using valve and times taken are recorded as the volumetric tank reached 3L.
Every trial had different volumetric flowrate as to manipulate the result of the velocities and
the calculated volumetric flow rates were substituted into the continuity equation to determine
the velocities. From the calculation, the highest volumetric flow rates gave the highest
velocities.
In order to determine the velocities of each cross section, two different equation were
used; by using Bernoullis Equation (ViB) and by using continuity equation (V iC). From the
calculations we observed that all of calculated ViB had highest value compared to ViC. The
continuity equation is the conservation of mass on a steady flow process through a control
volume. With uniform density of water, the velocity is equal to volumetric flow rate over area.
ViCtook area of cross section into consideration, which when area increase velocity decrease.
ViCis directly proportional to area.
Whereas the Bernoullis equation is when an increment in the speed of the fluid
simultaneously with a drop in pressure and the pressure increases when the pipe opens out and
the fluid stagnate. Thus, pressure would decreases when the velocity increases. This equation
took pressure difference into consideration. As we discussed about both equations, both
equations were suitable to be used to calculate the velocities. However, there some parameters
needed to be considered like pressure difference and area.
We also had calculated the difference between ViB and ViC(ViB- ViC ), to show that the
value of ViB are greater than ViC. As we calculated, there was one negative value which was
should not happen. This may be because of parallax error during taking the reading and air
bubble trapped inside the tube.
CONCLUSION
As Bernoulli state high velocity of fluid flow result in low pressure and based on
continuity equation, smaller area result in high velocity. Thus, the result proved both equation
could be used to determine the velocity of fluid flow in manometer. Even the value is not
exactly the same, but the pattern of increasing and decreasing at the converging and diverging
portion is same. So that, as the velocity increases, the total head pressure also increases for
both convergent and divergent flow.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In order to obtain accurate results, there are a few recommendations and precautions
that should be taken during undergo the experiment. Firstly, the equipment must be drained
before starting and after the experiment, to prevent the equipment damaged. Next, make sure
there is no air bubbles trapped before and during running the experiment. The air bubbles will
affect the result of the experiment. Other than that, the experiment should be run after we have
fully understands the unit and the procedures to avoid some simple mistakes. In addition, to
get the accurate results, the eye level must be perpendicular to the reading when recording the
data to avoid parallax error, by the reading at the right meniscus. Besides that, the control
valve should be maintained at a constant flow so that each at every readings of each
manometer has the same value of pressure. Furthermore, when taking the time taken using the
stopwatch, the suction pipe has to be started simultaneously to get the accurate volumetric
flow rate. Next, the experiment should be repeated for a few times so that an average value
could be obtained. Lastly, the leakage of water in the instrument must be avoided to reduce
the error during conducting the experiment.
REFERENCE
3. Elementary Fluid Mechanics 7th Edition, Robert L. Street, Gary Z. Watters, John K.
Vennard, John Wiley & Sons Inc.