Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Second edition
by Bruner F. Barrie
by Bruner F. Barrie
A SCULPTORS GUIDE TO
by Bruner F. Barrie
A SculptorS Guide to Tools and Materials - Second edition
Layout & Design and Copy Editing by HyBar Consulting Group, Florida
Photographs by: Granite Digital Imaging, LLC., Wellington, Florida
Mega Color Corporation, Deerfield Beach, Florida
Sculpture House, Inc., New York and New Jersey
David Klass, Kent Ullberg and Beatrice Landolt
A.B.F.S. Publishing
Palm City, Florida Princeton, New Jersey
Th is b o o k is d ed icat ed
t o m y wife, Nan cy
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. v
How to Use this Guide - Key Word Technique........................................................... vi
PART 1 MODELING
i
Modeling Accessories ................................................................................................... 12
Troubleshooting/Questions .......................................................................................... 14
ii
CHAPTER 10 ACCESSORIES - WOOD CARVING AND STONE CARVING ............................. 59
Sharpening Stones & Special Oils................................................................................. 59
Finishing Materials ....................................................................................................... 60
Safety Devices .............................................................................................................. 61
Other Accessories......................................................................................................... 62
APPENDIX C HOW SCULPTORS TOOLS, OIL-BASE & CERAMIC CLAYS ARE MADE .......... 83
Modeling Tools ............................................................................................................. 83
Wood Carving Tools ..................................................................................................... 84
Stone Carving and Steel Plaster Tools ........................................................................... 86
Modeling Materials ...................................................................................................... 86
iii
INTRODUCTION
v
product information to those purchasing our For information on a general topic, refer
materials) and for the sales staff at art stores to the Table of Contents to find where the
who sell sculpture materials and supplies, the information will be found in the manual.
last ten years has shown me that there is a
wider audience for this reference guide. If you are looking for information on a me-
This guide incorporates general product dium, tool, or accessory, such as plastilina,
information as well as tool weights and dimen- Microcrystalline wax, or a wood carving
sions, answers to the most frequently asked tool, refer to the Glossary or Index using
questions, and troubleshooting tips. these as key words.
I still believe the information herein will
be of assistance to you. If, after you read this If you have a specific question, such as
book, you still have any unanswered questions, How do I make a mold of a clay figure?,
contact us and my staff will try their hardest determine what you want to do, or the
to answer them. medium in which you want to work, and
Lets continue to keep sculpture alive! look up the key word in the Glossary to
find the appropriate page(s).
How to Use this Guide
To determine the size and weight of a
Key Word Technique specific tool supplied by Sculpture House,
Inc., refer to Appendix E: Tool Weights
When using this guide, first identify the and Dimensions. All tools are listed by
general topic you are exploring. Second, define item number; functional ends, weight, and
the medium in which you want to work, the overall lengths are given for each.
function you want to perform, or the tool or
accessory you want to use. For example: Sup- If you are looking for the correct amount
pose you want to make a wall tile using clay of material required to sculpt a head/bust,
- wall tile is the topic; and clay is the medium figure, or animal, such as How much latex
in which you want to work. Next, choose a would be required to make a head mold?
key word used in either the topic, medium, or or How much plaster should be used to
function. Then refer to the Table of Contents, make a mother mold of an 18-inch figure?,
Glossary, or Index for more information on refer to Appendix F: Material Require-
that key word. ments Usage Chart.
vi
PART 1
Modeling
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
CHAPTER 1
PLASTILINA
1
chApter 1: plAStilinA
bulb for twenty to thirty minutes will soften one-pound and five-pound units and comes
it enough to make it easier to work with. For in a variety of colors. The cost of production
refurbishing 10 to 20 pounds, purchase a hand is less than for the professional grade, and the
hamburger grinder at the local hardware store, retail price is therefore lower.
add the oil as described above and run the There arent many manufacturers of plas-
mixture through the grinder several times. For tilina in the professional or school grades. Your
extremely large quantities the plastilina can be local art supply store will be able to give you
returned to the manufacturer and refurbished, information on the manufacturers of the dif-
usually for a nominal charge. ferent materials they carry. You can then refer
One disadvantage of plastilina is that there any questions you have directly to the specific
is no way to make the material permanent; so manufacturer.
be prepared to make a mold and cast or have
one made of the piece.1 A great advantage
of this material is that it may be stored and
worked over a long period without hardening;
changes, additions, or corrections are easily
made.
The professional grade material is pack-
aged in two-pound units and comes in three
colors: grey-green, off-white, and brown or
natural tan. It is available in four basic hard-
nesses. Number One is the softest and is used
for building up large pieces of monumental
size. Number Two, a medium grade, and the
most commonly used by sculptors, is used for
heads and busts and figures ranging up to three
feet. Number Three is used for more detailed
work and is sometimes placed over the Num- Creating a piece of sculpture in Plastilina
ber One and Number Two when working on Berninis Ecorch by David Klass
facial features. Number Four is the hardest and
is used for medallions, coins, and extremely Troubleshooting/Questions
detailed small work.
The professional grade material normally How can I soften plastilina?
contains sulfur and cannot be used with most To soften plastilina, if not being used at
rubber molds without some form of a separa- room temperature, 68 - 70, place the mate-
tor, such as shellac, between the plastilina and rial approximately two to three feet from a
the rubber. It is recommended that a separator 60-watt light bulb for about twenty minutes.
coating be used in all cases as a precaution. To change the grade consistency (for example,
This separator is not necessary, however, with to soften grade No. 3 plastilina to grade No. 2
the non-sulfur professional grade material. plastilina), soften the clay as instructed above
The school grade material is packaged in by placing it near a light bulb and knead in
1
See Chapter 6: Mold Making & Casting
2
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
small amounts of oil until an even consistency Hardness. This is regulated by the ingredi-
is achieved. ents in the specific formula and, depending on
the variation of the raw materials, may differ
How can I harden plastilina? slightly, although not commonly. During tem-
To harden plastilina, place it in the refriger- perature changes in the weather, the material
ator for thirty to forty minutes before working will also change slightly; in the summer, the
with it. There is no technique for permanent material seems softer and in winter months, it
hardening. To change the grade consistency may seem harder. Sitting at room temperature
(for example, to harden grade No. 2 plastilina for eight hours, all plastilina should return to
to grade No. 3 plastilina), soften the clay as its stated hardness.
directed above and add softened Microcrystal- Short-Dry Material. This is caused by
line Wax in small amounts to the material by lack of wax or oil, or may occur because the
kneading it into the softened plastilina until manufacturer has not aged the plastilina (that
the desired consistency is achieved. is, allowing it to mature for several weeks, if
not months, before packaging). Add household
How can I restore dried out plastilina? oil or return the material to the supplier.
Knead household oil, a few drops at a time,
into the material until you have acquired the Can I heat the material in my kitchen oven?
desired consistency. Yes, but it is not recommended. The out-
side will melt before the center. Rather, place
How can I correct color inconsistencies? the material two to three feet from a 60-watt
This is not easily done since the raw ma- light bulb for twenty minutes and it will soften
terials will vary from batch to batch. While through like butter left on the counter; it will
manufacturers cannot guarantee the produc- return to its stated consistency when left at
tion of totally accurate color batches from room temperature.
materials received from the pigment producer,
they work hard to achieve the closest possible Can I microwave plastilina?
color consistency. Purchase in batch lots if pos- Some people do, but it is not recom-
sible if accurate color consistency is absolutely mended for plastilina containing sulfur since
necessary. Remember the plastilina is only a people tend to overcook the material. If you
model to be cast and is not the finished piece. do attempt to microwave plastilina containing
Most of the time the color will be extremely sulfur, be careful - the plastilina is melted to
close, but as with everything made of natural a more liquid state and since the component
ingredients it may vary. parts contain sulfur, it might smell. The basic
formula for plastilina is wax, oil and clay flour
How can I correct uneven consistencies? so take this into consideration before doing
Since the raw materials are of natural something that you may regret later!
origin they will vary. Although manufacturers Non-sulfur plastilina can be placed in a
attempt to guarantee consistency, composi- microwave oven to soften it for use, but since
tion changes over long periods of time can- microwave ovens have different power levels
not be avoided. Consistency will be the goal and wattage varies, there is no one set rule for
of the manufacturer but may not always be successfully heating the plastilina - accomplish
achieved. this by trial and error.
3
chApter 1: plAStilinA
Can plastilina be melted and poured? How can I make plastilina permanent?
No! The physical make-up does not allow You cant. A mold must be made and a cast
this. Some of the materials components could drawn for the final piece.
ignite when heating excessively. Remember,
this is a wax and oil-base modeling material.
4
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
CHAPTER 2
Clays
5
chApter 2: direct ModelinG MAteriAlS - Air-dried, non-FirinG MAteriAlS
6
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
to produce desired effects in the traditional Another unique clay is Silver Metal Clay
sculpture field. For small relief figures and primarily developed in Japan for making jew-
medallions, I believe its the finest material elry. This material is sterling silver and when
available today. The shelf life of this material, modeled wet and then dried can be fired in a
if it remains packaged, is approximately six ceramic kiln - the finished piece is .999 fine
months before it may harden; if opened, you sterling silver. The material is somewhat more
can work with it for months with no danger of expensive than ceramic clays but the results,
hardening if its kept airtight when not in use. after practice, are extraordinary!
Paverpol Waxes
7
chApter 2: direct ModelinG MAteriAlS - Air-dried, non-FirinG MAteriAlS
Sheet waxes are also available as well tically porous and will not hold liquids or
as rod, tubing and square waxes. There are withstand the effects of outside weather over
paraffin waxes for candle making and special a sustained period of time.
mixture waxes used for jewelry, all available
in a multitude of colors. While these waxes Can these materials be thrown on a potters
may be used in the sculpture field, generally wheel?
they are not. Rod, tubing and square waxes Boneware has been specially re-formulated
are usually used for spurring or a type of to be thrown on wheels for small- to medium-
gating when gases need to be released from sized pieces. However, since Boneware is an
a casting so as not to prevent air pocket air-dried material, it cannot be fired. Most
build-up. These special shaped waxes can be other air-dried materials on the market today
found through most jewelry supply outlets. will not stand up to the added water required
to bring up the side walls on pottery, although
Troubleshooting/Questions there are products that come close.
8
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
CHAPTER 3
MODELING TOOLS
MoDeliNg Accessories
9
chApter 3: ModelinG toolS - ModelinG AcceSSorieS
cutting edge is necessary since the material is jection molding. Since all modeling tools are
firmer and more detail work may be desired. made by hand, they may vary slightly in size
Certain types of wax, roman casting in particu- and shape.
lar, will need a sharp edge (This type of tool can The wood may also vary. Boxwood and
also be used with ceramic clay when it is in the lignum vitae have been almost unattainable
leather-hard state.) Working on set plaster will because of the Haiti embargo. Maple and
also require a heavy sharp cutting edge. Acacia wood have been used as substitutes.
While there may be slight variations among Most wood tools will be sealed with wax or
producers of wire end tools, the major types varnish but may be customized by sanding or
include: single wire end, double wire end, rasping if the shape is not exactly as desired to
and combination of single wire and plain perform a specific function. A coating of wax
modeling end. These tools have the following and/or shellac will reseal the reshape tool.
types of cutting ends: soft round, semi-sharp-
ened, heavy sharpened, half round, serrated
(curved) and thin round. The type of metal
used to make the wire ends are: carbon steel A
for heavier tools, tool steel, piano wire, spring
steel, and brass half round.
Tool Handles
10
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
Plaster Tools
11
chApter 3: ModelinG toolS - ModelinG AcceSSorieS
1
Rotary wheels or fifth wheels are used for larger items of greater weight. See page 51 for details.
12
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
There are also wooden calipers of the same clay to more easily adhere to armature sections
size, but if they become wet they can warp, for build-up. The largest, 3/8 inch diameter, is
making them unusable. There are also pro- used to construct specifically designed full size
portional calipers used in the enlargement and support systems. The other sizes can be used
reduction of pieces. These are available in sizes in a number of ways but are usually meant for
from 18 inches to 42 inches and are normally arms, legs, and appendages of different sorts.
used by professional or advanced sculptors. Aluminum wire is recommended over other
Flexible palettes are helpful accessories materials for an internal support structure
used for smoothing or scraping, or for pottery since it will not stain, or rust through a casting
trimming and leveling the base of thrown clay. in plaster, and it will not corrode. The material
They are available in about six shapes includ- is also pliable and light weight.
ing half round, oval, square, and pointed. They Almaloy Wire is produced at mills in 80
are usually made of blue spring steel or rub- - 100 pound rolls, each in a specific size. Each
ber, are about 4 to 5 inches in length, and are run is usually 2 to 3 tons of these 80 - 100
extremely flexible. pound rolls in all sizes. The bulk rolls are
Block scrapers are rectangular accessories then cut down, into coils of the most com-
and come in heavy steel with or without ser- monly used lengths for sculpture. The rolling
rated teeth. They are used for mold leveling or and cutting machine chucks are set for these
scraping down mold sides or walls. They can specific lengths and cannot be altered to cut
also be used to smooth large models and come other lengths. Requests for 200 foot continu-
in 6 inch and 9 inch lengths. ous wire are sometimes made; they cannot be
filled since a chuck large enough to hold that
A
quantity of material does not exist.
E
A D
B B
C
C
Armature Wire
A. 1/16" B. 1/8" C. 3/16" D. " E. 3/8"
A. Steel Palettes B. Rubber Palette C. Blocked Scraper
An alcohol lamp is used for heating the
Aluminum wire, also known as Almaloy wax tool tips to model hardened wax and
Wire, is an essential piece of sculpture equip- detailing wax sculpture prior to mold making
ment primarily used to build armatures. This is and casting.
a very pliable aluminum wire available in five
different diameters: 1/16, 1/8, 3/16, and 3/8 inch
diameters, and three lengths: 32, 20, and 10
foot lengths. The smallest, 1/16 inch diameter,
Alcohol Lamp
is principally used as wrapping wire allowing
13
chApter 3: ModelinG toolS - ModelinG AcceSSorieS
How precise will a proportional caliper be? How clean do I have to keep my tools?
A proportional caliper will measure up It is best not to leave tools coated with
to five times a given increment but it is not the working medium, such as moist clay and
a high tech tool or a precise device for exact- plaster. Keep them clean and dry when not
ing minute detail. Use it to give approximate in use, and they will last a lifetime, although
measurements for geometrical proportions. normal wear may reduce them in size.
Does the Almaloy Wire (aluminum wire) come What about sharpening my tools - can I do
in longer continuous lengths other than coils? this myself?
Yes. The manufacturer runs these items Most wire end tools are not sharpened un-
in coils by weight not length. Each spool can less you are a professional sculptor and have
weigh between 80 and 100 pounds in one the means to do so. Steel tools, however, can
continuous length. Unfortunately the spools easily be sharpened with a bench stone much
will vary within each shipment so there is no like sharpening a carving knife for steak, since
predetermined weight or length until they are the steel is high carbon and tempered. There
individually rewound into the most commonly are different shapes and sizes of sharpening
desired lengths. While not a common practice, stones available to handle any sharpening nec-
some suppliers will sell a complete spool to essary. See Chapter 10 for more information.
individuals, but the price will vary depending
14
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
CHAPTER 4
ARMATURES
15
chApter 4: ArMAtureS
the bust. It is available only in 24" life size. lengths, shaped as necessary.
1
See Appendix F, Material Requirements Usage Chart.
16
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
If the Almaloy Wire breaks when adjusting or and the wire finally gave out; but this was after
moving it, can it be repaired? several years of hard use.
Not really. The Almaloy Wire or aluminum
wire is a pliable metal wire and as with any- Do a mold and cast have to be made over the
thing pliable, over time it will break. A coat piece on the armature?
hanger will snap after continuous flexing. Al- Yes - in most cases when oil-based clay,
maloy Wire will hold up for years if not overly wax, or plaster is used. When water-base clay
flexed. I have seen only a few cases, where arms is used the clay can be removed after it is
were moved back and forth and up and down, leather-hard without making a mold or cast.
17
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
CHAPTER 5
MODELING STANDS
19
chApter 5: ModelinG StAndS
and the stands top is removable. All the tops design as the Hercules but of lighter weight
are waterproof laminated micarta on press materials. It is probably the most preferred of
board, or a similar material, usually made the folding models; it is easy to place in a car
from kitchen sink top cutouts from the home trunk and is light enough to be easily handled
building industry. by men and women alike. When raised, it is
If the modeling stand has wheels, they will 46 inches high and can hold 200 pounds of
be made of heavy duty rubber with locks so modeling material.
they can be secured when the stand is set up The Studio Stand is a four leg floor ad-
in the studio or classroom. These wheels are justable stand of heavy welded steel with a
called lock casters, each having its own toggle reinforced top. The floor adjustment is ac-
type locking device preventing the wheels complished by screwing down one of the four
from turning. legs with an adjustable thread. The top is raised
Trays to hold tools can be attached to the and lowered by hand with an internal pipe
stands, usually the smaller lighter sculptors and secured with a set bolt through holes in
modeling tools for use with clay and plasti- the pipe. The top is heavy duty and sits in a
lina. reinforced metal frame for added strength.
Most modeling stands are made for mod-
eling with moist clay or plastilina and for
pieces weighing no more than 250 pounds, the
maximum weight used by most sculptors be-
ing 100 pounds. Larger pieces would be mod-
eled standing on the floor. Crank type stands
can hold greater weight (up to 750 pounds)
since they are raised and lowered with a gear
mechanism and a hand crank.
20
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
Studio and Classroom Stands stand provides support and can also store tools.
21
chApter 5: ModelinG StAndS
it locks with the recessed area so it will not stands are designed for even set floors where
shift. The stand does not come with casters balance is not a problem. Both types hold
but they can be added. You can purchase the weight equally well.
casters at a hardware store and attach them to
the stands legs. What do I do when I lose the holding pin?
You can buy a heavy gauge nail and use
that (as I have quite often done) or contact
your supplier and have another sent, usually
at small or no cost.
22
PART 2
CHAPTER 6
25
chApter 6: Mold MAkinG & cAStinG
gypsum materials (casting plaster) only.) Once casting materials for this product are gypsum
it has set the outer shell is chipped away leav- (plaster) and waxes of low temperature.
ing the underlying cast. When stored properly latex molds will
Mold knives are specially designed for last for more than 20 years. Store in a cool dry
work with plaster molds. They are used to area. Some type of filler, such as sand, should
separate mold sections and cut rubber in the be placed in the interior of the mold when not
mold making process. Due to their heavy us- in use; this will help the rubber maintain its
age the blades are not merely attached to the original shape. All molds should be stored in
handle, but run through the handle as one an inverted fashion (upside down).
continuous piece. The blades are made of high
carbon steel so that they can easily be sharp- Paste Maker
ened by honing on a bench stone periodically. Paste Maker is a natural cotton filler used
Most mold knives come with wooden grooved to reduce the amount of pure natural rubber
handles so that turning and slipping will not needed to make a mold. It saves time and cost.
occur if they are wet with plaster. They come The paste maker is added to the pure latex
in two sizes: 4 and 6 inch. Since they can rust after 8 to 10 coats of natural rubber have been
they should be kept clean and dry when not applied. (The detail has been captured in the
in use. first coats of rubber applied to the piece.)
When added to the rubber in small amounts,
the paste maker will thicken it and give added
support to the mold prior to the mother mold
being made.
Mold Knife
Moulage
With waste molds there will be only one A rubbery material derived from sea weed,
cast from the mold, hence its name. This type moulage is an alginate type of substance that
of mold is used to create a working model will not adhere to any surface. It is used exten-
where more definition will be required before sively in prosthetics and death and life masks.
a final rubber mold and cast are made, or if It is the only rubber material that can be safely
only one cast is desired by the artist. used on the human body and can be applied
to inert objects with good results. It will get
Latex Rubber stuck in hair, but can be combed out.
Latex rubber is the second most popular Heat the semi-firm material in a double
mold making compound. Layers of liquid rub- boiler and when cool enough, apply it to the
ber are painted over the model and, after a face or model, layering to about 1/8 inch, and
healthy thickness is achieved, a plaster mother leave it to set about 15 minutes. Next a plaster
mold is constructed in sections over the rub- mother mold is formed over the moulage and
ber. When the final casting material is poured let set. Both the plaster and rubber are then
into the rubber it will therefore retain its shape removed and a cast is poured into the cavity
rather than expand since it is a flexible rubber of the rubber. Recommended casting materials
material. Up to 500 casts from a smooth non- are PosMoulage (wax) and gypsum (plaster)
abrasive casting material can be drawn from products.
a single latex rubber mold. Recommended When kept moist moulage can be reused
26
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
several hundred times. After use, the rubber terial that has been developed in this ever-
can be cut up into pieces and stored in an increasing array of progressive mold making
airtight container for use at a future date. rubbers. Again I must emphasize that these
are extremely difficult materials to work with
Gelatin and consulting a professional with experience
Gelatin is an old time material from the with the materials is highly recommended.
early 1900s before modern rubber was in-
vented used to make molds which are similar Casting Materials
to moulage molds. It is basically horsehide
glue which, when heated to flow, is poured A cast is the reproduction of an original
into the hollow cavity of a mold and left to piece of sculpture in any number of casting
set up or harden. The material can be melted materials, most commonly plaster, plastic, or
and reused several times. Sale of this material bronze; it is the positive. Although mold mak-
ceased in the early 1990s. ing materials are limited in their use, casting
materials are not. Once a mold has been made
White Rubber of a piece, multiple casts can be drawn from it
Another material available for the begin- over a long period of time.
ner mold maker, white rubber is a two-part The mold will deteriorate with each cast-
fast setting material with a 1-part to 10-part ing, but less so when a nonabrasive material,
mixing ratio. The rubber is poured into the such as Pristine White Casting Plaster, is used.
hollow cavity between the mother mold and The rougher the casting material the quicker
model. The material then sets up chemically the deterioration. Casting cement or artificial
and is removed after setting. Recommended stone will hasten the wear on the mold. Fine
casting materials are gypsum and wax only. details, such as eyelids, will wear faster than
The rubber has been known to deteriorate plain geometric surfaces such as the cheek.
after four or five years so this should be kept There are three basic groups of casting
in mind when beginning a project. material: gypsum, resin (plastic), and metal.
27
chApter 6: Mold MAkinG & cAStinG
available through U.S. Gypsum1, Chicago, Il- the resulting plaster cast, setting (hardening)
linois. The more commonly used old school time is generally 20 to 30 minutes, but you
method of slowing the setting time is to add should allow another 45 minutes to an hour
lemon juice or vinegar to the mix. Sample or before de-molding the green plaster. The cast
test batches should be made to determine the should be left for 24 hours to cure after it has
correct proportion. been removed from the mold, during which
To hasten, that is, speed up, the setting, time flange or seam lines can be trimmed. In
you can add salt to the mix. Again test batches areas near water or with high humidity, plaster
should be made to determine the proper pro- might take an extraordinarily long time to cure
portions of mix and salt. (4 to 10 days).
Once plaster has set up it will not break When using plaster molds for casting other
down but will absorb water. When casting plaster pieces soak and soap the mold in water
plaster into a plaster mold it is necessary to and let drip dry prior to casting. Otherwise the
soak the mold so the casting will not adhere cast will adhere to the walls of the mold and it
to it. will be close to impossible to remove it. Seal
Gypsum products2 are not meant for out- the mold and apply a release before casting.
door use under any circumstances, since over When a mold has been made and cured sub-
a long period of time the elements will cause merging it in water will not effect its strength
deterioration of the material no matter how or durability as you might think. Plaster can
dry and sunny it is. The shelf life of plaster in its be cast into almost anything, as long as the
powdered state is approximately six months, material has been sealed and a release has been
sometimes longer but not by much. If stored applied. Plaster can be cast into plaster, rub-
too long the powder when mixed with water ber, milk cartons, aluminum foil, and applied
will not set properly if at all. directly to the body when done properly.
Plaster has a very low shrinkage rate when There are many grades of plaster ranging
set, a concern for highly technical designs per- from the most absorbent to the industrial grade
haps but not for the average sculptor. Mixing materials which are extremely hard and less
proportions for plaster are one quart of water absorbent. Pottery plaster is the most absor-
to five pounds of powder, two quarts of water bent and softest of gypsum products and is
to ten pounds of powder, and so forth. The used extensively in making ceramic slip casting
powder is sprinkled into the water; never add molds, where the water from the liquid clay is
the water to the powder. When the powder drawn into the mold allowing the residue to
and water are mixed the setting material will be removed, dried, and fired. Plaster of Paris is
become hot for a short time, maybe as hot a generic term for a porous grade of construc-
as 112. This should not harm the human tion plaster. It is an industrial homebuilders
body but some areas may be sensitive. After material and I do not recommend using it for
the powder and water have been mixed and any form of sculpture, mold making, or cast-
1
Warning U.S. Gypsum has issued the following warning concerning the use of gypsum-based products: May cause burns. Use only
as directed by manufacturer in current U.S. Gypsum printed directions and specifications available on request. Hazard Caution: Do
not take internally. If this happens, call physician immediately. Keep out of the reach of children. Do not allow children to use except
under adult supervision. This product may develop sufficient heat to cause burns if a large mass, such as a cast of a hand or arm, is
allowed to harden in contact with the skin. Ventilate or use a dust collector to reduce dust in work areas. Use NIOSH-approved
respirator for nuisance dust when air is dusty.
2
For more technical information on gypsum products you can contact U.S. Gypsum in Chicago, Illinois.
28
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
ing. Industrial grade plaster, such as Ultracal, stores. More difficult to use, this material is
may be used in the sculpture field but is not somewhat harder to mix and to pour than the
stocked by suppliers due to its short shelf life other gypsum products. The set up time and
of 3 months and because it is too hard. Expan- pouring quality are a little different but basi-
sion plaster expands slightly when cast but for cally it is used in the same manner as casting
normal sculpture use, not enough to matter. plaster and Hydrocal. I would recommend
The three primary casting materials used casting plaster or Hydrocal to 90% of the
by sculptors are: Pristine White Casting Plaster readers of this manual, no need to bother with
(U.S.G. No. 1), Hydrocal, and Hydrostone; anything else. Hydrostone is recommended for
each has an effective shelf life of 6 months casting only, but cannot be used for outdoor
before they go dead and do not set up. While pieces.
the material may be kept for as long as a year Ultracal and Super Cal are industrial
and a half, a good rule of thumb is to use the grade materials. Not many sculptors, even the
material within 6 months. professionals, use them. Fast Cast is a new
Pristine White Casting Plaster is the most outdoor gypsum material which mixes and
all-around, general use, mold making and cast- sets like casting plaster, but is dark brown in
ing material used in sculpture. It can be used color. Tuf-Cal, a fiber and resin-impregnated
to make molds or mother molds and is strong gypsum, can also be used outdoors. This white
enough to be used for the positive cast. It will material takes a good patina, and mixes and
take a patina well with any type of coloring sets like regular casting plaster. (Tuf-Cal and
(patina), from water-base materials to oil-base Fast Cast are relatively new gypsum products.
materials. It is the best priced and over all the I have not sufficiently tested these materials as
only material a sculptor will need. to their casting quality; from what I have seen
so far, they seem to be very good advanced
casting gypsum.)
Design-Cast66 is a cement type of cast-
ing material that has been advertised as being
Pristine White Casting Plaster able to withstand instability of the weather. It
is a polyurethane impregnated material that,
U.S. Gypsum has informed me that I believe, can be used in most any mold and
through more efficient production methods may be able to be troweled over an armature.
they have combined Pristine White Casting I would not, however, recommend it for direct
Plaster (U.S.G. No. 1) and pottery plaster and modeling.
now has a single moulding plaster. Vatican Art Casting Stone is a stone-like
Hydrocal, 30% to 40% harder than casting mixture of casting plaster, Hydrocal, marble
plaster and a medium porous gypsum, works aggregate, and water soluble pigments (brown,
much like casting plaster in mixing, pouring, white, terra cotta, grey-green, and black). The
and setting. It cannot be used to make the colors are meant as a base coloring for patina
outer or mother molds and is recommended and the marble aggregate acts as a stone simu-
for casting only. It is not recommended for lator. Since the material is gypsum, it may not
outdoor use. be used as an outdoor casting material. The
Hydrostone is the hardest and least porous pigments tend to stain the molds being cast
casting material available through art supply from and the seam lines are hard to repair, but
29
chApter 6: Mold MAkinG & cAStinG
30
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
rubber the mold is filled with liquid material als include plaster, resin, and metals such as
and left to stand for about 3 hours. This is the bronze, pewter, and lead.
effective absorption time and the maximum
that will elapse before the rubber begins to Mixing Gypsum Products
seal itself. A thickness of approximately 1/8 Most sculptors use the age-old method
inch will develop. The remaining liquid is then to mix plaster, that is, by sight and feel. But
poured back into its original container and the to determine the correct amount of plaster
material is left in the mold until it sets and required to fill a space, multiply the pieces
releases from the mold. With slight pulling length by its height and width, and convert
from the mold the cast can then be removed the total to cubic inches. Then apply the fol-
and cured. When no filler has been added the lowing: one ounce of liquid material equals
cast will be flimsy, much like a heavy rubber one cubic inch of set material. Water weighs
band, and somewhat transparent. 10 pounds per gallon, and I recommend hav-
Casting Filler is a material used to harden ing more than enough mixed material on hand
casting rubber strengthening the resulting cast, rather than running short. You may weigh the
added in amounts depending on the desired plaster and water mix by proportion: 5 pounds
degree of flexibility or hardness. Fifty percent of powder to 1 quart of water is the accepted
filler will result in a semi-flexible cast and a rule of thumb for a good mix.
one-to-one ratio of casting filler to casting Place the water in your mixing container
rubber will produce hardness like that of a and sift the powder plaster into the water,
Frisbee. Only testing can determine the flex- breaking up any lumps that may form. Con-
ibility that you desire and should be done on tinue adding plaster powder to the water until
a trial-and-error basis. The filler settles rapidly a small mound rises about 1 inch above the
to the bottom of the container; the mixture water line. Let the powder settle to the bottom
becomes stiff on the bottom and liquid on the and absorb the water for about 2 minutes; then
top. Stirring the mixture, pretty hard at times, mix gently from the bottom with open fingers.
will bring it back to usable consistency. The Scrape down the sides as needed and stir until
finished cast can be painted or patinated in any the mixture is like heavy cream, which is the
number of ways. If the object is a flexible one, best pouring consistency. Just before pouring,
the paint must be a flexible rubber paint, not tap the container on the work bench to dis-
ordinary latex paint. It should be air brushed lodge any air bubbles in the mix.
or sprayed on, not applied by brush, or it will Pour into the mold at a 45 angle until
be too thick and crack when flexed. approximately half full. Empty the liquid ma-
terial back into the mixing container, rotating
Casting Techniques1 the mold to cover all internal areas. Repour
the casting material back into the mold until
Most casting by amateur sculptors is done full, tap the full mold to release any air bubbles
using latex molds, plaster waste molds, or and add more material if needed.
plaster reproduction molds (molds used to Let set and then scrape or level the top of
make more than one cast). Casting materi- the mold area with a block scraper. Within 20
1
Recommended reading for latex, plaster and basic simple techniques for casting is Mold Making, Casting & Patina for the student
sculptor by Bruner F. Barrie. A more advanced book for vents, gates, and bronze casting is Methods for MODERN SCULPTORS
by Ronald D. Young and Robert A. Fennell.
31
chApter 6: Mold MAkinG & cAStinG
to 30 minutes the plaster will become warm; the mold is rotated to ensure that the entire
it will harden after an hour. Let set for at least interior is coated with the liquid plaster. When
an hour before de-molding and then cure the these steps have been done once or twice, ad-
green plaster cast for 24 hours before continu- ditional plaster is poured into the mold filling
ing work. Seam lines from the mold can be it entirely. Tap the mold to dislodge any air
trimmed after about an hour. bubbles, level it, and add more plaster if the
When making a mold allow the plaster mix casting material recedes.
to set up a little longer and become thicker Tips to remember: Please be aware, if
before applying to the model. If the material there are areas of the mold that have not been
is too thin, it will not adhere to the model, secured or do not fit together properly the
but will fall to the base of the model; all of casting material might leak. To prevent this,
the material will end up on the work bench, a take pellets of moist clay or plastilina and
common occurrence with first timers. Working plug these places before adding the plaster.
time is about 10 minutes when making a mold It is important to pour the casting plaster in
so dont make one large batch of material, but one smooth motion to avoid layering or stria-
rather several smaller ones for the mold mak- tion. Also important: have more than enough
ing process. casting plaster to fill the mold the first time so
Castings must be poured in one continuous you wont have to mix another batch. Extra
mass, so mix enough to fill the mold. For larger plaster can always be made into pancakes for
casts place the mold on the floor and place the testing patina techniques and colors. The cost
pouring container on a stool or 50 pound clay of plaster is not that great that any extra can-
box to facilitate pouring. not be thrown away. When removing the cast,
water may have to be poured into the mold
Types Of Casting to release suction build up, but this will not
effect the set cast, so dont worry.
Plaster Casting A plaster waste mold, also used in plaster
Plaster casting in a latex mold is probably casting, will be destroyed when the cast is
the easiest. Once the mold has been made complete. These types of molds are used for
and the plaster mixed the positive cast can be making master casts or when only one cast is
made in one of two ways: either slush casting required. The cast is intended to be re-worked
(creating a hollow cast) or solid casting. In correcting any imperfections or defining any
slush casting, the plaster mixture is repeatedly details before the final mold and cast are made.
poured into and out of the interior of the mold The sculptor only wants one cast. After the
until a desired thickness has built up. This build model is prepared, the plaster mold is applied.
up can be reinforced with plaster-impregnated (The first coat of plaster is usually colored in
burlap. When the plaster has set the mold is some way so that when you chip away the
opened, that is, mold halves or sections are waste mold in the final casting steps, you will
removed in a process called de-molding or be warned that the cast is near.) More plaster
setting the cast out of the mold. The hollow is applied as needed and allowed to set. The
cast is then removed. In solid casting the mold waste mold is then removed from the model
is first filled three-fourths of the way to its top by pouring water between the plaster and
with the plaster mixture. Then the plaster is the model and carefully prying sections apart
poured back into the mixing container, and with a mold knife. Its sections are placed back
32
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
together and prepared for casting. When the always happen but dont take the chance. Use
cast is complete and set the waste mold is proper rubber recommended by the manufac-
removed by chipping with a mallet and chisel turer of the resin. Personally, I prefer to have
and discarded. a professional mold maker and caster do the
Quite often a plaster reproduction mold job.
is made since this is faster and less costly than This type of casting is also used for what
making a latex mold. This is also recom- is sometimes called Bonded Bronze or Cold
mended if only a few casts are desired, gener- Pour Bronze. There is no such thing as cold
ally not more than five. The mold is made like pour bronze; resin impregnated with bronze
any other type of mold, but be sure to allow powder is as close as one can get.
for easy removal of the sections. Apply the
plaster to the model, allow it to set, and then Metal Casting
remove it as with plaster waste molds. After Bronze is a metal that must be molten to
curing and before casting, soak the mold in be poured and thus requires high tempera-
water until saturated. Drain off excess water tures. It also requires a ceramic shell coating to
but make sure the mold is still wet when pour- withstand the high temperatures when cast.
ing the casting material. Seal the mold with The basic process in bronze casting is to
shellac and soap the interior of the mold or make the model and a rubber mold. Next a
have a release applied to it so the cast will not wax positive is drawn from the mold. The
adhere to these interior sections. Sprinkle a few wax is then coated with a ceramic slurry
drops of water on the interior of the mold; if (shell or investment) and melted out (this is
they bead up on the surface you are fine, but if called the lost wax process). Molten bronze is
they are absorbed into the plaster walls of the poured into the empty shell and when cooled
mold dont pour the casting material until this the shell is chipped away leaving the bronze
situation is corrected. Mix the casting plaster cast. An intricate system of vents and gates is
and follow the casting steps outlined above in required so gas will not build up and crack
plaster casting. To remove the cast after set- the investment mold (the ceramic shell into
ting and curing, pour water into the mold to which the bronze is poured after the wax is
facilitate parting of the molds sections. melted out). The bronze cast will be the color
Please note, when casting plaster, reinforcing of matte brass and will have a seam line that
rods or burlap may be needed in delicate areas must be removed. Any flaws or defects must
such as arms and ankles. Place the rods when be corrected and seams removed by a qualified
the plaster begins to set so they will not float to professional through a process called chasing.
the outside of the cast. Use rust proof material, When the cast is finished it must be patinated
as rust will come through the plaster. or polished, requiring another professional,
since metal must be colored with acids. Most
Resin Casting contemporary statues are chemically patinated
Resin casting generally requires special in this way no matter what their color. I highly
types of rubber for the molds. The component recommend that bronze casting be left to pro-
parts that make the resins set heat up to a point fessionals.
where latex types of rubber might distort the Lead casting can be accomplished by the
casting. Latex cannot withstand these high average individual. Here is what it takes: a
temperatures and will constrict. This does not mold that has been properly gated and vented
33
chApter 6: Mold MAkinG & cAStinG
so that any gas build up does not explode the tiles or pancakes before coloring the original
mold when casting; hot metal plaster that can cast.
withstand the high temperature of the lique- To strengthen plaster casts an additive is
fied lead; and a black iron pot to melt the pigs used with the wet material. Usually burlap
of lead (this pot should be large enough to or cloth is impregnated with wet plaster and
hold sufficient lead to fill the entire mold in added to the interior of a cast or mold to help
one continuous pouring flow). A hot metal support the cast. This does not mean that the
plaster mold is made around a wax cast or plaster material becomes stronger. Bone Emul-
model and the wax is melted out. The lead sion, on the other hand, is a liquid that when
is then poured and the plaster chipped away added to the plaster mix makes the plaster
leaving the cast. If the mold is not made harder. It contains a natural hardening ingredi-
properly and warmed prior to casting, or if it ent such as cornstarch and does not make the
is moist, the lead may spit out and burn ex- material weatherproof. When bone emulsion
posed parts of the body. The mold may even is stored, a sediment forms at the bottom of
explode and spit hot lead all over the place. the container. Vigorous stirring loosens the
If you are not sure what you are doing dont material.
try it. I have seen too many people burned Casts and molds can be made stronger with
or injured casting low melting metals. Ap- plaster reinforced strips placed both internally,
prenticeship or proper instruction should be on reachable areas, and externally for larger
a prerequisite before casting in this manner. molds that need additional support. Separat-
ing the halves or sections of the mold will
Tips for Coloring and create the greatest stress and reinforcement
Strengthening Plaster Casts might be required. On larger projects pieces
of aluminum wire are sometimes attached to
To give plaster color use a base coloring the outer areas of the mold in strategic places
for patina. Add water-based pigments to the to help with this reinforcement.
water when mixing the powder. This gives a
solid color throughout the material so if the Plaster Casts & Anatomical Figures
cast chips, or has a break, it will not display
the pure white natural material of the plaster. Plaster casts and anatomical study figures
I use RIT clothes dye. Use a strong dose since have been used for centuries as a means to
the water and plaster will dilute the color. view or study proportions of a specific part of
The richness of the color will depend on the the body. These casts can be made of resin but
amount of dye used. Test batches are usually most, for economy, are made of plaster. The
a good idea. Patina plaster is a coloring given casts being discussed here are made of U.S.
to a piece for aesthetic effect, and is applied Gypsum No. 1 pristine white casting plaster.
after the plaster has set and cured for at least Great care should be taken when handling
24 hours. Colors added to the surface will these casts since they can break easily dur-
only penetrate so far into the cast, creating a ing shipment and in the classroom if handled
surface patina. Plaster can be patinated in any roughly.
number of ways, using acrylic paint, oil paint, The Ear, Nose, Lips, and Eye make up the
water colors, egg wash, stain, or latex paints. primary study group and are made in 8 inch
Whatever you use I suggest you make sample relief casts that are larger than life size. The
34
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
35
chApter 6: Mold MAkinG & cAStinG
Then a mold and a cast are made. will cause deterioration. Place the rubber back
It is very important to have the proportions inside the mother mold for storage. Remember,
of anatomy, shoes, buttons, and the like exactly as more casts are made the rubber will lose
correct on the original model since any varia- definition. To keep sharp casts remake the
tions will be magnified on the enlargement. rubber mold from the master cast. Fill the un-
For example, if a shoe lace is off a fraction of used stored mold with clean sand to maintain
an inch on an 18 inch model and the model definition. For storage, place the cured rubber
is enlarged to 20 feet, the enlargements shoe back inside the mother mold.
lace will be out of proportion by almost ten Clean the interior of the rubber after each
times that of the original. casting and before storing.
Reducing models is done in the same
way in reverse. However, not many pieces are Can latex rubber be poured and set solid?
reduced; some professionals make a ceramic No. Latex must be applied one coat at a
mold and cast the piece in porcelain, fire the time and air dried before adding another coat.
piece, and get about a 20% reduction with each If poured, the latex will seal on the outer layers,
firing. This is normally done with small pieces preventing the inner latex from setting. Only
under 10 inches. a material with a chemically curing agent can
With technological breakthroughs and be poured solid, such as white rubber, Tuffy,
advancements in computer design, digital en- and silicone.
larging has become cost effective in the current
arena. There are several companies in the U.S. How long will a latex mold last?
that offer digital enlargement and reduction Up to 20 years, if stored properly. You can
more affordably than having multiple enlarge- boil the cured rubber to vulcanize it: submerg-
ments made with the use of a pantograph. ing it in boiling water for 20 minutes will give
For more information, search the Internet or the rubber longer life.
contact Sculpture House for current informa-
tion and/or contacting a source. Can latex be colored?
Yes. A water soluble pigment, such as
Troubleshooting/Questions clothing dye, can be mixed with the rubber
while it is still liquid.
Keep the tops of containers tightly sealed
so that the latex is not exposed to air. Oth- Can you cast latex?
erwise a film will develop on the top surface There are two types of latex rubber. The
like the skin on an old milk container. This can most commonly referred to latex rubber is the
be removed without harm to the latex but it mold rubber used to make a negative mold.
wastes material. The negative mold is encased with a plaster
Do not let the latex set up on brushes or mother mold or retaining mold so the rubber
tools when applying. Rinse them frequently in will hold its shape during casting.
water so they will remain clean. Casting rubber is the latex rubber used
Clean and dry tools and containers after use to make a positive rubber cast or mask. The
to keep them fresh for the next application. casting rubber is poured into a plaster mold
Do not store cured rubber in areas of (and only a plaster mold); after setting for a
sunlight or outside the mother mold. This few hours the rubber forms a thin layer on
36
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
the molds surface - the excess liquid rubber layers before the inner material has set. This
is removed. The resulting rubber is left to set usually occurs in cavities or at joints. Take a
and cure and when removed from the mold pin, or sharp pointed object, and puncture
becomes a positive cast piece. the semi- sealed area and let dry. Sometimes
Note: Mold rubber can only be used to a Q-tip will work well.
make a negative mold. Casting rubber can
only be used to make a positive cast from a I get soft spots. How can that be avoided?
plaster mold. An easy way to remember this Soft spots occur where the rubber has set
is: mold rubber for the negative mold; casting before the inner material is dry. The interior
rubber for the positive cast. rubber remains liquid or semi-liquid and leaves
a blemish on the positive cast. This can be
How long will latex keep in its container? avoided by applying the latex in thinner coats
If the container is kept airtight the latex and allowing each coat to dry thoroughly be-
will last for years. When exposed to light the fore applying another one. Once the mold is
material will take on a pink hue but this does made this defect is very difficult to correct, if
not effect its workability. at all. Sorry.
How do you clean up after using latex? The mold takes on the color of the casting
Latex is an ammonia- and water-base material. Can this be avoided?
natural rubber and tools and brushes can be The rubber will pick up the color of the
cleaned with warm water. Keep the brush in casting material especially if it is black or dark
a water solution while working and then dry brown. Casting lighter materials will alleviate
with a cloth when finished. Set rubber can be this somewhat. From experience I have learned
peeled from tools and other surfaces when to make light casts first, then the darker ones.
dry. If a series is to be made of different colors, I
recommend separate molds for each color be
Can latex be applied over dried latex? made from the master cast.
Yes. Although this is not recommended
if the material has been cured for more than The latex has a pink tint. Is this a problem?
24 hours, since layering will occur. Apply the No. When latex has been exposed to sunlight,
next coat of latex when the previous coat is even in its container, a pink hue will result. This
dry. Trouble occurs after it cures for 24 hours - will not affect the integrity of the latex.
additional coats of latex wont adhere properly.
Can latex be applied directly to the human
If the latex thickens how can it be thinned? body?
Latex can thinned with either water or No. This will block oxygen from the pores
household ammonia. Do not thin the latex and cause damage to the epidermal tissue.
too much since it will weaken the strength of
the material. Who is best trained to cast in resin and
bronze?
How do I stop pooling? When casting with resin, plastics such as
Pooling is caused by allowing the rubber fiber glass, or even soft metals, special types of
to build up; a film will then cover the outer rubber molds and releases are required. Each
37
chApter 6: Mold MAkinG & cAStinG
manufacturer will recommend the proper re- out the world for his knowledge and use of
leasing agent for a specific rubber depending patinas, has developed a patina kit for gypsum
on the material being cast into that rubber. and fired ceramics that is by far the best I have
To cast in resin and bronze is an advanced ever seen. Following Rons easy directions for
technique and professional mold makers and application, you can create original patinas that
casters should be retained for these projects. would normally take nature years to develop.
Bronze casting should definitely be left to the His kit contains more than you would ever
professionals. need for base patinas - and is so much fun
to experiment with that youll spend hours
Is there a superior patina kit for the amateur patinating! There are color shots, examples
and/or professional sculptor? and test tiles together with complete instruc-
Yes, Ron Young, highly regarded through- tions.
38
PART 3
CHAPTER 7
WOOD CARVING
41
chApter 7: Wood cArvinG
Straight Skew
Tang Blade
Handle
Parting Tool
Handles are attached to the tool blades to
complete the carving tool. Most are octagonal
in shape so the tool will not turn or twist while
Fish Tail
carving. Depending on the size of the tool,
The sweep of a wood carving tool can be handles will vary in size and diameter. There
defined as the curvature of its cutting edge are three basic sizes for the majority of tools
and is designated by a number. The higher from inch to 1 inch.
the number, the deeper its curve. The tool's There are handles with leather tips which
width, measured from its right tip to its left will not mushroom the ends when they are
tip, is designated in inches or millimeters. For being struck with a mallet, and handles with
example, a gouge no. 7 - 1/8" has a deeper sweep metal tips (metal caps and rings) on the per-
than a gouge no. 3 - 1/8", yet the widths of their cussion end, again so as not to mushroom the
respective cutting edges are the same - 1/8 inch. handle end. Oversized handles are used in
Most tools are drop forged and ground to their the round (that is, with one large solid round
final size, usually by hand. Both the width piece of hard wood) for very large (up to 3
and the sweep of the tools cutting edge are and 4 inch) tools; however, they are not com-
important factors to consider when choosing monplace.
the right tool for you.
42
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
Imported tools generally cost more than or check and become unusable. Kiln dried
domestically produced tools. They have a wood is the most sought after since the wood
gun metal finish with the number and size has had the moisture removed by drying in an
stamped on the blade. U.S. made tools are of oven. A flinch is a piece of wood cut and waxed
equal quality if not better than some imported so that it will air dry and cure naturally.
tools. The steel is high carbon; and heat treating The hardest thing to avoid in wood carv-
and tempering are well regulated with the use ing is the checking or cracking of the wood
of a Rockwell Black Diamond steel hardness after it has been carved. This is caused by the
testing machine. absorption and expulsion of moisture, which
The temper or hardening of most tools is can occur at any time, even after a period of
mainly in the first few inches of the tool. If a years. Although the cracks can be filled and
tool has been used over a long period of time sanded, I have never seen a foolproof way to
it should be re-tempered. Tools should also be correct checking.
sharpened about every 20 minutes or when
they seem to drag or feel dull. This is done Other Wood Carving Tools
using a figure eight motion at 45 on a bench
stone. Honing is an extra sharpening step that Wood carving mallets are available in three
makes a tools cutting edge razor sharp, usually basic sizes and two basic styles. The sizes are
done at an additional cost; the tool tip is then small (with a range somewhere between 10
coated with a plastic for safety. To remove and 18 ounces in weight), medium (between
the coating hit the tool on a piece of wood as 12 and 22 ounces), and large (between 22
though carving and the plastic will break off. and 25 ounces). The weight of the mallet is
Most tools will last a lifetime if properly cared determined by the diameter of the striking
for, whether imported or made domestically. head. The smallest size is used primarily for
Some imported tools are made with Shef- detailed light work, the medium for general
field steel, from England, which some believe carving, and the largest for carving pieces over
to be the best. Steel produced in America and 3 or 4 feet, such as totem poles. How holding
Japan is also thought to be of very high qual- the mallet for extended periods affects the indi-
ity. Regardless of the steel the tool must be vidual sculptor will also determine the size used;
properly heat treated and tempered to work the medium size is the most commonly used.
well and hold an edge. The basic styles are one-piece and two-piece
Wood for carving can be secured in many mallets.
varieties. The most common are Bass Wood The material used for one-piece mallets
and Pine, although Birch, Maple, Mahogany, can be maple, lignum vitae, or boxwood. Box-
and Cherry are also very popular. Exotic woods wood and lignum vitae give greater density to
such as Coca Bola, Lignum Vitae, Boxwood, the feel and weight of the tool, but they come
Purple Heart, and Zebra, to name a few, are from Haiti and have not been available for
difficult to obtain in bulk form and are most several years. Maple, the next most desirable
commonly available in veneer, or very thin hardwood, is used in producing mallets that
sheets. have been turned and shaped from a single
It is hard to find a good source for wood in piece of solid wood.
the best of times. It is too expensive to stock The striking surface (head) of two-piece
wood in large carvable sizes, and it may crack mallets can be made of resin, Purple Heart or
43
chApter 7: Wood cArvinG
Angico (the latter two types being extremely These tools can have round handles or half
hard exotic woods from Brazil) and the handle rounded, and flat palm grip handles, all of
of wood. The heads are turned separately and which are made of a hard wood. .
attached to the handle, then wax coated. The wood carvers adz is a hatchet type of
cutting tool and is available in three basic sizes
(small, medium and large) and two styles. The
primary style has a gouge and a flat cutting
edge; the secondary style has a hammer square
end with a curved gouged cutting edge. The
handles on all adzes are long and resemble the
handles of hatchets.
The heavy duty adz is an oversized adz
with a larger handle and cutting edges of al-
most 3 inches. It has a straight hatchet cutting
edge and a medium straight gouge cutting
edge. This tool is used as a reduction device
One-Piece Mallet Two-Piece Mallet for extremely large pieces of wood. Since it is
too large for use by all but advanced carvers,
To remove or replace a handle, place it in it can also serve as decoration in a studio or
a vise held at the base of the blade, and tip in workshop!!
a downward motion releasing the handle from
the tang Then drill a hole of the proper size
in the new handle to accommodate the tang.
Most handheld tools, or palm tools,
are sold in sets. They are generally meant for
Adz
chip carving or relief work and have shorter
shafts and smaller cutting edges. The shapes
are normally straight chisel, gouge, skew, short Carving knives are used mainly for chip
bent, and long bent gouge. carving but can also be used for finishing and
detailing. There are 7 shapes with the 3 prima-
ry shapes being a right hand chipper, a straight
knife like cutter with a handle dovetailed to
fit the hand for whittling, and a double sided
curve. The handles are elongated with a taper
and the blades are attached with a rivet.
A B C Carving Knives
44
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
clean horses hooves, has been adapted to the Quite a few carvers I have known do not even
carving field for its versatility. It has a high have a sharpening stone and wonder why their
carbon tempered steel blade and a rounded tools do not hold up. Even steak knives and
hooked cutting edge that is pulled toward the turkey carving knives need to be sharpened
user in a shaving or drawing manner. after a while, and they are used on soft meat
A draw knife is generally associated with not hard wood.
shipbuilding and used in smoothing planks. In
wood carving the draw knife is quite often used What is a steel fracture?
for reducing large areas to form a geometric At times a tool will develop a hairline crack
surface. It is used as a planing device and is or fracture. This should not happen and can
pulled or drawn toward the user. The cutting be the fault of the tempering process. If the
edge can vary with the normal length being tool is dropped, or hits a nail in a piece of old
about 9 to 10 inches. The blade is solid high wood, it can develop a crack.
carbon tempered steel and a wooden handle
is attached directly to the steel. What causes fraying of the handle?
The percussion of the mallet hitting the
contact surface can have a mushroom effect
on the handle. Electrical tape wrapped around
the handle end will diminish this.
Draw Knife
45
chApter 7: Wood cArvinG
46
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
CHAPTER 8
STONE CARVING
Stone
47
chApter 8: Stone cArvinG
to as soapstone and therefore not suitable for vanced sculptors having a lot of time to spend
beginners. on the piece.
Alabaster is the second hardest and Most of the quarried stones are mined in
is considered a medium hard stone as are sizes of between 50 and 100 pounds. While
sandstone and limestone which are abrasive larger stones are available, smaller stones must
stones. It comes in many colors: Tiger's Eye be cut from these larger boulders, and an ad-
Grey and Tiger's Eye Red, Bruno Carmello, ditional charge is normally attached to the
Italian Brown Agate, Oyster Shell, Red Vein, per pound price to cover the cost of labor and
White on White, Raspberry, Root Beer, Orange, blades. If everyone could place a 75 pound
Creamsicle, and Tropical, to name a few. How- stone on his or her mantel or bookshelf all
ever, the favorites of sculptors everywhere are would be fine, but few people can, so stones
the translucent and opaque white alabaster. I are cut to a more reasonable size, usually with
would suggest the green soapstone and white two to three flat sides and one rough. Cutting
alabasters as carving stones for beginners. All thin slabs is extremely difficult and normally
these carving stones are available at the larger not done due to possible breakage. When a
sculpture supply houses or stone suppliers. stone is cut to size the entire boulder must be
Used by students throughout Europe to purchased before cutting; you are also buying
speed up the carving process, alabaster cylin- the waste, as in a butcher shop, you buy the
ders, also known as stackable stone cylinders, meat before, not after, the fat is trimmed. In
are available in several sizes. order to get a stone with a dimension of 12
Marble is the third hardest stone, the cubic inches a boulder of between 200 and 300
hardness varying with the geographic locale pounds may be required. A one foot cube (12"
from which it is mined. Vermont marble is by 12" by 12") will weigh approximately 108
very hard; Italian marble (the highest grade pounds since the density factor of most stone
known as Carrara marble) has a standard is 1 cubic inch to 1 ounce in weight.
medium hardness as does Colorado marble. When choosing a stone to work with, look
Carrara marble is favored by professionals; the for any fracture lines, large veins, iron deposit
number one pure white is by far the best. Also areas, or fissures. These may cause breakage
known as statuario, this last stone was used by when the piece is being carved. Also, tap the
Michelangelo. (I have not seen this grade of stone with a light hammer in various areas; you
stone in the United States since 1978 when should get a clear ringing sound. Somewhat
a friend had several pieces and even then, like giving a physical to the stone you are
no one was permitted to touch the pieces he considering for purchase!
had.) Other marbles include Statuario Puro, A final note, always consult your local art
Bianco Pi, Statuario Venato, Bardigilo, Belgium supply store for details on its stock.
Black, Portuguese Rose, Vermont White, Ten-
nessee Pink, Colorado Yule, California Crystal, Stone Carving Tools
Chinese Black, Alabama White, and Danby
White. They range from soft to extremely The basic steps in stone carving are design,
hard. Consult your supplier for the hardness percussion removal in three stages (roughing,
of marble best suited to your needs. secondary shaping, and smooth finish), hand
Granite is the fourth hardest carving stone. rasping, sanding and finally finishing and
This is recommended for only the most ad- mounting. The stone carving tools used to per-
48
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
Reduction Chisel
Small Straight Chisel
49
chApter 8: Stone cArvinG
The fish head is an outward, c-curved There is a four point flat tooth chisel, a one of
tool that, held sideways, looks like a sunfish. a kind, very useful in finishing. There are also a
Its cutting edge is flat on the outer curve and diamond shaped point, a rondel, and two flat
is used to make slight long strokes similar to chisels. The shanks on all these tools are half
those made by a long bent gouge in wood carv- the size of those on standard tools, used for
ing. The needle nose point is an inward shaped fine detail work and delicate definition.
point (concave) that comes to a dramatic point Stone carving hammers come in three
used in removing bulk stone. weights and are made of soft iron, so the
Carbide tipped tools are stronger than percussion is easier on stone, tool, and user.
standard carbon steel tools; as such they will There are two standard sizes of steel heads
need less frequent sharpening. However, they which are measured in pounds but these are
will not take a harder blow as most people not commonly used due to the strong percus-
believe. This is because the carbide, although sion on the tools and stone. The sizes of the
stronger, is much more brittle than carbon steel heads are: 1 pound used for small detail work,
and hence more susceptible to shattering or 1 pounds for the most common type of
breaking on hard impact. Please take this into carving, and 2 pounds for larger carving. The
account when using these tools; they cannot handles are heavy strength, the hammer heads
and should not be hit harder. attached to the handle through a center hole
Available in the standard handheld style, in the head with several steel wedges ensuring
they come in point and chisel shapes in two the fit. Unless you are very muscular, the 1
sizes. They are also available in a pneumatic pound hammer is the tool of choice.
series including a straight chisel, three-point
tooth chisel, and point.1
The carbide tips are welded in high carbon
steel shanks, and, if not used properly, will
shatter or break loose from the welded area.
Always use a light touch at a 45 angle when
using carbide tipped tools. The fragile carbide
will shatter if the tool is struck too forcefully.
50
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
points on the face. The tool is used like a ham- carving rather than walk around it. I've seen
mer and is for surface reduction of stone. The a posing platform electrically attached to one
bush and pick tools are available with and of the larger rotary wheels with the model
inch face surfaces on one end (the bush) rotating slowly 360 so students could view
and with a point on the other end (the pick). all sides of the pose easily.
These are also used to reduce large quantities
of bulk stone in the roughing out stages.
A frosting tool is a handheld tool, its face
being a bush-shaped cutting surface with a
Fifth Wheel
percussion hitting end, but somewhat more
rounded. A reduction device for fast and easy
removal of bulk stone and for texturing, it Carving Sets
comes in three sizes: , , and 3/8 inch.
These sets contain a basic set of carving
tools placed together as one unit. The basic
carving set, designed for the beginner, in-
cludes the primary tools necessary to carve
simple pieces, plus a 1 pound hammer, in
a canvas roll. The professional stone carvers
set contains all the standard tools, plus a heavy
hammer, in a canvas carrying roll. It is meant
for the more advanced carver. The miniature
stone tool set contains standard tools, small
detailing tools, and a bush hammer all geared
for detailing work by the amateur as well as
the more advanced professional. The stone
sculpture set is probably the most advanced set
A B C available. It includes standard carving tools, a
A. Bush Hammer B. Bush and Pick C. Frosting Tool bush and pick hammer, a firmer straight chisel
which is a one of a kind oversized heavy-duty
A rotary wheel (fifth wheel) is a device flat chisel, a 1 pound hammer, goggles, a
made of heavy duty steel bands with ball bear- sharpening stone, and finishing paper, all in a
ing rollers for supporting large pieces of stone, wooden carrying case.
weighing up to 3,000 pounds. The name fifth
wheel derives from the manner in which train Pneumatic Handpieces and Tools
engines are turned around in station yards to
head back in the direction from which they Before going into descriptions of specific
came. The engines are placed on a fifth wheel pneumatic tools, I will explain what the pneu-
in the yard, turned around, and attached to matic handpiece and tool unit consists of: you
the cars for the return trip. When a stone is so need an air source, most likely provided from
large that it is difficult to carve in a stationary a compressor with a 3-gallon tank (larger if
standing position or from one spot, a carver you dont want to hear the motor running
places it on a rotary wheel so he can turn the all the time). The compressor should have an
51
chApter 8: Stone cArvinG
oil attachment and a moisture filter. It will tools, except they have a turned " round
come with a inch hose for attachment to shaft end. They are available in carbon steel
the tools to be used with the compressor. A for wood carving and carbide tipped steel for
one horsepower motor is generally enough stone carving. The two piece unit runs on air
since the handpiece will operate on 70 PSI power that is again separate from the tool and
(pounds of pressure per square inch). When handpieces.
buying a compressor, do not let the salesper- Although there are several sizes of hand-
son confuse the PSI needed to operate the pieces, the most common are the 5/8, , and the
handpiece with the pressure of the inside of inch. The lighter-weight tools are easier on
the tank, or the horsepower needed. A 3 gal- the arms, especially after continuous use and
lon tank and a horsepower motor will work vibration. Smaller and larger sizes are available
fine, but, although less costly, the motor will from Italy and several U.S. manufacturers, but
run continuously and will be noisy. (For the they are not stocked by most suppliers for lack
first few years I put mine in the room next to of demand. They can be special ordered, how-
where I was carving or outside in a shed with ever. The size is measured by the piston size
a longer extension hose to my workbench.) in the handpiece shaft, which also determines
With a larger tank (50 gallons) and a motor the weight and diameter of the outside of the
with more horsepower, the motor will only handpiece. The smaller size handpiece is the
turn on occasionally once the pressure is built choice of most carvers since it weighs less and
up to maintain the pressure. This type of unit is is easier to handle with stones ranging from 40
normally used in large shops where a number to 200 pounds.
of handpieces run off of one large compressor.
It is not normally for home use.
I recommend a quick disconnect for
detaching the handpiece easily from the air 5/8" Handpiece for " Shank
hose, and a fine air valve to reduce (or cut
off) the air flow to the handpiece so it will The handpiece is held in the right hand
not bounce around the workbench when not and the tool shaft, after it has been inserted
in use. Without some type of shut off, the air into the handpiece, is held in the left hand (left
will continue to flow directly to the handpiece handed users will reverse this). When pressure
and it will flop around like a fish out of water. is applied the tool will begin striking the stone
Both can be found in NAPA auto parts stores in about 1 inch sweeps. Rotary hand grinders
at reasonable cost. and sanders are available but normally they
are used by professionals and steel welders for
finishing.
Pneumatic tools can reduce bulk material
Quick Disconnect
in about one-third the time standard handheld
tools require. Any serious carver will never go
A pneumatic handpiece is attached to the back to carving by hand once he or she has
hose and holds the tools which fit loosely in used a pneumatic.
the handpiece and are activated with pressure The piston, inside the housing of the hand-
on to the surface to be cut. Pneumatic tools piece, is very sensitive to dirt and dust, and
are steel cutting shafts that look like standard should be kept clear of stone refuse when not
52
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
in use. The majority of operational problems fish tail, and parting tool.
are due to dust clogging the piston causing it
to stick or seize. The cost of cleaning usually
A
takes this possibility into account.
As I mentioned, a pneumatic tool works in
B
conjunction with a handpiece. There are two
ends of a pneumatic tool, one is the cutting
C
surface and the other is the shank. Place the
shank of the tool in the shaft of the handpiece A. Carbide Tipped Tooth Chisel
B. Carbon Steel Tooth Chisel (Rake)
and apply pressure. The piston within the C. Carbon Steel Wood Carving Straight Chisel
handpiece causes the striking motion of the
tool. The higher the air pressure used, and the Carbide tips are available only in the stone
greater the pressure applied by the carver to carving series on a smaller point, tooth (three-
the stone or wood, the faster and the harder prong) chisel, and a straight flat chisel. Please
the striking action. The appropriate time pe- remember, carbide will shatter if hit with too
riod for continuous use of these tools is about much force on a hard stone.
20 to 30 minutes, since the vibration and rapid The largest producers of pneumatic hand-
percussion tire most people out in that time. pieces in the United States are Trow & Holden
The majority of handpieces have a inch and Bicknell; in Italy, Cuterri. The American
shaft. (There are smaller, even miniature, tools seem to hold up superbly; any difficulties
handpieces that have 5/8 inch and smaller shafts, are easily corrected and the cost is reasonable.
which work with smaller shank pneumatic With the Italian handpieces this is generally
tools. These are not interchangeable with larger not the case since they are usually returned
handpieces and are in short supply; they can to the manufacturer in Italy.
be found in Italy.
In addition to sculptors pneumatic hand- Electric Tools
pieces which are cylinder shaped, there are
mechanics handguns (with triggers used to While pneumatic tools and handpieces
remove rivets on mufflers) that also work on work on a percussion method, back and forth,
the pneumatic air system. These guns do not electric tools work by a rotary method. They
really work well for sculptors although the run on household current and normally have
principle is the same. foot rheostats to govern the RPM (rotations
There are three general types of pneumatic per minute) of the tool bits. The basic com-
tools that work with the various handpieces. ponents are a motor (1/10, 1/8, or even 1 horse-
They are carbon steel stone carving tools, power), a turning cable (replaceable when
carbide tipped stone carving tools, and car- worn) covered by a sheath that is attached to
bon steel wood carving tools. All will have a handpiece (also detachable and in a variety of
inch shanks to fit the standard handpieces. styles), and bits or burrs of various shapes and
Sizes and styles are limited by demand and composition that attach to the handpiece usu-
by production facilities both here and abroad. ally with a " (with smaller tools 1/8") shank.
The common shapes used in stone carving are There are basically two sizes of electric
points, rakes, and straight chisels, and in wood tools, small and large. Both sizes can be either
carving are short bent, straight chisel, gouge, table top or wall mounted. Most larger ma-
53
chApter 8: Stone cArvinG
chines have an option for a variable speed foot rosive abrasives, such as scratch-free Comet.
rheostat to control the RPM (normally 14,000 Some sculptors use Clorox or even toothpaste.
maximum) from zero to the maximum. Or Larger pieces may be sandblasted by profes-
some have a dial set device that holds the sionals.
speed at set intervals within the minimum
and maximum range of RPM. The smaller What is the best all around pneumatic hand-
machines have interval settings, usually in the piece?
handle of the machine, set at low, medium, and The 5/8 or inch handpieces are the most
high. There are hundreds of different burrs that commonly used because of their size and
can be attached to these machines available in weight.
craft stores or specialty houses for sculpture.
The Foredom Power Tool is probably the Is there a difference in temper between wood
most versatile and all around best machine that and stone tools?
I have seen. It has standard replacement parts Yes. The stone tools are slightly harder
that are consistent in size with those of other due to the wear demanded of them. Conse-
manufacturers and that last forever. The foot quently they must also be sharpened more
rheostats turn at 14,000 RPM with a 1/10 horse- often.
power motor. The set comes with a hanging
device, a set of burrs, and standard handpiece. Why do tools chip off teeth or chip on their
The Dremel Motor Tool is more of a craft or edges?
finishing tool where the entire device (motor This happens quite often to beginners who
and burr) is held in one hand and the speed is do not know how, or at what angle, to hold the
regulated by a setter. The motor is encased in a tools, or the strength they should use when hit-
Lexan housing for durability, and it comes with ting with them. Usually the end teeth or left
a set of grinding, polishing, and buffing burrs. and right sides of the tool are damaged, rarely
the center teeth or midsection of the tool.
Troubleshooting/Questions Most damage is done due to the inexperience
of the user, not the quality of the tool. With
How do you clean marble? practice, the beginner will hone his or her skills
Marble is usually cleaned with non-cor- to prevent this from happening.
54
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
CHAPTER 9
55
chApter 9: rASpS & riFFlerS - Wood, Stone & plASter
Knife rasps are so named because they Rifflers are usually referred to as jewelry
have the shape of a knife blade. The rounded or silversmithing files and are not commonly
end or handle is a rat tail rasp in itself with used in sculpture. Used for finishing just prior
punched teeth over the entire surface. to sanding, they have cross cut grooves like a
nail file, and are extremely fine. They come in
a variety of sizes, are normally made without
a handle, and have a plain steel circular end
and a filing end.
Knife Rasps
Rifflers
56
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
for quick reduction. There is also a circular The rasp brush does this cleaning easily and
half round rasp used in Europe for stair carv- quickly. The accessory has metal brushes fac-
ing. It's essentially a straight cabinet rasp that ing at a 30 angle toward the holder. Simply
has been bent to form a circle. It's great for pull the clogged rasps over the bristles at a
indenting or concave rasping work and is easily perpendicular angle a few times. I nail my rasp
hand held. brush to a dust pan brush so I can dust off the
piece and clean the rasp at the same time.
Troubleshooting/Questions
The rasp brush is an essential item when Why do some rasps wear faster than others?
working in wood and especially in stone. Since The temper determines the hardness of the
material particles will clog the teeth of almost steel cutting edges and their ability to hold up
any rasp, they should be cleaned out when under rasping. The hardness and coarseness of
necessary. (The finer the teeth of the rasp and the stone being carved is also a large factor; for
softer the stone, the faster the rasp will clog.) example, sandstone will wear out a rasp faster
than a soft soapstone. Tooth size and firmness
of stroke have a minor effect. Some think that
manufacturers offer tools of different quality,
but if the proper steel and temper are used
Rasp Brush they should all hold up equally well.
57
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
CHAPTER 10
ACCESSORIES
WooD cArviNg AND stoNe cArviNg
59
ChApter 10: AcceSSorieS - Wood cArvinG And Stone cArvinG
Honing Oil
Sandpaper Durite Screen-Bak
1
Please note, the lower the number of grit, the coarser the cutting action of the material.
60
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
Wet-Dry Paper, available in 200, 320, 400, with an electric buffing wheel at extremely
and 600 grit in 9 x 11 inch sheets is similar to high speed. It comes in hard block form and is
a black Carborundum paper and can be used impregnated into the buffing wheel and then
dry as well as with water. It is an excellent applied to the surface to be buffed. Polished
finishing material in the final sanding stage. marble walls, headstones, and table tops are
Although it is mostly used on stone, it may be finished in this way. This material is usually
used successfully on harder woods. When used used only by the professional or by more ex-
with stone in the wet form, the stone can be perienced stone or wood carvers.
placed in water and the paper used to make Paste wax is an instructors short cut to real
a thin paste for each of the abrasive finishing polishing (I like Goddards furniture polish
steps. As the water washes off the paste from myself). A few coats of butchers wax on stone
the stone, the stone will begin to exhibit the or hard wood will give good results in minimal
appearance of its final polish. As it dries the time, but sculptors from the old school, true to
stone will return to its original luster until final tradition, will always take the long route, with
polishing is completed. Since the paper clogs no cheating. If you are working in soapstone
when wet, you should wash it to remove the wet-dry paper will produce its own paste and
excess material that has accumulated; the pa- a simple buffing cloth (an old tee shirt is fine)
per also needs occasional cleaning when used can finish the piece to a high gloss. This may
dry. work with softer alabaster, but you will not
get the high gloss usually desired. With the
harder stones, you have to polish to achieve
the gloss.
Safety Devices
Wet-Dry Paper
Safety goggles, for eye protection only,
Powdered pumice is an abrasive material are usually made of high impact plastic, can
used in polishing after the initial sanding. It be worn with or without glasses, and have an
is made into a thick paste by adding a small adjustable elastic band that goes around the
amount of water and then rubbed over the head. They cover the eyes and the bridge of the
areas to be finished. nose and should be worn whenever working in
Tin oxide is a powder that is not an abra- stone, wood or plaster (that might come into
sive like powdered pumice but a deep pen- contact with the eyes).
etrating polish that will bring out the essence
and inner beauty of the piece. It is made into
a paste by adding a small amount of water, and
then rubbed or buffed on the piece by machine
until the finish (matte buff or high polish) is
completed. On softer stones this polishing is
accomplished quite easily, but on medium to Safety Goggles
hard stones it will take much more effort.
Jewelers rouge (rotten stone) is used to A face shield, a helmet-like device used
achieve highly polished surfaces and is applied for eye and face protection only, is a piece of
61
ChApter 10: AcceSSorieS - Wood cArvinG And Stone cArvinG
high impact plastic that covers the entire face Other Accessories
and is supported by an adjustable head brace
that fits on the head like a cap. It can be used Wood carvers bench screws are 3 inch
with or without glasses. When not in use the long steel screws used to fasten a carving block
mask section can be flipped up over the head and hold it securely to a workbench. The carver
and out of the way. would clamp a board onto the work surface,
The dust mask, a triangular padded device and run the screw through the board and into
that covers the nose and mouth, is used to the piece of wood being worked on. When
reduce the inhalation of flying particles, such carving is completed, the piece is removed
as sawdust or dust, produced when sanding or from the screw and mounted for display.
finishing wood, stone, or ceramic pieces. The Canvas rolls are used for holding miscel-
most commonly used masks have a cotton fil- laneous loose wood carving and stone carving
ter that is replaceable and are meant for light tools if they have no wooden set container.
dust situations. There are heavier-duty masks The rolls may also hold rasps, and even steel
for specific situations which can be found in tools for mold making and some ceramic tools.
larger hardware stores. (These last two, however, are usually carried
There is an extensive assortment of respira- in a plastic case since water is used in mold
tors, which provide higher levels of protection making and ceramics.) They are of roll type
than the dust masks. They are differentiated heavy canvas secured with tie strings, double
by the toxic levels they withstand. For sculp- stitched on the seams, and are available in 6-,
tors, the highest level of danger facing them 9-, 14-, and 22-pocket sizes.
would probably be met when casting in resins
(plastics); however, most people will not be
doing this type of casting. In other words,
the average sculptor, working with material
having a danger level no greater than paint,
paint thinner or latex rubber, should use the
common respirator found on the market with 6-Pocket Roll 9-Pocket Roll
cylinder type filter devices. If you need more
information, please consult a professional who Aprons are like chefs aprons with specially
will know the proper respirator to use. designed pockets for holding various wood
Replacement filters for dust masks and carving, stone carving, and ceramics tools. They
respirators can be purchased separately. fall just above knee level and have a cotton tie
string fastened behind the back. At one time
they were made of leather, but, due to the cost
and scarcity of this material, most aprons are
made of heavy denim today.
Dust Mask
Sand bags are meant to brace or secure a
large piece of raw stone or wood so that while
carving it will not shift and fall over or move
- like padding furniture when moving. They
Respirator can be arranged like pillows on a couch for
comfort if you take a rest. Normally made of
62
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
heavy canvas, they are approximately 8" by any piece you work on.
10" in size and usually have Velcro closings or
securing devices.
They are sold empty. While you dont have
to put sand in them you should put some ma-
terial in them that will give a little. I imagine
that 4 sand bags should be sufficient to balance Sand Bag
63
PART 4
CHAPTER 11
67
chApter 11: pottery & cerAMicS - clAyS, equipMent & AcceSSorieS
over time. They express individual preference, wheel the essential points to be considered are
serve generally as a signature of the potters, the horsepower, how much weight the wheel
and are kept very secret. Special formulas can will hold without jerking while centering, and
be developed for both glaze and clay. When the stability and levelness of the wheel head,
using anything other than a standard clay or since, if the balance is off, so will be all of the
glaze, test both the clay and glaze to ensure pottery. The best wheels that I have thrown on
they match. If they are not compatible, trouble are the Shimpo with a cone drive and a large
will ensue when the piece is fired. It is a good horsepower motor (this is the top of the line in
idea, when a new clay and glaze are going to electric wheels and centers 100 pounds of clay
be used, to make test tiles of the two to be sure usually taking two people to center), the Brent
there will be no problems. Wheel (designed by Robert Brent), the Amaco
Slip is a liquid clay with suspension addi- two speed (which will center 25 pounds of
tives that enable the clay to be cast into plaster clay), and the Spinning Tiger. Other wheels
molds made of pottery plaster for its water cannot hold the weight of the clay without
absorbency. The mold is filled with slip and the wheel stopping or resisting. If you only
left about 3 hours to absorb the water from intend to throw small pots, bowls, and the like,
the clay until a thin skin about 1/8 inch thick a more powerful wheel is not really necessary.
has formed. The remainder of the liquid clay Your supplier will be able to advise you as to
is poured out and the resulting cast of clay left the best wheel for your specific use.
to harden. It is then removed from the mold The size of a pot is determined by the
and when dry, the seam lines from the mold amount of clay used to make the piece. Most
are trimmed and the piece is bisque fired. mugs, cups, and similar pottery require 2-3
Glaze is then applied and the piece is glaze pounds of clay. The clay must be centered
fired. The piece is now completed. Figurines, precisely on the wheel head in order to bring
plates, and ash trays are commonly done in this up the side walls of the piece. To obtain the
manner, as well as most porcelain pieces. On centering of the initial ball of clay, it must be
mass produced items you will see seam lines pushed downward and inward. The greater the
where the pieces of the mold have been joined weight the more restriction on the throwing
together. head which may jerk or even stop. This is how
wheels are gauged as to the weight they can
The Equipment handle - 25 pounds, 30 pounds, 50 pounds,
etc.
Potters Wheels
Potters wheels are disks which when Kick Wheels
rotated enable clay to be shaped by a potter. A kick wheel is basically a potters wheel
There are several types of wheels on the mar- head attached to a shaft that is turned by push-
ket today, although fewer than in the 1970s ing a large heavy fly wheel with your foot. The
when making pottery was in its prime. Most bottom and top of the shaft are held in position
wheels are electric or kick powered; some of with bearings used to adjust the level of the
the electric wheels have variable speeds or set wheel head. Most kick wheels are made with
speeds of high or low. The power of a wheel cast cement reinforced fly wheels and heavy
influences the amount of clay that can be steel plates or bricks set between two sections
thrown and/or centered. When purchasing a of wood. Standard throwing heads and shafts
68
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
of 2 to 3 feet are the center pieces and are the desired temperature has been reached. The
built around a frame that usually contains a majority of kilns have low, medium, and high
seat and a shelf. The wheels are usually shipped settings and are turned up at intervals until
in component parts requiring assembly. A few the highest firing stage, low, medium, high, has
offer motorized attachments that will power been reached.
the fly wheel. Automatic shutoffs and kiln setters are
usually used with cones that melt and sag at
Kilns a certain temperature; they disconnect the
Kilns are the ovens used to fire ceramics at electrical circuits thus shutting off the kiln.
a high temperature, normally at greater than The cone is placed in a three prong position
1400F. There are three types of kilns, each with two base rods and a top rod securing the
having a different effect on the finished piece: cone. When the cone melts the top rod drops,
the electric kiln (the standard), the gas fired breaking the circuit. A pyrometer is a gauge,
kiln (more professional), and the wood fired with its display on the outside of the kiln, used
kiln (not common). The more complex kilns to measure the internal temperature of a kiln.
such as down draft, wood stacked (wood fired) It it used where there is no auto shutoff.
and gas fired kilns, are used by old time potters,
production potters, or businesses but because Firing1
of their cost, size, and difficulty in firing are
not normally used by craft potters or school There are two types of firing: bisque firing
systems. There is one another type called the and glaze firing, both done in kilns at tempera-
enameling kilns, smaller in size than ceramic tures which can range from cone 014 to cone
kilns and used to fire metal objects usually in 10. Most clay is bisque fired at cone 06 and
sheet form such as copper. vitrifies around cones 5, 6, or 7, depending on
Kilns are usually either round or square; the clay body formulation. Most commercial
the size, voltage requirements, and inside fir- glazes are also fired at cone 06.
ing chamber dimensions vary depending on
the desired temperatures. There are low fire Bisque Firing
kilns with temperatures to cone 06 (1841F) Bisque firing is the initial or first firing of a
and high fire kilns with temperatures to cone dried piece of pottery or ceramic, also known
9 (2345F) and above. Low fire kilns reach as greenware, performed before glaze firing.
maximum temperatures within 6 hours or It is used to bring objects to a state more ac-
so. High fire kilns need more power and take cepting of the glaze. Normal bisque firing takes
longer to reach their maximum temperature. about 6 hours at cone 06 (1841 ) in a three-
Kilns are constructed of grooved fire brick stage electric kiln. The pieces can be stacked
encased in a metal shell with a peep hole to see within one another or close to each other and
inside the kiln. Metal elements for running the can touch so more pieces can be bisque fired
electricity are embedded within the fire brick. at one time. (This is not the case with glaze
Some kilns have thermocouples and rheostats firing.) Not all pottery has to be bisque fired
to measure and control the temperature and first; especially with smaller pieces, the glaze
automatic shutoffs to turn off the kiln when can be applied directly to the dried clay and
1
There are several unique firing techniques such as reduction firing, salt glazing, and pit firing with tree leaves which wont be dealt
with in this manual, although they are fun to experiment with when you are more advanced.
69
chApter 11: pottery & cerAMicS - clAyS, equipMent & AcceSSorieS
the piece fired only once. I do not recommend surface. When firing beads place them on wire
this for the novice, however. supports running through the inside of the
bead like a clothes line.
Glaze Firing Since most commercial ceramic and pot-
Glaze firing is the second or final firing tery businesses do not do outside firing, prefer-
after the piece has been bisque fired. Glaze ring to be responsible only for their own pieces,
is a colored liquid material that can be matte, and you dont have a kiln and want to fire some
gloss, speckled, or burst design. It is a silica pieces, try an adult school with ceramic classes
which when heated fuses together and forms or the local YMCA or YWCA.
a glass-like coating. There are hundreds of
glazes on the market for use at different fir- Firing Ranges/Temperatures
ing ranges. Talk to your local ceramic supply
store for specifics on particular items or effects When a kiln is used for bisque or glaze
desired. Gold, platinum, and silver leaf are firing the internal temperature of the kiln
specialty low fire glazes used for edging plates must be regulated to avoid under-heating or
and bowls in the china industry as well as in overheating. This is done by with the use of
intrinsic pottery design. cones, pre-fired clay in triangular form, that
Unlike bisque firing technique, separate sag or bend at given temperatures. The higher
all pieces when glaze firing; if they touch, the the cone number the higher the temperature
glaze will run and fuse the pieces together. range. Cones are placed at the bottom, middle,
Stilts, fired pieces of ceramic of various sizes and top of the kiln, since temperatures vary in
with three metal points that will withstand these areas. (Most people use three cones in a
any kiln temperature, are used to support the row at the each of these levels with one cone
pieces in glaze firing so when the glaze melts at a temperature lower and one higher than
they will not fuse together or to the inside of the firing requires.) The sagging of the cone as
the kiln. seen through the kilns peep hole lets the user
With standard off the shelf commercial know when the correct firing temperature has
glazes, three coats are applied. Each coat been reached.
should be applied in a different direction and Firing temperatures are called cones and
left to dry thoroughly before the next coat is can range from 014 (lowest) to 10 (highest).
applied. Do not overapply the coats or the As I mentioned earlier most commercial clay
glaze will run and pool off the piece when it and glaze are fired at cone 06.1 They will vit-
is fired. Most commercial glazes are fired at rify at a higher temperature, that is become
cone 06. non-porous. However, normally the lower
A material called Wax Resist can be used firing range 06 glaze will be poured/applied
for areas of the piece where glaze is not de- to the inside of a container, allowed to fuse,
sired. It can be found in ceramic supply stores. and thus enable the container to hold water
Kiln Wash, a powdered material, can be placed without the clay having to vitrify. Most clay
on kiln shelves and the bottom of a kiln to is made up of silica and when fired at high
prevent excess glaze fallen from a piece dur- temperatures (over 1000F) fuses or meshes
ing firing from sticking to the shelf or bottom together making it hard although it may not
1
High fire kilns in the cone 10 and higher range are expensive and take longer to fire, preventing the one-day firing most schools
require.
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A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
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chApter 11: pottery & cerAMicS - clAyS, equipMent & AcceSSorieS
Another unique clay is Silver Metal Clay Fettling knives, available in different
primarily developed in Japan for making jew- lengths from 4 to 8 inches and made with firm
elry. This material is sterling silver and when or soft steel blades, are excellent for scraping,
modeled wet and then dried can be fired in a cutting, and removing dried clay from seams
ceramic kiln - the finished piece is .999 fine and other areas. A notch knife or hooked blade
sterling silver. The materials is somewhat more is used for grooving channels in the mold so it
expensive than ceramic clays but the results, will not shift in casting.
after practice, are extraordinary!
Tools
Most of the tools used for sculpture can Elephant ear sponges are natural Mediter-
also be used for ceramics and pottery, but ranean sponges, 2" to 5" in size, that have the
there are also tools that have been designed shape of an elephants ear; their shape allows
especially for ceramics. them to be held comfortably in the hand while
Loop tools are medium size, heavy, sharp- throwing pots. Their strength and shape help
ened steel tools with palm size handles for to absorb excess water applied when bringing
easy use when working on the potters wheel the walls of the pot up.
during the trimming and footing process. The
shapes, designed for hard to reach places and
flat scraping, are diamond, curved, round flat,
and one with the coined name pear corer
having a duck nose shape. Elephant Ear Sponge
72
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
Throwing sticks are used extensively for has a shutoff device, this sagging will cause the
pulling up interior walls of small necked pots kiln to be automatically turned off. Or, viewing
and vases. the sagging through the kilns peep hole, the
A toggle clay cutter is a 36-inch piece of operator can adjust or turn off the kiln. They
wire, secured at each end to a wooden handle, are also used to determine the temperature in
used to cut sections of clay in the wedging different areas of the kiln since temperatures
process and for removing thrown pots from can vary within the kiln. Typically 3 cones are
the wheel. set in each of 3 rows at 45 angles with the
Turning tools are long-handled handheld lower temperature on the left, the required
tools with metal pre-shaped cutting edges used firing temperature in the center, and the higher
to shape internal areas of pottery. temperature on the right, and should be vis-
Finally, I designed the TrimFast Ceramic ible through the peep hole. When the cone
Tool in answer to requests from potters; a sags so that the tip falls half way to the cone
trimming and footing tool, this tool has inter- holder (or plug of clay into which the cones
changeable cutting wire ends and an aluminum have been placed) it indicates the correct fir-
handle. Additional wire ends are available. ing temperature has been reached. If it melts
all the way down the temperature is too high
and if it does not melt at all the temperature
is too low.
Kiln shelves are either round, half round,
or (most commonly) square. They are used to
Clay Cutter TrimFast Ceramic Tool
separate glaze fired pieces in the kiln during
There is a basic pottery tool kit which firing and are supported by posts, which are
includes the tools essential for throwing and re- triangular, round, or square and come in dif-
moving thrown pots from the wheel head while ferent lengths. They are of high fire material
they are still wet. There is a full set of trimming and can withstand temperatures of any range
tools including a needle tool for trimming in commercially produced kilns. Stilts support
and leveling the top of the thrown pot when the pieces of pottery being glazed so they do
necessary, a sponge for water absorption while not fuse together.
throwing, and a potters rib. With this kit, all
you need is some clay, a wheel, a kiln, and some Troubleshooting/Questions
skill to make any type of pottery youd like.
And remember, many of the modeling If the clay is dry what can I do?
tools described in Chapter 3 can also be used Sometimes when water-base moist clay has
in Ceramics. Experiment! not aged properly or does not contain enough
water it will seem dry. Add a little water and
Accessories knead it into the clay body (25% to 28% of
It is essential to know the internal tempera- water to clay flour mix is a good ratio), then let
ture of a ceramic kiln when firing. Pyrometric the clay sit in the closed bag for a few weeks.
cones of pre-fired ceramic triangular in shape
and of various sizes fulfill this requirement. If the clay is too wet when removed from the
Placed in the kiln during firing, they sag or bag what can I do?
collapse at certain temperatures. If the kiln This occurs naturally with normal conden-
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chApter 11: pottery & cerAMicS - clAyS, equipMent & AcceSSorieS
sation of water-base clay kept in a container, the pieces are ready. Third, the glaze may have
more often with porcelain and stoneware than been applied too thinly or all coats may have
with earthenware clays. Roll the clay in several been applied in the same direction rather than
layers of newspaper until it dries up a little. altering the direction with each coat.
Why does the clay crack when I bend it? Why are there glaze bubbles on the clay?
This is usually indicative of what is known This can be caused by incompatible clay
as short clay. Add a little water and age it a few and glaze or the glaze may have been fired at
days. too high a temperature. Too much glaze may
have applied which will happen when the
There is a funny smell when I open the bag; piece is dipped rather than applying the glaze
what is this? by brush.
Clay is a naturally formulated earth mate-
rial. When water has been added and it is con- Why does glaze drip off the piece and fall on
tained in a bag, a smell often develops. This is the shelf or bottom of the kiln?
no indication the clay is bad or defective; it is This is a result of over-glazing. The dried
natural. Let the bag air out for a few minutes glaze can be sanded off before firing if there is
and then use the clay as usual. too much of a build up. The glaze on the shelf
presents a small problem. It can sometimes
The color changes between separate orders of be chipped off, using a wood carving or stone
the same clay; why is this? carving tool and hammer without causing
Remember clay is mined from the earth damage, but not always.
in different areas of the country. The clay
may vary in color but not generally in texture, What causes crazing, running, bubbling and
composition, or workability. As long as the flaking?
chemical composition remains the same, the These mishaps, faced by all ceramists, can
clay should work and fire the same. be caused by firing with incompatible clay and
glaze, by cooling the kiln too rapidly, by firing
When cooled why does the glaze have cracks the kiln too high, or by over-applying the glaze.
like a spider web? Dont be discouraged; just follow the instruc-
This is not uncommon and can be caused tions and try again!
by several things. First, the clay and glaze may
not be compatible. For future firings make test Are there other bisque firing temperatures?
tiles trying different glazes with different clays Yes. Bisque firing can also be done at
to determine compatibility. Second, the glaze cone 04 which will help the glaze absorb more
may have cooled too fast and constricted. This freely into the clay - thus creating a smoother
occurs when the kiln is opened too soon before surface during the next glaze firing.
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A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
APPENDIX A
GENERAL QUESTIONS
Modeling
Can you melt down plastilina and add ingre-
dients to make it white or colored?
tilina. Melted wax is mixed with the formulas
other component, the final material then set-
ting to the appropriate state of hardness. While
it is very difficult to mix in additional wax
Plastilina is an oil and wax base material after the material has set to achieve additional
and cannot be melted and have components hardness, you can try by following these steps:
added to it to give it color. Although the Place the original plastilina about 2 feet from a
material can be made liquid by heating in a 60-watt lamp until the material becomes soft
specialized method, the oil soluble pigments enough to knead with your hands. Next soften
are not readily available to the consumer and the wax of your choice, either by melting it or
regular pigments will not adhere properly. warming it near a light bulb. (I suggest using
The ingredient that colors plastilina white is Microcrystalline Wax, not paraffin which is too
called whiting and must be added when the brittle.) Knead the liquefied wax into the soft-
batch is first made hot in the mixer, usually a ened plastilina, and let set at room temperature
large dough mixer or sigma blade mixer not until hard. By testing, you will determine the
readily available to the average consumer. amount of wax needed to achieve the desired
hardness of the final plastilina.
What can you add to plastilina to make it Oil is the softening material used in plas-
harder or softer? tilina and can be added to it to achieve ad-
Wax is the hardening material used in plas- ditional softness. A regular grade household
75
Appendix A: GenerAl queStionS
oil is sufficient for softening small amounts of where the clay is directly pressed into a mold
material. Three-in-one oil is good or a 10/30 and left to harden to a leather-hard state before
weight motor oil can be used. Soften the plas- removal. Other manufacturers of self-harden-
tilina near a lamp bulb and knead the oil, in ing clays have different formulas and should
small amounts, into the plastilina. be contacted directly regarding specific uses
For grinding or mixing, I suggest using of their material.
an old fashioned hamburger grinder from
the hardware store when either hardening or What is the difference between Della Robbia,
softening large amounts of material. Claystone, and Boneware? And what is the
hardness difference?
Can different grades of plastilina be mixed Della Robbia can be fired to a deeper
together for different effects? richer color in the kitchen oven without ad-
Yes. The same procedure should be used verse effects although firing is not essential to
as in hardening and softening. Place the mate- this material. Boneware and Claystone should
rial near a lamp and when soft, knead them not be fired in any way, but left to air dry. All
together. three achieve virtually the same hardness and
no significant difference can be seen by the
Plastilina looks as though it is layered when naked eye. The only differences are in the
pieces are torn from the block. Why is this? color and how you use the material. None
When plastilina is produced it is extruded of the self-hardening or kitchen oven baking
through a heavy duty worm gear mixer ex- clays will come close to what a fired ceramic
truder and thus the internal areas are layered. piece can be so dont think of these clays as
The outside surface is smooth because the a replacement for the real thing. They are for
extruding head forces the material into a given decorative use only, will not hold water, and
shape. are definitely not for functional use.
Which clays contain sulfur and which do not? What is the difference between French Wax
The only clay containing small trace and pure beeswax?
amounts of sulfur is professional grade plas- The French Wax is a combination of several
tilina. School grade plastilina and water-base waxes to make a smooth modeling compound.
ceramic clays do not contain sulfur. Beeswax is a natural wax from the hive. Bees-
wax is more expensive and is usually used for
What is the difference between Boneware and dressing wood or for batik and tie dye shirts.
Claystone? They are both good waxes; your choice of
These are trade names for self-hardening which to use is one of preference.
clays offered by Sculpture House, Inc. Bone-
ware is a natural ceramic type of clay that has Which wax is the hardest for making jewelry?
no fillers. Claystone is also a natural clay but Wax is available in many different hard-
contains a cotton fiber filler to reduce shrink- nesses. The hardest used in the sculpture field
age. Claystone is used over armatures as the is roman casting wax. This is poured into a
filler prevents cracking. Boneware is used as mold in wax form for bronze casting invest-
a direct modeling clay without the use of ment where the wax is melted from the mold
an armature, or for press molding or casting, before pouring the bronze. Beeswax, French,
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A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
77
Appendix A: GenerAl queStionS
What is the difference between Mold Rubber plaster. Abrasive material such as cement
and Casting Rubber? causes more rapid deterioration. When a posi-
Mold rubber is the material used to make tive cast is made from casting rubber, the piece,
the negative mold from which a cast will be once set and cured, cannot be re-used. Once
drawn. Mold rubber is the negative. Casting either the positive or negative rubber has set
rubber is the material that is poured or cast it cannot be re-used.
into a plaster mold and is the positive. It is used
for dolls heads or hands. Casting rubber is the Is Pliatex mold rubber flammable? Is it the
positive. same as latex?
Yes. Pliatex mold is latex rubber and yes,
Is there silicone in White Rubber? as with any rubber it is flammable but at very
No. Silicone is a rubber specifically made high temperatures of 600F.
of silicone. White rubber is not a silicone rub-
ber. Can you get a Pliatex instruction book without
getting the entire kit?
What is the difference between positive and No. The instruction books are available
negative molds? with the kit or a more comprehensive book
A negative is referred to as the mold since can be purchased separately by ordering Mold
it creates a cavity into which material is poured Making, Casting & Patina for the student
to make a cast. The positive is the cast derived sculptor by Bruner F. Barrie
from the negative mold. The piece or model of
which a reproduction is made is the positive Can you cast casting rubber into a latex mold?
and the mold made of the model for casting No. The casting rubber to make a positive
reproductions is the negative. Making a cast is rubber cast can only be poured into a plaster
positive; making a mold is negative no matter mold. The plaster absorbs the moisture in the
what mold making material is used. casting rubber leaving a solid surface that in
essence becomes the cast when dry. If casting
What is a brush up mold? rubber were poured into a rubber mold of any
A brush up mold is made of a thixotropic type there would be no absorption and thus
mold making material. Chemical components no drying or setting. The rubber would be self
are mixed together to form a paste. The mixed sealing.
material will have the consistency of mayon-
naise and when set will be a flexible rubber. Can you pour latex solid?
The mixing proportions can be somewhat No. Latex mold rubber must be applied
difficult to achieve and its use is not common in thin coats, a layer at a time. Each coat must
among artists with average experience. It is a be thoroughly dry before the next coat is ap-
good material for making molds of ceiling or plied.
crown molding when remodeling older homes.
What materials can you cast into latex rub-
Can mold rubber pieces be used repeatedly? ber molds?
When the mold rubber is cured after set- Only gypsum products (such as plaster and
ting, it can be used to make about 100 simple cement) can be cast into latex molds. The heat
casts of nonabrasive material such as casting source from any other materials can distort
78
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
the interior surface of the mold and thus the harder casting materials should only be used
cast. This does not always happen, but I can- for casting, not mold making.
not recommend anything other than gypsum
products. Why take the chance? Once the What is the difference between Hydrostone
mold is distorted, there is no fixing it. and Vatican Art Casting Stone?
Hydrostone is a pure gypsum product with
Where do I get directions for mixing plaster, a low absorbency rate and high degree of hard-
Moulage, etc.? ness. Vatican Art Casting Stone is a mixture of
Mold Making, Casting & Patina for the several gypsum products and marble aggregate
student sculptor contains the required infor- to produce a stone-like effect and hardness. It
mation. Mixing plaster is by water and powder is still essentially a gypsum base product and
proportionately. Instructions are usually on the should be treated as such, meaning it is not for
container. The mixing proportions are approxi- outdoor use.
mately one quart of water to five pounds of
powder. Since so many types of molds can be What is hot metal plaster and how is it differ-
made, all of which must conform to the speci- ent from casting plaster?
fications of the model, I suggest referring to the The thermal expansion and heat absorp-
above mold making book. For bronze, vented, tion of hot metal plaster can withstand the
and gauged molds, Methods for MODERN high temperatures of molten metal such as
SCULPTORS by Ron Young is suggested. lead and pewter, but not bronze. The mold
(made from hot metal plaster) will not crack
How does Bone Emulsion compare to Hy- or explode when lower melting temperature
drocal, Hydrostone, and Vatican Art Casting metals are cast into it. Casting plaster will not
Stone for hardness? withstand high temperatures and may crack or
Hydrocal and Hydrostone are natural gyp- break if these materials are cast into this type
sum products with their own tensile strength. of mold.
Vatican Art Casting Stone is a mixture of dif-
ferent grades of gypsum and marble aggregate. What are low temperature metals?
Bone Emulsion is a water-base mixture of Lead is the first that comes to mind; pew-
hardening ingredients such as cornstarch, etc. ter is also low melting but is a combination of
Adding Bone Emulsion to gypsum or moist lead and tin and is not that easy for the aver-
clay enhances their strength but does not make age sculptor to cast. Lead isnt that easy either
regular casting quite so strong as Hydrocal. Of since it has to be cast in one continuous flow
gypsum materials, casting plaster (now referred or striations and layering will occur.
to as mould plaster, is the softest, followed by
Hydrocal, Hydrostone, and finally Ultracal What are shims and which is better, aluminum
(the hardest) in degrees of hardness. Industrial or brass?
grade gypsum is the strongest but is only used Shims are the separating pieces that mark
industrially due to its coarseness. Each material the areas of a piece mold where the divisions
has its own specific use. Casting plaster can are made to remove the mold for casting. They
be used for molds and casts, Hydrocal should can be of clay, wood, metal, or other material
be used for casts and sometimes, if you are that enables easy separation of the sections.
experienced, for molds. Hydrostone and the Most sculptors use brass or aluminum because
79
Appendix A: GenerAl queStionS
it is thin, flexible, and can easily be cut to con- different hardnesses of this material. The next
form to the areas needing separation. A shim hardest stone is alabaster, which also comes
is generally not more than an 1 in width in different hardnesses. Marble is the hard-
since the mold walls will not be more than est of the group and has different hardnesses
an inch or so thick. When the shim is placed depending on where it is quarried, Colorado,
in the model this inch is all that should be Vermont, Spain, Italy, or Portugal.
exposed since the plaster mold will only come In addition to these stones there is granite
to the top of the shim. Brass was used before which is extremely hard and not recom-
aluminum but brass rusts when exposed to mended for the average carver. Fieldstone is a
the water in the plaster, turns green, and can dont touch stone for carving. Wonder stone
even corrode. Aluminum does not have these (soft), Feather Rock (volcanic ash), and Maple
problems, so I suggest aluminum shims if you Rock (compressed clay, unfired) are specialty
have a choice. stones and are generally hard to find.
What is a Cesta bucket? What stone and types of tools would be good
This bucket is a heavy impact rubber rein- for carving letters?
forced with fiber glass strands making it one of The best stone for carving letters would
the most durable mixing buckets available. naturally be a harder stone; a good all-around
stone that is easy to carve is alabaster. The
Stone Carving specific tools are the smaller flat chisel and
miniature stone carving tools available indi-
What is the difference between alabaster, vidually or in a set. Carving letters takes some
marble, and soapstone as far as hardness is practice since the ends of the letters tend to
concerned? chip; that is why you see roman letters with a
The softest stone is soapstone, yet there are small tang on the ends.
80
APPENDIX B
81
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
APPENDIX C
83
Appendix c: hoW SculptorS' toolS, oil-BASe & cerAMic clAyS Are MAde
small order and it is hard to find mills to do are placed in a ferrule (a solid spun piece of
the work. metal in the shape of a cone that looks like an
open ended cap) and attached to the handle
The Wire Ends by tapping the wire and ferrule level with the
The materials of which wire ends are handle with a u shaped steel tong that fits
made vary. They can be made of: spring steel, over the wire end and rests on the top of the
brass, carbon steel, or piano wire. There are ferrule.
about 20 different shapes, and 10 different When the glue dries, the tool is ready
sizes, formed on a device called a jig. This is for use. Please be aware that as moisture is
a type of machine with a form made of a steel absorbed into and evaporated from the wood
template in the shape of the wire end tool to handle, over time the wire ends may become
be produced. Two butterfly handles are lifted, loose or the ferrule may crack. Unfortunately
the proper length of wire is inserted, and the there is not much we can do about nature so
handles are brought together thus forming the this is a phenomenon all sculptors must deal with.
shape of the wire. Modeling tools made with aluminum
The wire material is purchased in bulk coils handles are fashioned in the same manner
of approximately 2,000 feet. All the wire for with the exception of the wire placement.
each tool must be cut from the same spool. The This is done by inserting a metal plug in the
wire must be cut to the proper length; if it is handle end, which is hollow, with a hydraulic
not and extends too far from the handle of the press compressing the wires under hundreds
tool, it will be unusable on clay or plastilina of pounds of pressure. The resulting flange or
as intended. The wire ends must be flattened, webbing is cut off at each end of the tool and
or flared out, so they will grip and not come the ends are smoothed and polished.
loose when placed on the tool handle with the
ferrule attached. Wood Modeling Tools
There are circumstances where the teeth Handheld solid wood modeling tools
are ground into the wire or a sharp cutting edge without wire are formed from large blanks of
is required. This work is done before the wire kiln dried wood. These blanks are about 10
is shaped and attached to the handle. The steel feet long by 4 feet wide and usually around 6
wire ends on some tools must be heated by a inches thick. The larger blanks are cut down
propane torch to soften the steel to allow easy with a table saw to thin sections about the size
forming; you may see discoloration on these of a ruler in width and about an inch thick,
tools. then cut to the approximate size of the tool
desired. Each tool is then shaped by hand to
Attaching The Wire the desired design using grinding wheels and
Once the wires are shaped and formed sanding belts. Completed tools are coated with
they are attached to the prepared handles with a sealant of shellac or wax and are then ready
waterproof glue. The tool handle is first placed for use.
in a vise that has a plastic guard so the metal of
the vise and pressure of gripping the wood will Wood Carving Tools
not bruise the handle. Then glue is placed on
the end of the handle where the wire will be Wood carving tools are manufactured pri-
attached. Finally the wire ends, held together, marily in Europe most of them in Germany,
84
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
and England, but some in Italy. The principal Shaping and Grinding
manufacturer in the United States is Sculp- The blanks are ground and shaped into
ture House, Inc. Buck Tools is a specialty tool final form on high speed grinders using Car-
producer in the United States. borundum wheels. All tools are ground by
The U.S. tools are made from drop forged hand1 and thus may vary slightly, but not
blanks, forged and ground to specific sizes noticeably. The sweep and cutting edge are
(measured from left tips to right tips of the measured against a template to keep the sizes
blade) and sweeps (depth of a given cutting consistent.
edge). The steel can be Sheffield (from a steel
producing region in England) or high carbon Heat Treating (Tempering) and Honing
steel, normally 1095C (usually imported from After the blades have been shaped the
Japan, the most proficient country in quality steel must be hardened so it will hold an edge
steel production). The blades are heat treated usually either in a salt bath or by quenching
and tempered either in a salt bath or by oil in oil. The tool is again heated red hot and
quenching, depending on the manufacturer. then submerged into the liquid bath until the
The steel is tempered to a hardness of .59 -.64 proper hardness is achieved. After the blades
Rockwell, and periodically tested on a Rock- have been hardened they are returned to the
well Black Diamond Steel Hardness testing grinding wheels for sharpening, special care
device. After heat treating and tempering, being taken not to remove the temper. (Some
the blades are attached to the handles of the carvers sharpen their tools at home on high
proper size. The tools are generally shipped speed wheels that turn so fast the heat from
sharp but not honed (a special razor sharp the wheel removes the hardness in the tips of
edge). the tool. This should be avoided at all cost.)
Honing is advanced sharpening, done by
Forging The Tool hand, that gives the tool edge a razor sharp
There are three primary blanks from cutting surface. It takes about 20 minutes per
which all blade sizes and shapes are produced. tool. The ends of the tools are then coated with
These blanks are , , and 1 inch in width a protective plastic guard that can be removed
and all about the same thickness. The blanks by tapping the tool on a piece of wood.
are heated in a forge, to an extremely high
temperature producing a cherry red color to Attaching The Handle
the steel, and then shaped by heavy duty drop In attaching the blades to the proper
hammers of 50, 100, or 150 pounds, depending size handle, holes are drilled in the handle
on the amount of steel to be forged. The ham- so, when the tang of the tool is inserted
mers have a male and a female die the general and hammered true in a vise, the handle
shape of the tool to be made and the hot steel will not crack, but will hold the blade
blank is drawn past the two dies until it is the firmly. The size of the handle depends
proper shape. Special care must be taken to on the size of the blade. It would be un-
keep the surface of the tool even to avoid ex- usual to have a 3 inch blade attached to a
cessive time in finishing by grinding and wear handle meant for a 1 inch blade. Once the
and tear on the costly grinding wheel. handle is attached the tool is ready for use.
1
Apprenticing as a grinder is approximately six months; to be a full-fledged, competent grinder usually takes about two years. Our
craftsmen in this category have an average on the job experience of twenty years.
85
Appendix c: hoW SculptorS' toolS, oil-BASe & cerAMic clAyS Are MAde
Stone Carving and Steel Plaster Tools clay flour binders. The wax is brought to the
manufacturer hot in heated tanker cars and
These tools are made from high carbon pumped into storage containers. The oil, of
steel, generally hexagon in shape. The steel various types from whale oil, fatty acid, or
is purchased from the mill in bulk quantities, motor oil, is also delivered by tanker truck,
in long, 10 foot sections. The length of steel and is pumped into thousand gallon storage
required to make a particular tool is then cut tanks. Manufacturers usually have their own
to size, the diameter depending on the size and private blends of wax and oil. Bulk deliveries
shape of the tool to be made. help maintain consistency in the composition
of these products. Unfortunately the quality of
Cutting and Forging wax and oil may vary with each shipment and
The longer lengths of steel are cut on a the formula should be corrected accordingly.
steel cutting machine with a diamond rotary This also applies to oil compatible pigments
cutting blade. The sections, cut to lengths of 6 which are added to the plastilina to give it
to 10 inches, are placed in a furnace and heated color and are also purchased in bulk quanti-
cherry red. Each tool is then hand forged1 with ties.
a 50 or 100 pound hammer. The tool ends are
key here since they must be forged to the ap- Mixing
proximate shape desired before grinding. Tool These primary ingredients in appropriate
ends that are too thick or too thin make the amounts to achieve specific clay hardness, are
grinding process extremely difficult and very heated to a liquid state and then placed hot
time consuming. in a sigma blade mixer, similar to a bakery
dough mixer. Generally speaking the more
Shaping and Finishing wax and clay flour and the less oil the harder
Stone carving tools are shaped to the width the consistency, the more oil and less wax
desired. For tooth, or rack, tools the teeth are the softer. The ingredients are mixed for at
cut after shaping. The tools are then hardened least 30 minutes, the craftsman continuously
and sharpened, and polished when necessary. scraping down the sides of the mixer during
Steel tools are shaped in the same manner its rotations. When the mixing is complete the
except those with flexible palettes. These tools hot material is removed to skids for setting and
must have the steel drawn out so thin that after curing and then extruding. Each batch contains
grinding the blade will be flexible but still be about 800 pounds of material.
able to return to its original shape after flexing.
Extruding
Modeling Materials After the plastilina has cooled and has
a set to it, pieces are separated and run
Plastilina (Oil-Base Modeling Clay) through a double auger extruding machine,
Professional Grade similar to a butter extruder. The material is
extruded through a die kept hot by heaters
Basic Ingredients and turned out in rounds, which are easier to
Plastilina is a mixture of wax, oil, and store. They are stored for about 6 months, giv-
1
The apprenticeship period for forging is about 8 months with 2 more years experience needed to become a master.
86
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
ing the molecules time to migrate and form a clay body is mixed with water to render the
homogeneous flowing texture. During storage material workable, and shaped before drying
they also acquire a crusty set. The rounds of and firing.
plastilina are again extruded in a final blend-
ing and to remove the set. The plastilina will Formulas
not get this set again. The extruded material is A clay body is a mixture of different clays
formed into squares of two pounds each, and from around the country designed to produce
boxed twenty two-pound units per case, and specific textures and colors when fired. These
is ready for sale. formulas are developed by trial and error; a few
ceramists, with knowledge and experience in
Aged plastilina and used reground plas- the field, will have a good idea of what they are
tilina are valuable commodities. When a doing in developing formulas. All new formulas
professional sculptor passes away, his supply are tested. This ensures a good fit with certain
is greatly sought after, fetching usually three glazes, either private or commercial, and that
to four times the current price. Plastilina does the clay will withstand the high temperature
get better with age! firing ranges. Some clays can withstand only
so much heat before deteriorating.
Plastilina (Oil-Base Modeling Clay)
School Grade Mixing
When the mix of dry clay flour has been
Basic processes for mixing and extruding decided on, usually by weight per batch (200
are the same; the big difference lies in the in- pounds of x, 50 pounds of y, and 50 pounds
gredients. School grade plastilina is normally of z, for example), this proportion will be
only wax and clay flour, is only extruded once, maintained henceforth. Most dry clay flour
and is not aged. is packaged in 50 pound bags, making such
formulas easy to produce. The dry clay for-
Pottery Clay (Water-Base) mula is placed in a ribbon blender, that holds
about 1,000 pounds of dry material. The dry
Pottery clay is a ceramic, water-base, wheel ingredients are then passed through an auger
throwing, and modeling clay. Unlike plastilina to a blending machine with heavy duty paddle
this clay is made with water rather than wax wheel blades. Water is added (about 25 to 28%
and oil. It is generally fired in a ceramic kiln by volume per formula) and extruded as the
at temperatures above 2,000 so it will vitrify. formula is compression-packed to eliminate
The piece is then glazed and a decorative and air that may have entered the mixture. Most
functional piece of pottery is the result. In large extruding machines can run about four
the United States the raw clay materials are to six tons an hour through the mixing process.
found mostly in Georgia, Tennessee, Ohio, and The moist clay is packaged in either 5, 25, or
New Mexico, with a few clay bodies found in 50 pound containers and is ready for use.
California. All clay is mined from the ground, Mixing clay is now also accomplished
cleaned of impurities, air floated, and then using vacuum chambers and is commonly
ready for use. Most of these clays cannot be known as "de-airing". This makes the clay less
used effectively as stand alone, but are mixed likely to contain air bubbles that may cause
with other clays to form a clay body. The dry small explosions when fired. You should al-
87
Appendix c: hoW SculptorS' toolS, oil-BASe & cerAMic clAyS Are MAde
88
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
APPENDIX D
BOOKS
89
Appendix d: BookS
90
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
91
A Sculptor's Guide to Tools and Materials
APPENDIX E
The following pages contain several professional and amateur sculptors, some are not
tables of tool weights and dimensions. Ive in Sculpture Houses current product line. If youd
designed these tables by category to make like a current catalog, please write us at 405
it easier for you to find a particular tool. For Skillman Road, Skillman, NJ 08558; you can
example, there is a table for modeling tools, also visit us at SculptureHouse.com.
another for stone carving tools and yet another
for ceramic tools. Finally, the weights and dimensions of
the tools are approximations. Since these tools
Please note, while the tools referenced are handmade the weights and dimensions may
below (manufactured/distributed by Sculpture vary somewhat.
House, Inc.) have been or are currently used by
MODELING TOOLS
Handle Handle Left Right
Tool Type Item No. Length Weight Diameter Length Edge Edge
93
Appendix e: tool WeiGhtS & diMenSionS
94
A Sculptor's Guide to Tools and Materials
95
Appendix e: tool WeiGhtS & diMenSionS
96
A Sculptor's Guide to Tools and Materials
97
Appendix e: tool WeiGhtS & diMenSionS
98
A Sculptor's Guide to Tools and Materials
99
Appendix e: tool WeiGhtS & diMenSionS
100
A Sculptor's Guide to Tools and Materials
101
Appendix e: tool WeiGhtS & diMenSionS
MODELING ACCESSORIES
Tool Type Item No. Inside/Outside Weight
102
A Sculptor's Guide to Tools and Materials
WAX TOOLS
Handle Handle Left Right
Tool Type Item No. Length Weight Diameter Length Edge Edge
103
Appendix e: tool WeiGhtS & diMenSionS
STEEL TOOLS
Handle Handle Left Right
Tool Type Item No. Length Weight Diameter Length Edge Edge
104
A Sculptor's Guide to Tools and Materials
105
Appendix e: tool WeiGhtS & diMenSionS
PLASTER TOOLS
Handle Handle Left Right
Tool Type Item No. Length Weight Diameter Length Edge Edge
106
A Sculptor's Guide to Tools and Materials
107
Appendix e: tool WeiGhtS & diMenSionS
RASPS
Handle Handle Left Right
Tool Type Item No. Length Weight Diameter Length Edge Edge
108
A Sculptor's Guide to Tools and Materials
109
Appendix e: tool WeiGhtS & diMenSionS
110
A Sculptor's Guide to Tools and Materials
111
Appendix e: tool WeiGhtS & diMenSionS
Handpiece Handle
Tool Type Item No. Length Weight Diameter Length
Pneumatic Wood
Carving Tool Set PWC5 2 lbs. 9.3 oz.
Handpiece Cutting
Tool Type Item No. Length Weight Diameter Edge
112
A Sculptor's Guide to Tools and Materials
Handpiece Cutting
Tool Type Item No. Length Weight Diameter Edge
Handpiece Cutting
Tool Type Item No. Length Weight Diameter Edge
CERAMIC TOOLS
Handle Handle Left Right
Tool Type Item No. Length Weight Diameter Length Edge Edge
113
Appendix e: tool WeiGhtS & diMenSionS
Sponge SP2 2
Sponge SP3 3
Sponge SP4 4
Handle Cutting
Tool Type Item No. Length Weight Diameter Edge
114
APPENDIX F
MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS USAGE CHART
Model and Size Plastilina Moist Clay Plaster Powder Plaster Powder Latex Paste Maker Casting Casting White Vatican Art Moulage
Per lb. Per lb. for Mold for Cast Rubber Rubber Fillers Rubber Casting
Plaster Water Plaster Water Soft Medium Hard Stone
HEAD & BUST
HA-2 13" ( Life) 25 lbs. 25 lbs. 15 lbs. 1 gal. 25 lbs. 2 gal. 1 pt. 1 lb. 2 qts. 0 2-1 1-1 1 gal. 25 lbs. 2 lbs.
Head
HA-3 15" (5/8 Life) 30 lbs. 30 lbs. 25 lbs. 2 gal. 25 lbs. 2 gal. 1 qt. 1 lb. 2 qts. 0 2-1 1-1 1 gal. 25 lbs. 5 lbs.
Head
HA-4 20" (Life 35 lbs. 35 lbs. 40 lbs. 3 gal. 75 lbs. 3 gal. 2 qts. 2 lbs. 1 gal. 0 2-1 1-1 2 gal. 75 lbs. 10 lbs.
Size)
Head-Bust
FIGURE
FA-1 6" Figure 8 lbs. 8 lbs. 10 lbs. 2 qts. 15 lbs. 3 qts. 1 pt. 1 lb. 1 qt. 0 2-1 1-1 1 qt. 10 lbs. 2 lbs.
FA-3 12" Figure 12 lbs. 12 lbs. 15 lbs. 1 gal. 25 lbs. 2 gal. 1 qt. 1 lb. 1 qt. 0 2-1 1-1 2 qts. 15 lbs. 5 lbs.
FA-4 15" Figure 15 lbs. 15 lbs. 25 lbs. 2 gal. 40 lbs. 2 gal. 1 qt. 1 lb. 2 qts. 0 2-1 1-1 1 gal. 25 lbs. 10 lbs.
FA-5 18" Figure 20 lbs. 20 lbs. 25 lbs. 2 gal. 50 lbs. 4 gal. 2 qts. 3 lbs. 3 qts. 0 2-1 1-1 1 gal. 50 lbs. 10 lbs.
FA-30 30" Figure 60 lbs. 60 lbs. 50 lbs. 4 gal. 100 lbs. 8 gal. 1 gal. 5 lbs. 2 gals. 0 2-1 1-1 2 gals. 100 lbs. 20 lbs.
ANIMAL
AA-6 6" Animal 3 lbs. 3 lbs. 10 lbs. 4 qts. 10 lbs. 1 pt. 1 pt. 1 lb. 1 qt. 0 2-1 1-1 1 qt. 10 lbs. 2 lbs.
AA-8 8" Animal 8 lbs. 8 lbs. 10 lbs. 4 qts. 10 lbs. 1 qt. 1 qt. 2 lbs. 2 qts. 0 2-1 1-1 1 qt. 10 lbs. 2 lbs.
AA-10 10" Animal 14 lbs. 14 lbs. 20 lbs. 8 qts. 20 lbs. 2 qts. 2 qts. 5 lbs. 3 qts. 0 2-1 1-1 2 qts. 25 lbs. 5 lbs.
FREE FORM Use formula: L x W x H. Apply amounts below in footnote nos. 2, 3, and 4 as appropriate.
1. To calculate cubic inches - take height times length times width: H x L x W = cu. in.
2. Plaster powder to water ratio will be approximately two pounds of plaster to one pint of water (H20).
3. One gallon of water weighs 8 lbs.; one gallon of rubber weighs 9 lbs.; one gallon of casting filler weighs 11 lbs.
4. One cubic inch of plastilina weighs one oz..; one cubic inch of moist clay weighs 1 oz..; all weights are approximate to the ounce.
115
5. All figures and measurements are based on Sculpture House Inc. materials.
A Sculptor's Guide to Tools and Materials
APPENDIX G
EQUIVALENCY CHART
Weights
Materials Weight Equivalency
MeAsures
16 ounces = 1 pint
4 quarts = 1 gallon
117
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Abstract Expressionism - Term used to de- particles from a clay body making it pure
scribe free form nontraditional sculpture. or refined.
Accelerator - Increases speed of a chemical Alabaster - A gypsum stone indigenous to
change. Spain, Italy, and the Northwest United
Acetone - Colorless, volatile, water-soluble, States. It can be opaque, translucent, colored,
flammable liquid; a solvent for paint and or banded; a dense calcite. A medium grade
varnish. carving stone.
Acid Bath - A term used in heat treating and Albany Slip - Natural clay used in ceramics as
tempering of steel. a slip for decoration; deep brown in color, it
Acrylic - A thermoplastic resin, created by melts above cone 7 and 8.
mixing proportionate parts of plastic com- Alcohol - Colorless flammable liquid used as
ponents together, used for cast and molded a thinning agent or solvent; used to thin or
parts; can be clear or colored. remove shellac from a model.
Adalox Paper - Trade name of Norton Co. Grit Alcohol Lamp - Used to heat modeling tools
paper of Carborundum ranging in mesh from for wax detailing; alcohol fueled with wick
220 to 1200 used for sanding and finishing. or possible spout for flame direction.
The higher the number the finer the grit. Alginate - A derivative of marine algae used
Adz - Type of double-sided swing tool used to in mold making and casting; used for small
reduce large geometric areas from logs. flat items only because of its tendency to
Aggregate - Inert rock used to mix with other tear or rip.
components to give greater strength, e.g., Alkali - Soluble material obtained from plant
marble aggregate. ashes; primarily a potassium or sodium
Aging - The process wherein a molecular carbonate.
change occurs with a moist or oil-base clay Alloy - Metal compounds fused together when
causing a physical reaction to the nature of molten to form bronze for casting. Differ-
the material. ent component parts will result in different
Air Floated - A process that eliminates foreign types of bronze.
119
GloSSAry oF terMS
Almaloy Wire - Pliable aluminum wire used Asbestos - An inextinguishable material that
for internal support of sculptures; in gauges separates into long fibers.
1/16, 3/16, 1/8, , and 3/8 inches. Atelier - Studio or workshop, usually of an
Alum - Potassium aluminum sulfate used as artist, derived from French.
an astringent. Autoclave - Super heats steam under extreme
Aluminum - Malleable light silver-colored pressure for purification purposes.
metal that resists oxidation (discoloration Aventurine - A type of translucent quartz with
such as patina). traces of mica throughout.
Aluminum Wire - Pliable aluminum wire used Ball Bearing - A turntable, like a lazy Susan,
for internal support of sculptures; in gauges with hardened steel balls, designed to allow
1/16, 3/16, 1/8, , and 3/8 inches. easy movement.
Amorphous - Having no defined shape or form Ball Clay - Base clay for earthenware formu-
such as free form sculpture. las.
Anatomical - Structural make-up of human or Ball Mill - Grinding device used to mill clay and
animal body parts. glazes, with balls rotating in a container.
Anneal - To heat and cool steel so that the Banding Wheel - A rotary top on a post or ball
metal is not brittle. bearing that allows clay or a sculpture to be
Anode - The negative terminal of a battery. easily turned for working or decorating.
Antimony - A brittle crystalline used when Barium - Silver-white metallic element of alka-
working with different alloys. line earth; a toxic material used as a pigment
Apron - Generally cotton duck canvas or or extender.
leather used for protection against clay plas- Basalt Ware - Black stoneware developed by
ter and dirt in the classroom or studio. J. Wedgwood.
Arch - To form or bend into a desired shape Base - Holding support for the display of a
as in architecture. finished piece of sculpture.
Argillaceous - Containing clay or clay miner- Basic Carving - The primary removal of clay,
als. wood, stone, or other sculpting material to
Arc Welding - Molding steel or metal with create a basic geometric shape.
electrical current. Bas Relief - A sculpture that is slightly raised
Armature - An internal support to hold the with no apparent undercuts
outer covering of a sculpture; may be made Bat - Plaster disc or circle used in pottery
of various materials such as wood, wax, steel, throwing that allows the potter to remove
but generally almaloy or aluminum wire. the piece from the wheel head while still
Art Plaster - Trade name of U.S. Gypsum Co. wet, 8, 9, or 10 inches in size, secured with
A gypsum material with an extremely high a piece of moist clay.
absorption rate primarily used in ceramic BAZ - Trade name of Sculpture House Inc.;
slip casting molds. basic stone carving tool set consisting of five
Art School - Trade name of Sculpture House, tools and one mallet, in a canvas roll.
Inc.; oil-base modeling material of school- Beeswax - A pure yellow natural wax used
grade quality. to dress wood or seal stone sculpture; also
Artware - Trade name of Sculpture House Inc.; used in batik.
a low fire ceramic moist clay that vitrifies at Bench Screw - A double screw device that
cone 04. holds a carving block of wood secure for
120
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
carving; screws into the block and into the Bone Ash - Tribasic calcium from bones calci-
securing device. fied in air, used in pottery making.
Bench Stone - A sharpening stone, possibly of Bone China - Translucent white china made
various grits, used to sharpen and hone tools with bone ash and clay.
while sitting on a work table. Bone Emulsion - Trade name of Sculpture
Bentonite - An absorbing clay used as a filler House Inc.; a liquid which when mixed with
in clay bodies. plaster adds strength to the plaster.
Binder - A clay of wax material that enables Boneware - Trade name of Sculpture House
other materials to adhere when they nor- Inc.; a pure self-hardening clay in red and
mally would not. gray. Used for direct modeling or in plaster
Bisque - The first firing of a clay or ceramic press molds.
piece before glazing. Typical bisque firing is Books - Instructional or informational pub-
cone 04 - 06. lications giving directions or facts directly
Black Rubber - Also known as Tuffy, a three- involving sculpture.
part polysulfide rubber used for professional Borax - Material consisting of hydrated sodium
mold making. borate used as a flux or cleaning agent.
Blanket - A clay cover over the model. After Bowsing/Bousing - Moving an object with the
the mold and clay are removed, the mother use of a block and tackle.
mold is replaced and a catalytic curing rub- Boxwood Tool - A modeling tool made of a
ber is poured in the resulting cavity between wood named boxwood; in 38 different
model and mold. shapes and several lengths, these tools may
Blanks - In wood and stone carving, pieces of or may not now be made of boxwood but
steel not yet forged. of a similar hard wood.
Blistering - Term used when a glaze overheats Brass - Alloy consisting of copper and zinc.
and causes bubbles to form on the pottery. Brazing - Joining of metals by use of heat.
Blocked Bust - Head and shoulder showing the Bronze - A combination of copper and tin;
basic geometric planes of a figure; usually the compound may vary in proportions of
made of hollow cast plaster. each.
Blocked Mask - Face mask showing the basic Bronze Rod - A bronze material used for braz-
geometric planes of the facial structure. ing a joint or doing repair work on a bronze
Block Scraper - Rectangular steel scraping casting.
device used in leveling and cleaning molds. Brooklyn Mix - Trade name of Sculpture
Length can vary; can be used with or with- House Inc.; private formula stoneware that
out teeth. turns red-brown when fired to cone 10.
Bluing - A water-soluble pigment used in the Bruise - Term most commonly used in stone
initial cast of a plaster waste mold to alert the carving. When a piece is dropped on a hard
mold maker to the closeness of the cast. surface, a discoloration or imperfection ap-
Blunger - A mixing machine used for slip and pears on the surface where the stone made
glaze. contact.
Bonded Bronze - A polymer resin mixed Brush - A wire or bristle material used in clean-
with bronze powder to give the feel and ing the interior of molds and in the applica-
simulated weight of a bronze cast without tion of patina on a piece of sculpture.
the expense. Bubbling - Caused by the overheating or high
121
GloSSAry oF terMS
temperature of a kiln during glaze firing of lasting use without repeated sharpening.
pottery. Carburize - To combine or impregnate with
Burl - Hard woody hemispherical outgrowth carbon; a flame produces the carbon effect
on a tree. on metal.
Burlap - An open mesh cloth used in reinforc- Carrara - A small town in northeastern
ing molds and sculptures; most commonly Italy where the Carrara marble quarries are
impregnated with plaster. found.
Burma Slip - Slip stone made of Burma stone Carrara Marble - An Italian stone, in varying
used for sharpening tools. grades of color, indigenous to Carrara, Italy;
Burner - Flame producing burning device such used by Michelangelo
as an oven. Carving - The act of shaping stone, wood, and
Burnishing - Rubbing in, smoothing, or flat- plaster by cutting with specially designed
tening. tools.
Burnout - The process in which wax is burned Carving Chisel - A flat, high carbon steel tool,
from a ceramic shell mold so that molten with a flat sharp cutting surface used with a
metal such as bronze may be poured. hammer or mallet to carve stone, wood, or
Bush Hammer - A cross checked steel hammer plaster. Sweep and width vary with size of
used to reduce large sections of stone. the tool and the bevel is at different angles
Bush Pick - Tool, one end a bush hammer and for wood or stone tools.
the opposite end a straight pick; the striking Carving Tools - Tools used in forming wood,
end comes to a point. stone, wax, plaster, or clay pieces. Can be
Cabinet Rasps - Medium coarse rasps with made from high carbon steel, most com-
teeth attached to a handle of wood; used for monly used in wood carving and stone
reducing and finishing wood and stone. carving.
Cadmium - Ductile malleable material used Case - A container that holds smaller unit
as a protective coating on steel rasps. sizes; used to carry artists and sculptors
Calcareous - Containing calcium growing on tools and equipment.
limestone or ground containing lime. Case Mold - A mold usually constructed as a
Calcining - Heating to high temperatures for retaining mold for casting slip.
cleaning but without fusing. Casine - A form of paint manufactured for
Calcium - Silver-white metallic element of artists.
alkaline earth. Cast - A reproduction of an original piece of
Calipers - A device of wood or aluminum, sculpture in any number of casting materials,
generally curved, used for measuring dimen- most commonly plaster, plastic, or bronze.
sions of a piece for reproduction. Casting - The process that duplicates a model
Cape Chisel - A round end stone carving or piece by pouring casting material into a
tool used to make gouges or furls like a pre- formed mold.
cornfield. Casting, Investment - Process whereby a
Carbide - Binary element of carbon with a model is covered with a ceramic shell in-
more electropositive element; extremely vestment for the pouring of bronze. This
hard, brittle metal. investment or ceramic shell can withstand
Carbide Tools - Tools with carbide cutting the high temperature of the molten bronze,
edges brazed and sharpened as tips for longer whereas other materials cannot.
122
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
123
GloSSAry oF terMS
124
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
Crawling - Occurs when glaze has been over- decorative use only, nonfunctional pottery.
applied and runs in pools during the firing Denatured - Term describing alcohol which is
process. Or spider web effect or cracking unfit for consumption due to modification by
caused by the improper fit of glaze to the heating. Used in mold making and casting.
clay. Glaze does not shrink with the clay. Density - The mass of a substance per unit vol-
Cream Soapstone - A light, smooth, flawless ume. Usually used in determining amounts
talc base stone found in India. Has a light of clay required for a project or a piece.
pinkish hue. Mathematically determine the total cubic
Crosshatch - Scoring with perpendicular inches of the piece to be made (height times
cuts in a checker board fashion, commonly weight times depth). One ounce of material
used in wood working or, at times, in stone equals one cubic inch.
carving. Deoxidation - The removal of oxygen as in
Crucible - Container used to hold molten reduction firing in ceramics to achieve a
metal for pouring or centrifugal casting. specific effect.
Crystallization - The act of becoming crystal- Devitrify - To deprive of glassy luster and
line in form transparency. To change from a glassy to a
Crystal River Marble - White crystalline crystalline condition.
marble indigenous to northern California. De-waxing - Removing the wax model from a
Relatively vein free. mold; usually accomplished with heat.
Custom Tools - Tools made to individual speci- Dextrin - A sticky starch used in adhesives;
fications to fit a customers special needs or also used in self-hardening clays.
requirements, used with stone, clay, and/or Die - A device to create multiples of an original
plastilina. by stamping or pressing. Usually made of tool
Damp Closet - A container used to store moist steel with a male and female half.
clay to preserve its pliability. Dipping - The process in mold making or glaz-
Das Pronto - Trade name of Adica Pongo Inc.; a ing ceramics in which a piece is submerged
self-hardening moist pliable material similar to give it a coating.
to clay, imported from Italy. Dipping Tongs - In ceramics, a tool to hold
De-Air - To remove air from a moist ceramic pottery when dipping it into a glaze solution
pottery clay body with vacuum compres- prior to firing.
sion. Direct Carving - When the final piece is
Decalcomania - Art of transferring pictures sculpted from an original source, usually in
from specially prepared paper. For example, wood, stone, and wax carving.
transferring decals onto ceramic ware. Direct Metal - Working in metal where no
Decant - To pour from one vessel to another. casting is required. Also known as welding
Decomposition - To separate into simpler or direct molding with sculpt metal.
parts. Dolomite - Ceramic base material used to en-
Degas - To remove vapor or gas from molten hance plasticity in ceramic clay bodies.
metal before casting. Double Wire End - A tool made with cutting
Dehydration - The removal of bound water. wires on each end with a wooden or metal
Della Robbia - Trade name of Sculpture House, tapered handle to secure the two working
Inc. A self-hardening clay that can be fired ends; used in clay modeling and plaster
in a kitchen oven at low temperatures; for work
125
GloSSAry oF terMS
Dover White - Trade name of Sculpture House, Earthenware Clay - Slightly porous clay fired
Inc. Clay derived from Dover area of Eng- at low temperatures.
land known for its fine talc quality. Eldorado Stand - Trade name of Sculpture
Draft - Occurs in kiln firing to control tem- House, Inc. A medium strength modeling
perature in down draft kilns. stand with gear crank raising and lowering
Draw Knife - A flat or concave beveled blade device, three-legged, collapsible, can hold
with perpendicular handles so that the blade 200 pounds of working material.
can be drawn or pulled toward the body of Electric Wheel - Potters wheel run by electric-
the user. Used in boat making and wood ity either at fixed variable speeds or with
carving. variable speed foot pedals. May be run with
Dremel Tool - Trade name of Dremel Com- belts or cones; can throw up to 50 or more
pany. Electrical power tools that turn at high pounds of clay at one time. Specifications
speed in a rotary motion, used for grinding, will vary with the manufacturer.
shaping, and finishing. Electrode - A conductor used to establish
Dresden Clay - Trade name of Sculpture electrical contact with a nonmetallic part
House, Inc. An English talc pottery clay that or circuit.
contains grog. Electrolyte - A nonmetallic electrical con-
Dryness, Short - When a mixture contains too ductor in which current is carried by the
much clay flour in proportion to its liquid movement of ions. Used in electroplating
bonding agent, in either water-base or oil- castings.
base materials. Enameling - Covering, inlaying, or decorat-
Ductile - Capable of being fashioned into a ing with a colorful surface by fusion of an
new form, as in aluminum wire or almaloy opaque, nitrous composition to metal.
wire. Epoxelene - A two-part component of plas-
Durite Screen-Bak - Screen mesh sand abrasive tic or resin base, used for direct casting of
in sheet form in different grits or grades; used sculpture. Used with cold cast bronze when
for finishing or sanding. bronze powder is mixed with the resins.
Duron, Modeling Compound - Plastic air Epoxy Resin - A multiple-part casting mate-
dry oven baked modeling material that can rial; when mixed with a catalyst, it becomes
harden in a kitchen oven. Discontinued in hard plastic.
the early 1970s for lack of raw materials. Epsom Salt - Colorless white crystalline salt,
Duron, Modeling Tools - Plastic modeling hydrate magnesium sulfate with cathartic
tools made by injection molding to make dif- properties. Used with ceramic glaze and in
ferent shaped plastic modeling tools. Owned firing techniques.
by Sculpture House, Inc. Extruding - Mixing and forming clay or plas-
Dust Mask - Face device, in styles ranging from tilina into rounds or squares for storage to
cotton gauze to cylinder cartridge contain- allow the molecular structure to migrate.
ers, to protect against inhalation of dust and Face Shield - A clear curved plastic protection
fumes while mold making and casting. device with movable shield worn over the
Dye - A coloration used in waste mold casting head to protect the face and neck from debris
to determine when the removal mold is com- while carving stone or wood.
ing close to the cast piece, thus preventing Fahrenheit - A thermometric scale. Boiling
damage to the cast. point is 212 above zero, freezing point is
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carving tools have different hardnesses de- Hugo Grey - Trade name of Sculpture House,
pending on their use. Inc., sculpture or pottery clay, gray in color,
Hardwood - Wood that has sure hardness but fires white at cone 6. Replaces French
greater than that of normal base woods. modeling clay as a sculpture material in
Lignum vitae, purple heart, and boxwood are that it is well suited for modeling since it
hardwoods, whereas walnut, birch, oak, and takes shadows well and is pliable, smooth,
mahogany are considered base woods. and plastic.
Heartwood - The center piece of a log. Humidity - Is measured by the moisture in
Heat Treating - A bath or chemical process the air; it can cause discrepancies in setting
used to harden steel, such as a salt bath or or drying times of certain mold making and
electrical induction. casting materials.
Hercules Stand - Trade name of Sculpture Hydrocal - Trade name of U.S. Gypsum Co. A
House, Inc. A heavy duty sculpture stand strong gypsum material used for casting rath-
raised and lowered by cranking. Made in er than mold making, stronger than casting
the United States, it is the largest stand of plaster but not as strong as Hydrostone.
its type and can hold up to 750 pounds of Hydrostone - Trade name of U.S. Gypsum Co.
working material. A gypsum product of the greatest hardness,
Hollow Casting - Thin layers of casting mate- used for casting only, not mold making.
rial built up on the inside of the mold to Igneous Rock - Formed by solidification of
make a hollow rather than solid casting, in molten magma, volcanic rock.
bronze created by the wax thickness but Igniter - Device used to start a kiln (wood or
with plaster casting the interior walls are gas) torch.
built up to form this hollow casting. Plaster Impregnated Plaster Gauze - Also known as
can also be cast solid. Paris craft, trade name of Johnson & John-
Honing - Razor sharp finishing done by hand son, Co.; discontinued since the mid 1980s.
or machine as an extra step in the sharpen- Gauze strips impregnated with plaster which
ing process. Tools that have been honed are when soaked in water, become active and
usually covered with a protective plastic malleable. When set they form a strong
that can be removed by striking the edge hard plaster piece. Also used in the medical
on wood. profession for plaster casts.
Hook Knife - A knife with a curved cutting Ingot - Molded block of solid material (lead,
edge and severe hook on the tip end. Used to bronze, silver, etc.) so fashioned for storage
clean horses hooves in Austria and Germany, purposes.
but also used in wood carving. Inlay - To rub, beat, or fuse into an incision in
Horse Hide Glue - Gelatin pellets melted to wood, metal, or stone.
form a glue for mold making in the early Insulating Brick - Material made of fired clay,
1900s. This material has been replaced by used for walls of an electric or gas fired
latex and polyurethane rubbers. kiln.
Hot Metal Plaster - A gypsum material that In The Round - Three-dimensional piece of
can withstand high temperatures, although sculpture, generally of stone or wood.
not so high as to be able to cast bronze. Lead, Investment - In bronze casting, an outer layer,
tin, and pewter can be cast into this plaster slurry, or coating that can withstand the heat
material. of the bronze after the wax model has been
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or snub nose shapes according to function. Minarettes - Trade name of Sculpture House,
Lost Wax - Process in casting where the model Inc. A series of small steel metal tools used
is converted into wax and then melted from for fine detail work in wax, plaster, plastilina,
the mold in which bronze or other casting and clay. Available in various shapes, they are
material will be cast. hand ground and forged.
Luster - Glow of reflected light or sheen from Miniature Tools - Trade name of Sculpture
a type of glaze used in ceramics or pottery House, Inc. Small stone carving tools de-
decoration. signed for detail work and finishing. Made of
Luting - Packing a joint or coating a porous high carbon steel tempered for hard stone.
surface to make it impervious to liquid. Mixing Bowls - In sculpture flexible containers
Majolica - Earthenware covered with a thin made of rubber ranging in capacity from 3
opaque glaze for a special effect. ounces to 5 gallons. Used in mixing plaster
Male - Protruding or positive side of a mold or slurry for mold making and casting. Dried
or die. plaster will not adhere to the rubber and its
Malleable - Able to be shaped with mallet or flexibility makes the plaster easy to remove.
by hand. The 3 inch diameter size is most commonly
Mallet - A striking tool with a rounded head, used for repair work, while the 5 gallon size
usually made of wood. Used in wood carving, is for batch mixing for casting.
as opposed to a hammer which is metal and Model - The original sculpture or human
used in stone carving. model used in making a sculpture. Argu-
Marble - Crystallized calcium carbonate from ments have raged for years whether or not
limestone formed under extreme pressure. the actual sculpture, the first cast, or the
Master Model - In sculpture the original model master is considered the original.
which has been cast and set aside after pro- Mold - Hollow cavity produced around a
ducing a mold from which casts are drawn. subject for use in creating duplicates of that
As the mold deteriorates another mold is subject in plaster, bronze, cast stone, etc.
made from the master mold and casting The mold is considered the negative and
continues. produces a positive cast.
Maturing - Occurs when molecules in a for- Mold Knives - Heavy steel high carbon knives
mula have migrated over a period of time with four or six inch blades used to remove
to give the optimum performance from the mold sections, to cut rubber, and to clean
combination of ingredients. mold walls. Handles are made of wood and
Melting Point - Temperature at which a metal the blade is continuous through the handle
or material will melt. for strength.
Metamorphic Rock - Rock with a crystalline Mold Lotion - Liquid separating agent facilitat-
content produced by high degrees of heat ing the easy removal of a cast or separation
and pressure. of the mold from the model.
Microcrystalline Wax - A nut brown wax de- Mold Making - Constructing a covering, shell,
rived from crude oil; soft medium hardness or coating, in single or multiple pieces, from
modeling material also known as Victory which reproductions of the original can be
Brown wax. Extensively used in casting made.
bronze. Mold Rubber - Natural or synthetic rubber
Micro Wax - See Microcrystalline Wax. used in the mold making process to repro-
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duce multiple, inexpensive, long lasting western United States, through which light
casts. cannot pass.
Molten - Liquid state gained from heating a Organic Forms - Containing carbon.
metal so it can be poured. Organic Materials - Materials produced with-
Monochrome - Picture with a single hue. out chemical aid.
Monumental - Larger than life, normally ap- Original - First model or cast produced by a
plied to sculptures over 8 feet high. sculptor.
Mother Mold - Outer casing or securing mold Oversized Handle - Large, normally round,
to hold rubber to its natural shape when a handle used for wood carving with the
cast is being poured. Without the mother larger sweep tools, generally over 2 inches
mold elasticity of the rubber can distort in diameter.
dimensions of the cast. Oxblood - Reddish medium brown color used
Mottling - Having spots or blotches on the as a pigment for glazes.
surface. Oxidation - Color change in metals due to
Moulage - Trade name of Douglas & Sturgess. exposure to oxygen; forms a patina or col-
Reusable flexible mold rubber derived from oration on bronze statues.
alginate. Used in mold making of the human Oxide - A binary compound of oxygen with
body and delicate pieces. Moulage can be another element.
reused, up to one hundred times without Ozark Stone - An extremely fine grain sharp-
adverse effect, by heating it and adding ening stone from the southern region of the
water. United States used to sharpen wood and
Negative Space - Areas not used properly stone carving tools.
resulting in loss of that space, such as air Pantograph - Machine used in enlarging and
bubbles in bronze and plaster casting. reducing sculpture; also known as a pointing
Nichrome - Metal that can withstand high machine.
degrees of heat. Wire used in firing ceramic Parting Agent - Spray liquid or paste that as-
beads. sists in the separation of the model from the
Nickel - Metal used extensively in alloys as a mold or the cast from the mold.
catalyst. Parting Tool - A v shaped wood or stone
Nonferrous - Containing no iron. carving tool, also referred to as a veiner.
Notches - Used in the side walls of a plaster Comes in different sizes with varying angles
mold to prevent shifting when casting is or degrees of slope.
poured. Patina - Coloring of a sculpture in plaster,
Noxious - Harmful to humans. bronze, plastic, etc. with acids or pigments.
Ochre - Yellow iron used as a pigment in clays Variations are countless due to the variety
and glazes. of color mixes. The natural bronze patina
Octagon Handle - Wood handle with 8 sides on statues is caused by oxidation and the
used for wood carving tools and rasps. The weather.
handles shape gives the user a good grip. Peeling - Occurs when the glaze does not
Opacity - State of a substance impervious to adhere to the clay after firing. Caused by
rays of light. the mismatch of the clay body and glaze
Opaque Alabaster - Medium hard grade formula.
carving stone, indigenous to Italy and the Percussion - Striking or hitting a stone or wood
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Plug - Created on the top or sides of a mold for is used in ceramics and plaster working.
a pouring and for material removal access in Porous - The ability to absorb liquid or mois-
the mold making process of larger pieces. ture.
Pneumatic - Operated with air. Pneumatic Portuguese Marble - A lightly veined pink
handpieces are used in sculpture as are marble with slight fractures and markings,
rotary sanders that run on forced air from with a high crystalline structure.
a compressor. Posts - Devices used in kilns to hold shelves
Point - Sharp stone carving tool for quick when bisque or glaze firing.
reduction of mass material from its bulk Potash - Potassium carbonate from wood ash
geometric form. Sizes vary in diameter from used in pottery and ceramic glazes.
3/8 inch, inch, and larger. Potter - A person who makes pottery either by
Pointing Machine - Used in duplicating a hand or on a kick or electric wheel.
sculpture or in enlarging and reducing Potters Wheel - A wheel, either electric or
pieces. foot-powered, that enables a potter to pro-
Polishing - The final process, if desired, in duce pottery using a flat level rotating disc
finishing a piece of sculpture. head on a circular pipe device.
Polychrome - Colorful decorations on pottery Pour-A-Mold - Trade name of Permaflex Mold
created with stains or glazes. Co. A catalytic setting two-part rubber used
Polymer - A chemical compound made up of in mold making, mix ratio of one part cata-
repeating structural units. lyst to one part base rubber. This material
Polymer Clay - Plastic modeling material that can become thixotropic with use of a third
is moist when modeled and can be fired in setting agent.
the kitchen oven to cure and become per- Pouring - The process by which a cast is made
manent. in a mold, either hollow or solid, in plastic,
Polysulfide - A compound that contains sulfur bronze, or plaster, etc.
atoms. Pouring Gate - An extended section at the
Polyurethane - Various polymers used in mold top of the mold that enables liquid to be
making for flexibility and as an elastomer. poured easily into the mold without losing
May also be a type of casting resin. material.
Pooled Glaze - Caused by a build up of glaze Pow-R-Tron - Electromagnetic percussion
(an excess of liquid on ceramics or pottery) hammer run by electricity used in stone carv-
which melts when fired and pools in a set- ing. Discontinued in the mid 1970s.
tling area. Pressing - Laying clay in a mold to gain a
Pooling - Caused by too great a build up of positive by applying pressure and to achieve
glaze. details of the mold.
Porcelain - A fine grolegg clay formula which Proportional Caliper - Hand held device used
produces an off-white translucent fired clay to calibrate exactness for enlarging and re-
at high temperatures. The finest ceramic ducing sculpture. Sizes vary from 18 to 42
pieces and most difficult to achieve are made inches.
of porcelain. Material may be wheel thrown Puddle - Also known as pooling, a build-up of
or slip cast. glaze due to its over-application on a ceramic
Porosity - The percentage of moisture absorp- or pottery piece.
tion capability contained in a material. Term Pug Mill - Mixing machine used in pottery to
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GloSSAry oF terMS
mix and extrude a clay formula from either the enlarging process.
dry or moist materials. Reducing Agent - An additive that cuts or
Pulverizing - Grinding a material to a given thins a base material. For example, shellac
screen mesh or fineness. See Grog. is cut by alcohol before applying to a model
Pumice - A powder that is mixed with water in mold making.
for use in a last abrasive polishing. Reduction Firing - Firing process whereby
Pumicite - A gritty volcanic ash. oxygen is regulated to create a special effect
Pure Beeswax - Wax extracted from bee hives. on the fired clay or glaze.
It is used to dress wood sculpture, tie dye Refractory - Material fired to a high enough
clothes, and seal wood. Sometimes used as level to withstand the high temperatures of
a direct modeling material, but because of firing in a kiln used for shelves and posts.
its high cost, not often. Regulator - Device that controls the flow of a
Pure Metal - A single non-bonding metal, material into a mold.
without alloys. Reinforcement - Addition of metal or wood
PVA-Polyvinyl Acetate - Plastic casting resin. cross sections either on the outside of a mold
PVA-Polyvinyl Alcohol - Polymerized vinyl or in the casting of delicate pieces where
compound condensed into a liquid state. extra strength is required.
Pyrometer - Device that measures the tem- Relief - Flat one-sided sculpture, also called
perature in a kiln for ceramic and pottery bas-relief.
firing. Resin - Plastic liquid material designed for
Quarry - Site where stone is gathered. Stone casting into specially constructed rubber
suitable for carving is found in specific sites that can withstand the heat of the curing
in Italy, Western United States, Vermont, process.
etc. Respirator - Safety device worn over the nose
Quench - To cool metal by submersion in oil or and mouth to protect the lungs from harm-
water. Term used in the tempering and heat ful dust or vapors. Available in a variety of
treating process to harden steel tools. materials and designs.
Rack - A drying device or structure for clay Retaining Wall - Fence that separates sections
pieces not yet fired that allows them to dry of the mold; outside area on a relief mold
with the least amount of distortion. that restrains mold making material to a
Raku - Method of firing a special Raku clay given area. Constructed of various materials
body for a desired effect. such as wood, metal, clay, or plastilina.
Rasp - Hand tool with teeth rather than serra- Rib - Tool used primarily by potters for shaping
tions, used for wood, stone, plaster, or metal. wet clay that has been thrown on the wheel.
It can be double-ended or single ended with Can also be used for leveling or scraping.
the opposite end attached to a handle. Teeth Riffler - Small rasp type tool with fine serrated
are hand punched and sharp. Size and coarse- cutting edges used for finishing stone and
ness of the teeth vary. wood. Also known as a jewelers rasp.
Raw Glaze - Glaze formula component with- Rod - Used to strengthen internal sections of a
out additives. These are the primary glaze cast. The rod should be non-corrosive so rust
ingredients such as iron oxide, ochre, etc. will not bleed through the final casting.
Reducing - Taking a large sculpture and mak- ROMA - Trade name of Sculpture House, Inc.
ing it smaller using a pantograph or reversing Italian formula plastilina made in the United
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States using the highest grade materials avail- Salt Firing - Process wherein salt is added when
able. Oil- and wax-base modeling material firing pottery to create an unusual effect. The
preferred by professional sculptors. salt is added during the glaze firing.
Roman Joint - Square locking section on a Salt Glaze - Glaze containing amounts of salt
model or mold to keep it from shifting. Used to produce a unique effect when fired.
by professional mold makers and casters, it Sand - Granular material caused by disinte-
is the most difficult joint to make. gration of rock particles; smaller than gravel
Roman Wax - Hard casting wax used for the but larger than silt. Used in clay bodies for
investment process in the lost wax casting strength and texture.
process. Color may vary from purple to Sand Bag - Canvas bag filled with sand used to
black but its brittleness will remain the same. hold stone or wood in place when carving it.
Usually used for fine detailing before casting Sizes vary with the manufacturer. The bags
rather than for direct modeling. are secured with Velcro or string. The bags
Roughing Out - Creating the basic geometric are sold empty.
form from a large natural piece of wood or Sand Blasting - Process to clean stone and
stone; also applied to clay and plastilina. bronze using high pressure forced air and
Rondel - Round cape-shaped stone carving fine particles of sand.
tool. Sand Casting - One of the older and more dif-
Royal Porcelain - Trade name of Sculpture ficult methods of making waxes for bronze
House, Inc. Porcelain clay formula containing casting. Specially designed sand is used to
English China clay made exclusively in the pack the model before the waxes form and
United States. Clay is fired at cone 10-12 the pieces go to the foundry.
and produces a translucent effect. It is the Sandstone - Sedimentary rock of quartz sand
most difficult clay material to throw or fire bound by silica or calcium carbonate. Used
due to its delicate nature. for buildings and stone sculpture.
Running - A build-up of glaze that flows Sapwood - Green wood that still contains its
beyond desired boundaries. Also known as original sap.
pooling. Scabbing - Occurs when flakes or small pieces
Running Plaster - Liquid plaster poured before of metal fall from an original cast or metal
the material sets. sculpture.
Rust - Reddish coating formed on metal that School Tool - Trade name of Sculpture House,
contains iron, caused by moisture. Rods Inc. A double wire end modeling tool, mod-
that are galvanized, when inserted into a erate in price, designed for use in elementary
cast will sometimes rust through the cast and college classes.
plaster piece. Scrape - To remove material with a sharp
Rutile - Brown, deep red, or black mineral that edge, either a wire tool or a rectangular steel
gives a brilliant metallic luster to ceramics scraper.
and pottery when fired in a glaze. Scrapers - Heavy duty steel tools used to re-
Sager - Box made of fire clay where ceramic move rough resistant material such as plaster
pieces are fired. A type of fire clay used in when working directly or after casting.
producing high fire pottery. Screen - To sieve or run through a mesh to iso-
Salt Bath - A procedure in which steel is heated late larger particles or to remove unwanted
and treated to harden or temper it. materials from a formula.
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Sculp-metal - Trade name of Sculp-Metal, Co. Shell - The outer coating of hard set plaster of
A semi-liquid aluminum direct modeling a mold. In bronze casting, a ceramic shell into
material that when dry hardens like metal. which molten bronze can be poured without
May be polished or left flat. Add patina or damage. Also known as the mother mold.
leave plain. No longer available. Shellac - Coating material used in mold mak-
Sculptor - A person who creates sculpture. ing and casting when modeling material
Sculptor, Academic - A sculptor who is asso- containing sulfur is used. Also used in mold
ciated with a school, university or academy, making as a sealer.
who has knowledge based on formal study. Shelves - Ceramic furniture that holds pottery
Sculpt Thumb - A modeling tool designed to and ceramics when fired; can withstand the
extend the working ability of the sculptors high temperatures of the kiln.
fingers or thumb. Shapes and sizes vary de- Shim - A separating device to divide sections
pending on the manufacturer. on a model when the mold is to be made.
Sculpture - An object created by a sculptor. May be brass, wood, tin, aluminum, clay, or
Seam Line - The line where the mold sections plastilina.
join and through which casting material es- Shivering - An effect of glaze on pottery
capes; this line occurs in all types of casting, fired at high temperatures; gives an uneven
ceramic, bronze, plaster, etc. and must be look.
removed before firing or finishing. Shore Hardness - Rigidity, flexibility, or hard-
Sedimentary Rock - A form of organic rock. ness of a rubber used in mold making.
Separol - Trade name of Sculpture House, Short - Clay or plastilina that is dry and cracks
Inc. A releasing agent for use with plaster easily when worked, a condition caused by
molds. mixing improper proportions of liquid to dry
Set - The initial hardening of plastilina after material in the formula.
mixing and extruding. This hardening must Short Bent - Wood carving tool with a curved
be removed by a second or third mixing prior cutting edge like a u in the tip of the tool;
to packaging. creates deep quick cuts in wood.
Setting - The time required for plaster or resin Shrinkage - The percentage a material con-
to become solid, but not necessarily cured. tracts at different stages of firing. Ceramic
Settling - Occurs when particles added to a clays may shrink up to 20% from the original
liquid drop to the bottom of a container. to the final fired glaze piece.
Plaster sprinkled over water should be left Silica - Impure forms of salt that generally
to settle on the bottom of the container to occur in crystalline stone. Pulverized, it is a
absorb water. bonding agent in ceramic and pottery clay
Sgraffito - Design made in ceramic ware or bodies.
pottery with specialty tools. Silicone - Rubber from silicone base mate-
Shank Ring - End of a tool used in wood carv- rial and elastomers used in the production
ing or stone carving, where the tang in front of molds to cast polymers or resins. These
of the blade acts as a stopper when attached molds can withstand the heat of the casting
to the handle. materials when they are mixed and poured
Shard - Piece or section of broken pottery, creating high temperatures due to their
term applied especially to fragments found natural reaction .
in archeological digs. Single Wire End - A modeling tool with only
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A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
one cutting end; the opposing end acts as an Sodium Chloride - Salt.
extension of the fingers in modeling. Solder - A fusing alloy of lead and tin used to
Sinter - To cause to fuse together with heat, join metal.
but without melting. Soldering - Joining sections together with a
Size - Glutinous material used to fill pores and soldering gun or by welding with a torch.
as a sealer prior to applying gold leaf. To attach sections of a sculpture after they
Sketch - Rough design or model of a sculpture have been cast; to rejoin.
used as a guide to create the final work. Spatula - Flexible oval or round steel tool vary-
Skew - Diagonally cut carving tool for wood ing in size, used to smooth models or casts
with a 45 angle for cross cutting. Sizes vary and interior mold wall sections.
from 1/8 to 3 inches. Spodumene - Emerald green monoclinic min-
Skimmer - Professional scoop or spoon used eral used in ceramic glaze.
to remove air bubbles from the surface of Sponge - Natural or synthetic absorbent mate-
a mixed solution, such as plaster, before rial used for smoothing and water absorption
casting. in pottery and ceramics.
Skin - Thin covering over latex rubber at the Spraying - Using an air powered tool to coat
initial setting. pottery with glaze or spray rubber in mold
Slag - The refuse of metals or ores. making.
Slake - To treat with water, as in slaking plaster Springwood - Soft porous section of wood that
before casting. develops early in the growing season on the
Slip - A liquid clay used in casting ceramic annual ring.
pieces before firing. Usually suspended with Spur - Hole through which liquid enters the
a binder to facilitate setting. major cavity of a mold when poured into a
Slip Casting - Process in which slip is poured gate.
into a mold and left to set to form a layer Stacking - Process of loading a kiln for firing,
that can be removed and fired. placing ceramic ware so it is not inadver-
Slurry - A liquid composition used in ceramic tently affected by other pieces.
shell casting. The wax is coated with the Stain - Used in ceramics and pottery to give
material before being burned out so the a dull or matte effect in firing. Also used in
bronze can be cast. patination applications as a base coloring.
Smooth-On - Trade name of Smooth-On. A Steatite - Harder form of soapstone but with
white polyurethane two-part mold rubber the same talc base.
chemically activated for use in hollow cavity Steel - Iron alloyed with carbon. Creates a hard
molds. May be thixotropic. cutting material with hardness determined
Soapstone - The softest carving stone, also by the carbon content; 1095C high carbon
known as talc block or ore. Available mostly steel is used for stone and wood carving
in green and black. Also known as serpentine, tools.
Eskimo stone, and steatite. Steel Tools - Sculptors tools made of high
Soapstone, Black - Extremely hard talc base quality steel shaped and formed for spe-
stone indigenous to Virginia; polishes to a cific uses in working with plaster, wax , and
deep black color. clay.
Soda Ash - Sodium carbonate used in ceramic Steel Wool - Various grades of fine to coarse
glazes. soft steel shavings used in smoothing and fin-
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GloSSAry oF terMS
ishing wood, stone, and bronze sculpture. Summerwood - Heavier, less porous part of
Stilts - Steel- or ceramic-pronged holding de- the annual ring of wood formed during the
vices used to support glazed pottery when summer months.
being fired to prevent the glaze from sticking Sweep - The curvature or angle of the cutting
to the shelves. edge of a tool.
Stone, Carborundum - A polishing or finishing Symposium, Sculpture - Meeting of sculptors,
material made of Carborundum. teachers, and students to discuss and demon-
Stone Carving - Shaping a stone into a piece strate sculpture techniques. Johnson Atelier
of sculpture either by hand or with pneu- regularly sponsors such events.
matic tools. Synthetic Beeswax - Artificial wax made with
Stone Carving Stand - Heavy duty wood stand oil, with the characteristics of natural bees-
used to support large pieces of stone for wax, and costing far less.
carving, usually with a concave resting area Tacky - Not yet dry or set. A sticky state of
on which the stone can be rotated. rubber before setting or curing.
Stoneware - Ceramic clay fired to high temper- Talc - Magnesium silicate used in various
atures and becoming non-porous; a harder ceramic and pottery formulas as a binder
material than the earthenware clay bodies for plasticity. The base of soapstone ore
due to the fermentation and sedimentation used in carving. The base ingredient of baby
of its base ingredients. powder.
Stop Cut - A cross section cut in wood and Tanol - Trade name of Sculpture House, Inc.
stone perpendicular to the grain or a cut that Releasing agent for plaster molds.
stops the normal progression of removal of Tapdrill - Tool used to make an initial hole or
wood in a specified area. indentation; used in mold making or wood
Straight Gouge - Wood or stone carving tool sculpture.
with a straight flat edge, stone carving tool Tare Scale - Scale used to determine tare, the
most likely beveled. weight of a material found by deducting the
Stratification - Forming layers in casting, gener- weight of the container holding the material
ally caused by pouring non-continuously so from the total weight. Used with polyure-
the levels cool at different times. thane rubber mixes.
Streaking - Heavy or off-balance coloration in Temper - Hardness of steel when the molecu-
a material, patina, or cast caused when the lar structure has been altered by heat.
ingredients have not been properly mixed. Temperature - Degree of heat an object or
Strike - To hit with a hammer or mallet to container can withstand, as the temperature
remove material from a given area. of a kiln for firing pottery or rubber for cast-
Studio - Where amateur or professional sculp- ing resin.
tors work. Also known as an atelier, from Tempering - Process in which steel carving
the French. tools are hardened. Under heating treat-
Stun - Shock treatment, as in dipping hot ment, the molecules merge to form a hard
metal in oil or water in heat treating and material.
tempering. Template - Device that copies an original, used
Styrofoam - Polystyrene plastic of different as a master form.
densities used for casting and direct model- Tensile Strength - Strength of an object be-
ing because of its light weight. yond which applied pressure will cause it
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A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
to break. Hardness of fired clay and cast glaze over a ceramic or pottery piece for
plaster objects. decorative purposes.
Terra Cotta - An orange red color in sculp- Translucent - Able to transmit light, as in
ture; a red clay with grog or a base color for translucent alabaster, a carving stone.
patina. Trimming - Cutting clay away from a piece of
Texture - Visual or tactile surface of a body or pottery or from a footing on a bowl in the
substance; the feel of a certain material. One leather-hard stage before firing and glazing.
textures sculpture in a cutting fashion. Trimming Tools - Tools designed for trimming
Thermal Shock - Stress or reaction caused by pottery.
heating. May affect clay when firing or steel Triple Beam Balance - Scale used in measuring
carving tools when being tempered. gram amounts of chemicals and glaze materi-
Thermocouple - Used in a kiln to measure the als for formulas. Most accurate commercial
temperature of the interior so one can adjust scale used in ceramics.
it as required. Tulons - Trade name of Sculpture House, Inc.
Thinning - Diluting a base component part Wooden tools for burnishing and shaping
by mixing with a reducing agent, as shellac clay.
mixed with alcohol. Tungsten Carbide - High melting ductile
Throwing - Producing pottery on a potters metal used in hardening steel.
wheel (electric or kick wheel) by centering Turnette - Small round turntable for working
and forcing the clay to take a desired shape with smaller ceramic objects and sculpture.
as the wheel turns. Turning - Process by which a piece of wood is
Tiger Eye - A hard alabaster stone from Sic- shaped on an electric lathe.
ily with gray, yellow, or red markings like a Turning Tool - Long-handled high carbon steel
tigers eye. wood working tool used to reduce wood
Tin - Low melting alloy that is malleable at forms to the desired effect on a lathe.
ordinary temperatures. Used as a component Turntable - Platform, generally round, made
with bronze and lead. Used as a filler and of wood or metal that turns as one deco-
bonding agent. rates pottery or ceramics. Larger tables on
Tin Oxide - Powder polishing compound that ball bearings are used for large pieces of
creates a deep luster finish. sculpture.
Titanium - A strong metallic element used as a Umber - Brown earthen mineral used in color-
binder in refractory materials such as in kiln ing glaze and clay in ceramics and pottery.
shelves and posts. Undercut - An overhang or protrusion of a
Tongs - Tool used to securely hold a material relatively smooth plane that hinders removal
or ceramic piece while working on it when of the mold. Undercuts must be worked
hand holding it is not feasible. around when mold making and casting.
Tooth - That part of a stone carving tool that Urethane - Ethyl ester of carbonic acid used
cuts a small section; also known as the cut- as a solvent in an anti-plastic agent. Used in
ting part on a rack or claw chisel. molds and casting material.
Torch - Flame producing device used in wax V Tool - Parting or veining tool used in wood
working and bronze casting; its fuel base is working at 45 and 60 angles for furrowing
alcohol or propane. in wood and stone.
Trailing - Adding a layer or coating of slip or Vacuum - State resulting from the removal of
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GloSSAry oF terMS
air from rubber or clay before use to avoid Volume - Amount of space occupied by a
air bubbles in the final piece. model measured in cubic units. To find the
Vanadium - Polyvalent metallic used as an al- required amount of clay or plastilina for
loy as in vanadium steel. a model, multiply the areas length times
Vapor - Gaseous state as opposed to a solid width times depth to get cubic inches; using
or liquid state. the ratio: one cubic inch to one ounce of ma-
Variation - The extent to which items or terial, calculate the total number of ounces
masses may differ. Raw materials used in required to make the model. For example, if
formulas, for instance, may vary in quality a cavity of a mold is 5" x 5" x 5" (or 25 cubic
from year to year depending on the mining inches), you will need 25 ounces of material
level. to fill the cavity.
Vatican Art Casting Stone - Trade name of Warping - Distortion caused by moisture or
Sculpture House, Inc. Artificial casting stone lack of moisture in wood, and by overfiring
made of gypsum and aggregate to simulate in ceramics.
marble. Available in different base colors. Water Glass - Silicate of sodium and water,
Vent - A channel or opening in a mold through used as a protective coating.
which air and gases may escape thereby Wax - Substance derived from petrolatum
preventing damage to the cast or air pockets refined to be soft, pliable, used for modeling
in the cast. and casting.
Vermiculite - A moisture absorbing silicate Wax, Positive - Wax cast from the mold that
used as a filler in clay bodies. will be invested or coated with slurry then
Vermont Marble - A hard, white, vein-free melted out. A bronze cast will result when
marble from Vermont; Barry, Vermont is its molten bronze is poured into the cavity.
center of production. Wax Resist - In pottery and ceramics, the wax
Vibration - When pouring rubber or plaster, coating applied to the interior of kiln walls so
a process of shaking the mold or container glaze will not adhere to the walls in firing.
to eliminate air bubbles in the rubber or Wax Tools - Steel tools designed and produced
plaster. for working with wax. They absorb heat and
Victory Wax - Soft brown wax or Microcrystal- are especially shaped for their functions.
line Wax used in bronze casting and direct Weathering - Process of aging outdoors re-
modeling. Derivative of petroleum. sulting in various colors or patina. Effects
Viscosity - The rate of flow at which a liquid will differ depending on geography and
follows a given path. In sculpture, applied climate.
to molten bronze, other castable metals, Wedges - Triangular shaped wooden pegs that
and plaster. help secure the tightening of mold straps
Vise - Gripping device with jaws to secure when casting large pieces.
a piece of sculpture or wood that is being Wedging - Cutting or rolling a clay body to
worked. force out internal air which can cause an
Vitrification - The process by which a clay body explosion or damage when the clay is fired.
is heated until it becomes non-porous. Wedging Board - Plaster based slab with a
Volatilize - To cause to pass off in vapor. wire cutting device at a 45 angle for cut-
Volcanic Ash - Produced by volcanic eruption, ting pieces of clay to be wedged. May also
a material used in ceramic glaze formulas. be made without the cutting wire.
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A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
Wedgwood, Josiah (1730 -1795) - Prominent Wonder Stone, African - An extremely soft
English potter and manufacturer instrumen- (metamorphic) stone, dark gray or black in
tal in raising the manufacture of pottery and color, at times with a reddish tint. The color
china to a fine art. is solid and there is no veining.
Weld - To bring separate parts together, as in Woodcarver - Person who carves wood in three
jointing plaster, wax, clay, or bronze sections dimensions with tools and a mallet.
to form a completed piece. Woodworker - Person who works wood either
Wet-Dry Paper - A finishing material of Car- by handheld or powered tools, as a cabinet
borundum made in different coarsenesses maker, wood turner, etc.
from extra fine to coarse, used with water or Zinc - Metallic element of intermediate
dry. Used in one of the final steps in polish- hardness that becomes ductile with slight
ing stone. heating.
White Lead - Highly toxic powder or paste Zinc Oxide - An infusible white solid used
with great binding ability. Sometimes used as a pigment in compounding rubber and
in ceramic glazes and house paint. ceramic glaze.
White Rubber - A two-part polyurethane Zirconium - Metallic element with a high melt-
rubber with a catalyst setting agent used in ing point and resistant to corrosion. Used in
making rubber molds. refractory shelves and posts in the ceramic
Whittler - One who works on handheld wood industry.
pieces with a small knife.
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A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
INDEX
Please refer to the Appendixes (pages 75-117) and Glossary (pages 119-144) for additional information.
145
index
146
A Sculptors Guide to Tools and Materials
147
index
148
Second edition
Plastilina
Direct MoDeling Materials
MoDeling tools anD accessories
arMatures
MoDeling stanDs
MolD Making & casting
WooD carving & stone carving
rasPs & rifflers
carving accessories
Pottery & ceraMic clays
HoW sculPtors tools are MaDe
Material requireMents usage cHart
$21.95
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ISBN 0-9631867-2-8