218
1, JANUARY 2006
Power-Quality Measurements in an Autonomous
Island Grid With High Wind Penetration
Stavros A. Papathanassiou, Member, IEEE, and Fritz Santjer
AbstractAutonomous power systems, such as those existing in
small and medium-size islands, typically consist of medium voltage
networks fed by conventional power stations and present charac-
teristics not typical for large interconnected grids. In this paper,
results are presented and analyzed from a power-quality measure-
ment campaign, conducted in a diesel-powered island system with
significant wind penetration. Emphasis is placed on the voltage
flicker, which was found quite increased under all operating condi-
tions. It is shown that the diesel engines of the conventional power
station are the main source of flicker in the system, due to the
pulsed variation of their torque. The operation of the wind farms,
on the other hand, does not result in any notable deterioration of
the voltage quality level in the system.
Index TermsDiesel-driven generators, flicker, power quality,
wind power generation.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE connection of wind turbines (WTs) to the grid is
often constrained by power-quality considerations (i.e.,
by the concern of utilities for the possible deterioration of the
voltage quality of the network). Several investigations have
been performed over the years, analyzing the steady-state and
fast voltage variations, flicker emissions, switching transients
and harmonics (e.g. [1][7]), which contributed significantly
in better understanding the possible effects of the WT connec-
tion. Significant standardization work has also been carried
out, with a special reference to IEC Standard 61 400-21 ([8])
regarding the power-quality characterization of WTs intended
for grid-connected operation.
Nevertheless, the existing regulations and technical evalua-
tion procedures are focused on interconnected grids, of practi-
cally fixed frequency and relatively high short-circuit capacity,
where the majority of the installed wind capacity is connected.
Power quality issues in weak island grids, including the effect
from the WT connection and operation, have been hardly inves-
tigated and relatively scarce information exists on such systems
(e.g. [9][11]). Although in principle the phenomena should be
of similar nature, important differences exist due to the isolated
mode of operation of these systems, which are typically fed by
autonomous diesel power stations.
Manuscript received May 26, 2004. This work was suported by the Research
Project Integration of Wind Turbines into Electricity Supply Networks with
Limited Power Transportation CapacityWiring (JOR3-CT98-0245) by the
European Union. Paper no. TPWRD-00252-2004.
S. A. Papathanassiou is with the School of Electrical and Computer En-
gineering, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), Athens 15780,
Greece (e-mail: st@power.ece.ntua.gr).
F. Santjer is with the Deutsches Windenergie-Institut (DEWI), Wil-
helmshaven D-26382, Germany (e-mail: f.santjer@dewi.de).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2005.848723
0885-8977/$20.00 2006 IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO.
In Greece, more than 50 islands exist with relatively small,
diesel-powered grids, in many of which significant wind pen-
etration levels have been reached (exceeding 50% during low
load hours). To obtain field data for the operation of such sys-
tems, a two-week measurement campaign was organized on the
island of Samos, where 4 MW of wind turbines were installed
and operating.
In this paper, results from the measurements are presented,
focusing on the power-quality characteristics at the medium-
voltage (MV) level of the network. The main objective is to
demonstrate the effect of the diesel generating units, which are
the main factor differentiating the island grid from a weak distri-
bution network in the interconnected system, and to evaluate the
impact from the operation of the wind turbines. Particular em-
phasis is placed on the voltage flicker, the main source of which
is shown to be the diesel generating units.
II. DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM
The autonomous power system of Samos island is fed by a
diesel power station (DPS), which, at the time of the measure-
ments, had a total installed capacity of approximately 30 MW,
comprising several units from 2.0 MW to 6.3 MW (Fig. 1).
Basic generators are two 6.3 MW units , followed by three 4
MW units, the main characteristics of which are summarized in
Table I (unit numbering as used by the DPS operators).
The distribution network on the island consists of several
15-kV medium voltage (MV) overhead feeders, departing from
the DPS busbars. An important characteristic of the network is
the length of the MV feeders (several tens of km per feeder),
which creates voltage regulation problems.
The consumer load during the Summer period, when the mea-
surement campaign was conducted, is predominantly touristic,
varying approximately from 7 to 23 MW.
At the time of the measurements three wind farms were op-
erating on the island. One with 9 225 kW pitch controlled,
constant speed machines, near the town of Pythagorio, and an-
other two wind farms with stall regulated, constant speed WTs
(9 100 kW old units and 750 250 kW recently installed
ones), at Marathokambos. The wind farms are connected to two
15 kV feeders as shown in Fig. 2 (Lines #240 and #260).
To obtain a complete picture of the voltage quality in the is-
land system, a 2-week measurement campaign was conducted
in mid-Summer, when optimal wind conditions prevail. Mea-
surement locations, shown in Fig. 2, include the DPS, the three
wind farms and selected nodes in the network.
PAPATHANASSIOU AND SANTJER: POWER-QUALITY MEASUREMENTS IN AN AUTONOMOUS ISLAND GRID
Fig. 1. Diesel engine at the Samos power station.
TABLE I
DATA FOR THE DIESEL GENERATOR UNITS OF THE POWER STATION
III. POWER-QUALITY MEASUREMENT RESULTS
A. Steady-State Measurements
The power produced by the diesel generators (active and reac-
tive) is shown in Fig. 3 for a period of about 2 weeks. The daily
load profiles with peaks at 13:00 and 21:00 hours and minima
around 6:00 h are clearly visible. The increase in the DG daily
peak after the middle of the measurement period is due to the
decrease of the wind in that interval, resulting in the loss of
34 MW of wind power. In Fig. 3 the very low power factor of
the DPS is readily observed. Values as low as 0.7 are observed
during the first days, increasing to 0.800.85 during the subse-
quent low wind period. The low power factor is characteristic
of the island load (to a large extent due to the air-conditioning
units), but in the first days it is further decreased due to the op-
eration of the wind farms.
As it was observed on site, the poor power factor very often
resulted in the synchronous generators of the DPS reaching their
excitation limit. Thus, they were unable to maintain an increased
voltage level at the DPS busbars (typically 15.75 kV, i.e. 1.05
p.u.), to compensate the voltage drop on the long distribution
feeders. In general, the voltage regulation on the island grid is
very poor, even at the power station busbars, where the voltage
drops below 0.95 p.u. in certain cases. The voltage deviation at
remote nodes often exceeds 10%, which is the typical steady-
state under-voltage limit in MV networks ( 10% according to
219
Fig. 2. Electrical system of Samos island (only two MV feeders shown).
Fig. 3. Active and reactive power variation of the diesel generating units over
the measurement period (1-h values).
[12], during 95% of the time). The statistics of the voltage devia-
tions (10 min average values) at Pythagorio are shown in Fig. 4
for the whole measurement period. Although the operation of
the WTs should raise the voltage levels ([13]), the opposite ef-
fect is noted because the compensating capacitors of the 9
225 kW wind farm were out of operation. Remedial action with
installation of capacitors in the network, at the wind farms and
possibly at the DPS busbars is urgently needed for the island
system.
The three phase voltages of the system exhibit an unbal-
ance under all operating conditions, which is attributed to the
nonuniform distribution of the single-phase consumer loads.
The voltage unbalance factor (VUF) (e.g., IEC 61 000-2-1,
[14]) is generally acceptable (lower than 2%), although higher
values reaching 5% also exist during certain intervals. The
operation of the wind turbines generally reduces the voltage
unbalance.
220
Fig. 4. Statistics of the steady-state voltage deviations at Pythagorio node over
the whole measurement period.
Fig. 5. System frequency.
The system frequency, shown in Fig. 5, is well controlled.
Maximum excursions do not exceed 0.5 Hz, even during the
strong wind period of the first days, which is well below the
deviation limit set in [12] for noninterconnected systems ( 1
Hz during 95% of the time and 7.5 Hz during 100% of the
time). This is important because stability concerns are often a
barrier to increasing wind penetration in island systems.
B. Flicker
Flicker measurements along the whole period of the measure-
ment campaign (approximately two weeks in the midsummer
period) revealed that the voltage flicker levels are relatively high
at all nodes of the network, irrespective of the load level and the
output power of the wind turbines. Actual values recorded at
medium-voltage (15 kV) level for the short-term flicker index
range between 0.3 and 0.6, with similar values for the long-
term flicker index . In Fig. 6, the measured values are
plotted for the low wind period of Fig. 3, during which the WTs
were mostly out of operation, as a function of the active power
of feeders 240 and 260.
Flicker values around 0.6 for and particularly for are
quite high, although they are still lower than the compatibility
levels (1.0 and 0.8, for and respectively, according to
IEC 61 000-3-7, [15]). Nevertheless, applying the EMC coor-
dination principles of the IEC 61 000 series of standards, [15],
[16], the flicker emission limits of individual users should be
such that the overall resulting disturbance does not exceed the
planning levels of the network. Therefore, the limit available
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006
Fig. 6. Short-term flicker index during the low wind days of the measurement
period, as a function of the active power of feeders 240 and 260.
Fig. 7. Typical measurement of the three-phase voltages at the DPS busbars
(minimum loadno wind conditions).
to wind farms after subtracting the existing background flicker
from the planning levels, would be quite restrictive, especially
if it is taken into account that the island network is very weak,
with short circuit capacities as low as 10 MVA at many nodes.
These observations warranted a further investigation of the in-
creased voltage variability that resulted in the high flicker index
values. In Fig. 7, a typical 20-min recording is shown of the
three phase-to-earth voltages at the 15-kV busbars of the DPS.
A significant high frequency ripple can be observed in all phase
voltages, which is shown in more detail for a 5-s period. Such a
ripple was always present in the voltages of all nodes in the net-
work and was not considerably affected by the operation of the
wind turbines. Its magnitude and frequency spectrum character-
istics, however, depend on the diesel generators in operation, as
it is analyzed in more detail in the next section, pointing toward
the internal combustion engines of the DPS as the most prob-
able source of the high flicker levels in the network.
IV. DIESEL GENERATOR CONTRIBUTION TO FLICKER
A. Torque Pulsations of a Diesel Engine
It is a known fact that generating units driven by internal
combustion engines may create voltage flicker problems, as it
has been demonstrated by field measurements in [17], where
the basic relations for the quantitative analysis of the phenom-
enon have been presented. This is due to the pulsed nature of
the engine shaft torque, which is developed by the discreet
PAPATHANASSIOU AND SANTJER: POWER-QUALITY MEASUREMENTS IN AN AUTONOMOUS ISLAND GRID 221

Fig. 8. Shaft torque due to one cylinder of the engine.

firing process of the individual cylinders. The problem becomes

exacerbated and may raise flicker concerns when firing asym-
metries exist between individual cylinders (due to fuel quality,
fuel/air ratio deviations, ignition asymmetries, etc.), giving
rise to significant low frequency harmonics (pulsations) in the
shaft torque. Depending on the total inertia of the rotating parts
(engine, flywheel, generator rotor) and the electrical damping
provided by the generator, these harmonics are reflected on
the stator current and hence on the terminal voltage of the
generator. The resulting voltage fluctuations are determined by
Fig. 9. Total shaft torque of a 12-cylinder four-stroke engine for (a)
the impedance of the system components, by the number and symmetrical firing conditions and (b) misfiring of cylinder #6.
size of the generators in operation, as well as by the action of
the AVRs, in the case of fast acting regulators. The respective period (i.e., the time interval between consec-
The shaft torque of a diesel engine is the superposition of the utive power strokes of the engine cylinders), will be
individual torques produced by each cylinder, the form of which
is illustrated in Fig. 8 ([17]), with the initial negative section cor- (6)
responding to the compression phase. In a four-stroke engine,
the firing process of a specific cylinder is repeated every two Using (4) and (5), the cylinder and engine firing frequencies
shaft revolutions, whereas in a 2-stroke one, in every shaft rev- and are calculated and included in Table I for the diesel
olution. The speed of rotation of a diesel generator with poles generators of the Samos power station.
and electrical frequency is given by For ideal (perfectly symmetrical) operation of the diesel en-
gine, the power spectrum of the shaft torque would reveal spec-
(1) tral components (harmonics) at multiples of the basic firing fre-
quency
and the respective revolution period
(7)
(2)
On the other hand, if the torques developed by the engine
cylinders are not identical, the shaft torque will present pulsa-
Hence, the period between successive power strokes (firings)
tions at the cylinder power stroke frequency . This is illus-
of one engine cylinder is
trated in Fig. 9(b), where a misfire occurs in cylinder #6 of the
12-cylinder engine. In such a case, the base frequency of the
(3) shaft torque waveform becomes equal to and its spectral
analysis would reveal components at harmonic frequencies
and the respective power stroke frequency
(8)
(4) In such a case, the engine firing frequency and its multi-
ples are also included in the harmonics. For instance,
where for a 2-stroke engine and for a 4-stroke is the harmonic of the fundamental cylinder firing fre-
one. quency .
With perfect symmetry in the firing of all cylinders, the total
shaft torque is as shown in Fig. 9(a), presenting a base pulsa- B. Validation With Measurements
tion frequency equal to the engine firing frequency , which is
The theoretical analysis of the previous section is fully con-
the product of the cylinder power stroke frequency by the
firmed by the measurements obtained in Samos, which reveals
number of cylinders
that the spectral content of the recorded voltage ripple coincides
with the expected harmonic frequencies of the operating diesel
(5) generators.
222
Fig. 10. Measured power spectral density of the voltage at the DPS busbars.
Generating units in operation: (a) DG #7,8,9,12 and (b) DG #7,8,9.
In Fig. 10, the power spectral density of the rms phase voltage
at the DPS busbars is illustrated for two characteristic operating
conditions (one-cycle rms values have been used resulting in a
cut-off frequency of 25 Hz). In Fig. 10(a), where DGs #7, 8,
9 and 12 are operating, the spectral content is located at fre-
quencies , including thus the char-
acteristic harmonics of both engine types according to Table I
(multiples of the cylinder power stroke frequency, ). Upon
disconnection of DG #12, the power spectral density of the bus
voltage is modified as shown in Fig. 10(b), where the harmonics
appear now at , i.e. at the characteristic frequencies
of DGs #7, 8 and 9. This excellent agreement is observed using
any voltage measurements, either at the DPS or at the network,
both at MV and LV level.
It is therefore confirmed that the recorded voltage fluctuations
are due to firing asymmetries of the diesel power station engines.
For the power stroke frequencies shown in Table I, the resulting
voltage fluctuations occur in the frequency range between 220
Hz, including thus the range 510 Hz, which contributes most
significantly to the flicker levels ([18]). Had the engine operation
been ideal, only the frequencies (12.5 Hz and 33.33 Hz)
and their multiples would have been observed. In such a case,
the voltage variations and flicker problem would be much less
severe, due to the shift to higher frequencies, as well as because
of the more effective filtering of the torque pulsations by the
mechanical inertia of the generating sets.
Determination of the exact firing pattern for each engine, to
quantitatively account for the time-domain voltage variations
and their frequency spectrum, is beyond the scope of this inves-
tigation. Nevertheless, simulations of the engine-generator-net-
work combination using a suitable transient stability code ([19])
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 1, JANUARY 2006
Fig. 11. Simulation results showing the coupling between the engine shaft
torque pulsations due to cylinder firing asymmetries [diagram (a)] and the
voltage at the DPS busbars [diagram (b)].
have been performed, to verify the coupling of the torque pulsa-
tions with the voltage of the system, without attempting to repro-
duce the exact form of the actual voltage variations. Indicative
results are shown in Fig. 11, where one 6 MW engine is oper-
ating , with the torque of cylinder #1 reduced
at 80% of the normal value. It is observed that the voltage at the
station busbars presents an oscillation of approximately 20 V
peak-to-peak, with a fundamental frequency equal to the engine
value (2.08 Hz).
V. WT EFFECT ON VOLTAGE FLICKER
WTs are a well-known source of flicker emissions during
their normal operation, due to the highly variable nature of their
input power, to the rotor torque harmonics, as well as to
other resonance modes excited by the variability of the wind.
Therefore, their connection to the grid is expected to increase
the existing levels of voltage flicker, to a degree which depends
on the characteristics of the specific machines (e.g. the flicker
index , according to [8]) and on the network parame-
ters (mainly the short circuit capacity and impedance angle,
and , at the point of common coupling).
Yet, during the measurement campaign it was observed that
the connection of the wind turbines typically resulted in a
noticable decrease of the overall flicker level. Such a situation
is illustrated in Fig. 12, corresponding to a 2-h interval, during
which the 9 225-kW wind farm is successively cut out and in
for measuring purposes. In the diagram, the wind farm output
power is shown, together with the active power of one diesel
generator (representative of the variation of the total DPS
power) and the measured voltage flicker at the 15-kV busbars
of the DPS. It is apparent that each time the WTs are cut in, the
flicker is significantly reduced, which is a rather unexpected
finding.
PAPATHANASSIOU AND SANTJER: POWER-QUALITY MEASUREMENTS IN AN AUTONOMOUS ISLAND GRID
Fig. 12. Flicker variation at the DPS busbars during a 2-h interval with
2
successive connection and disconnection of the 9 225-kW wind farm.
Fig. 13. Harmonics of the voltage at the 15-kV busbars of the DPS (rms
2
phase-to-earth) (a) before and (b) after cut-in of the 9 225-kW wind farm.
In the previous section it was shown that the voltage flicker
in the power system of Samos is created by the torque pulsa-
tions of the diesel engines. For a given system load, the cut in
of the wind farm results in a reduction of the power output of
the diesel engines, with a corresponding reduction in the mag-
nitude of the engine torque pulsations and hence the resulting
voltage oscillations. This is visible in the diagrams of Fig. 13,
where the spectrum of the DPS voltage is shown, before and
after cut-in of the WTs. The most important voltage harmonic
at 12.51 Hz is reduced by about 15% after cut-in of the WTs,
causing a similar reduction in the overall flicker levels when the
WTs are operating. The same applies for other components at
frequencies around 10 Hz, which mostly contribute to the flicker
effect.
Variations in the output of the wind turbines certainly exist, as
it is evident in the power spectral density of the active power of
Feeder #240, shown in Fig. 14 for the interval before and after
cut-in of the WTs. Nevertheless, these variations are masked,
regarding their flicker effect, by the aforementioned significant
reduction in the diesel engine contribution to the flicker.
The variability of the WT output power is concentrated
around characterstic frequencies, including the integer multi-
223
Fig. 14. Spectrum of the active power of feeder #240 before and after cut-in
2
of the 9 225-kW wind farm.
Fig. 15. Active and reactive power spectrum of one 225-kW WT.
ples of the rotor rotational speed, (where or 43
rpm for the specific WT), and the turbine torsional, aeroelastic
and electro-mechanical eigenfrequencies. These frequencies
are identified on the diagram of Fig. 15, showing the spectrum
of the output power (active and reactive) of one 225-kW WT.
The identification of specific modes is possible, as it has already
been done in [2], where the output power spectrum of the same
WT type is given for operation in the interconnected system.
The basic differentiation here is the presence of the diesel en-
gine-related voltage harmonics (at , ),
which are coupled to the WT output power via the dynamics of
its induction generator. Notably, the transfer function from the
terminal voltage to output power presents a resonance around
the rotor electromechanical poles frequency, in the vicinity of
8 Hz.
VI. CONCLUSION
This paper presents results from a power-quality measure-
ment campaign, conducted in the autonomous, diesel-powered
system of the Greek island of Samos, where significant wind
penetration also exists. Phenomena addressed include the
steady-state voltage and frequency variations, with the em-
phasis placed on the voltage flicker problem, which was found
to be quite severe under all operating conditions. The spectral
analysis of the recorded voltage variations revealed that the
diesel generators of the conventional power station are the main
source of flicker in the system.
The operation of the WTs was not found to create any fre-
quency regulation problems. Voltage regulation issues exist due
to malfunctioning central compensating capacitors of the wind
224
farms, as well as due to the lack of sufficient compensation for
the reactive power demand of the load. An important finding of
the campaign was the actually positive effect of the WT connec-
tion and operation on the fast voltage variations and the resulting
flicker.
In total, although the penetration of wind power to nonin-
terconnected island systems is dealt with severe conservatism,
among other things for fears of power quality and frequency reg-
ulation issues, the field measurements performed demonstrate
that such concerns are largely unfounded.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of
CRES (M. Koulouvari and S. Tentzerakis) and PPC (Dr. D.
Conidaris and DPS personnel) to the measurement campaign,
as well as the valuable input of Prof. M. Papadopoulos and Dr.
N. Boulaxis of NTUA, both to the campaign and the analysis
of the measurements.
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Stavros A. Papathanassiou (S93M98) was born
in Greece in 1968. He received the Diploma in
Electrical Engineering and the Ph.D. degree from the
National Technical University of Athens (NTUA),
Athens, Greece, in 1991 and 1997, respectively.
He was with the Distribution Division of the Public
Power Corporation of Greece in power-quality and
dispersed generation studies, responsible for the elab-
oration of DG interconnection guidelines. In 2002, he
was a Lecturer with the Electric Power Division of
NTUA. His research mainly deals with wind turbine
technology and the integration of distributed generation (DG) in distribution
networks.
Dr. Papathanassiou is a member of CIGRE and a registered professional en-
gineer and member of the Technical Chamber of Greece.
Fritz Santjer was born in Germany in 1960. He re-
ceived the Diploma in Electrical Engineering from
the University of Siegen, Siegen, Germany, in 1989.
In 1990, he joined the German Wind Energy In-
stitute (DEWI) where he works with grid connection
and power quality of wind turbines and wind farms
and with stand-alone systems. In 2000, he became
Head of the Electrical Systems group at DEWI.
He is an assessor for the MEASNET power-quality
procedure and involved in national and international
working groups regarding guidelines on power
quality and the grid connection of wind turbines. He was involved in various
European research projects concerning grid connection and power quality
of wind turbines, stand-alone systems, and simulations of wind turbines and
networks.