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Structure of starch and why the structure makes it a suitable molecule for storing energy

Starch is a mixture of two polysaccharides both of which are polymers of a-glucose. Amylose
molecule is formed by a 1-4 glycosidic bond by condensation reaction. It is coiled and supported by
hydrogen bonds. Amylopectin is formed by a 1-4 glycosidic bonds by condensation reaction and has
branches at points along its chain. Every 30 th molecule branches out by a 1-6 glycosidic bonds.

The whole starch molecule is stabilized by countless hydrogen bonds between parts of the
component glucose molecules. Starch is laid down as compact grains. It is useful because its
molecules are both compact and insoluble but are readily hydrolysed to form sugar when required.

Explain why phospholipid molecules form a bilayer

The phosphate head is hydrophilic and the fatty acid tail is hydrophobic. Fats and water dont mix so
when added to water phospholipids arrange themselves to avoid contact between the hydrophobic
tails and the water. When mix with water, the head of phospholipid dissolve in water whereas the
hydrophobic tail forms a bilayer.

Structure of artery related to its function

The presence of collagen fibres provide the strength of thick walls and allow it to withstand high
blood pressure. Smooth muscle allows to alter the diameter of lumen according to varying blood
flow and reduces friction. Elastic fibres provide elasticitystretch and repulse to make blood flow
smoothly. Narrow lumen of the artery can maintain high pressure.

Differences between structure of vein and capillary

1) Veins have valves to prevent backflow of blood.


2) Veins have wide lumen.

Correlation: Change in one factor reflects in the change of another factor.

Causation: Change in one factor cause directly to change another factor.

Damage to alveoli and destruction of capillaries surrounding the alveoli

The damage of the walls of alveoli decreases the surface area for gas exchange, hence reducing
diffusion.
A decrease in the surface area of capillary reduces blood flow. As a result, less oxygen is carried and
the concentration gradient cannot be maintained. Diffusion cannot occur efficiently.

Suggest how the reaction of enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase takes place using the mechanism of
action of enzymes

Phenylalanine binds to the active site of phenylalanine hydroxylase to form enzyme substrate
complex. After forming the complex, the enzyme then lowers the activation energy by breaking down
the bonds and adding of OH groups to convert phenylalanine into tyrosine. The changed structure of
the tyrosine does not fit to the active site of the enzyme. Tyrosine no longer binds with the enzyme
and released from the active site as a product.
How somatic gene therapy may have been carried out to treat phenylketonuria in these mice

The gene coding for phenylalanine hydroxylase enzyme might be taken from healthy mice by
restriction enzyme and joined with ligase to a plasmid isolated from a certain harmless bacteria. The
resulting recombinant DNA is inserted into bacteria and cultured. The produced enzyme is injected
to targeted cells of mice with phenylketonuria. An alternative vector maybe a virus or a liposome.
The delivery of vector is used by spraying.

What treatment the control group of mice may have been given in this investigation?

Placebo or injecting distilled water

The circulation of blood in a fish

Oxygenated blood flows from heart to gills and gills to rest of body. Blood flow from body back to
heart. Deoxygenated blood flows from the rest of the body into the gills for exchange of gas. It is a
single circulatory system.

Advantages that the human circulatory system has compared with that of fish

Higher pressure, more efficient gas exchange, reduces risk of damage to the lungs

Why insect does not need blood vessels to transport its blood around the body?

Due to the presence of sinuses diffusion is fast enough for exchange of nutrients and movement of
blood back into heart is fast enough.

Blood clotting process

Platelets collect at damaged area. A cascade of changes result in the soluble plasma protein called
prothrombin being converted to thrombin. Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin. Fibrin forms into a
mesh which traps blood cells to form a clot. Vitamin needed for prothrombin is calcium ions and
vitamin K.

Structure of enzyme

Enzymes are proteins made with specific sequence of amino acid with 3D tertiary structure held by
four types of bonds: ionic bond, hydrogen bond, Vander Waals forces and disulfide bridges. The
enzymes are made to work with specific substrate.

How enzyme in snake venom involved in the blood clotting process

Snake venom includes an enzyme similar to one of the enzymes involved in clotting. It has an active
site complementary to one of the substrates. It may also activate other enzymes that have effects on
platelets which trigger clotting process.
Describe two changes that the woman may be able to make her lifestyle to reduce her risk of dying
from CVD

Reduce smoking if the woman is a smoker. Smoking produces carbon monoxide which combines
irreversibly with haemoglobin in red blood cells, reducing the ability of blood to transport oxygen to
all respiring cells.

Reduce salt consumption. Sodium chloride (salt) causes raised blood pressure after it has been
absorbed into the blood stream.

Semilunar valves and elastic fibres are found in the aorta. For each of these structures, describe its
location in the aorta and explain its function.

Semilunar valves

Location: Located at the base of the aorta.

Function: Prevents backflow of blood into the ventricles during diastole.

Elastic fibres

Location: Middle layer

Function: Stretching the walls of vessel to maintain pressure of blood.

Describe the three-dimensional (tertiary) structure of an enzyme

It is a globular form with specific active site. Active site is formed by super coiling or super folding of
protein molecule. The supercoiling and superfolding are supported by four bonds; H-bonds between
bases, ionic bonds, Vader Waals interaction (when molecules are very close together) and disulfide
bridges between two cysteine molecules.

Explain how the primary structure of an enzyme determines its three-dimensional (tertiary) structure
and its properties.

Primary structure specifies the sequence of amino acids in polypeptide chain and it in turn,
determines the positioning and type of bonds. It also determines the shape of the active site. The
shape of active site is specific for a particular substrate to form enzyme substrate complex. The
primary structure also determines the hydrophilic molecules on the outside of the molecule and
hydrophobic in the inside which makes the enzyme to be soluble.

Suggest how gas exchange occurs in an amoeba

Gas exchange occurs through the cell membrane which is a phospholipid bilayer. The membrane is
thin so that oxygen and carbon dioxide can pass through it easily. The concentration of oxygen is
higher in the surrounding water than that in the cytoplasm so that oxygen can diffuse down the
concentration gradient into the cell from the water. The concentration gradient of carbon dioxide is
higher in cell than that in water so carbon dioxide leaves the cell into the water down the
concentration gradient by diffusion. As they are small and non-polar, they can diffuse easily through
the bilayer. As the surface area to volume ratio of amoeba is large; diffusion alone is sufficient for gas
exchange.

Suggest how oxygen passes from the cell membrane into the centre of an amoeba.

Oxygen passes from the cell membrane to the cytoplasm by diffusion down the concentration
gradient.

Describe the structure of glycogen and explain why it is a suitable molecule for storing energy.

Glycogen is the main energy storage material in animals. Animal cells get energy from glucose too.
But animals store excess glucose as glycogenanother polysaccharide of alpha-glucose. Its structure
is very similar to amylopectin (it has 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds), except that it has loads more side
branches coming off it. Loads of branches means that stored glucose can be released quickly, which is
important for energy release in animals. Its also a very compact molecule, so its good for storage.
Like starch, glycogens also soluble in water so it doesnt cause cells to swell by osmosis. Its a large
molecule, so it can store lots of energy.

Explain why gene therapy has the potential to treat some genetic disorders

As genetic disorder is due to faulty alleles, it can be replaced with healthy alleles which gene therapy
uses to produce normal proteins.

Suggest how patients with cystic fibrosis could be treated using gene therapy

Healthy alleles that code for CFTR protein is extracted and introduced into the cells by using vectors
such as liposome. These vectors are then targeted at epithelium linings of organs such as liver,
pancreas, respiratory and reproductory ducts by a proper delivery mechanism such as injection,
spraying or nebulization. This procedure has to be repeated as the cells in these ducts can be worn
off and need to be replaced.

Catalase activity in tissue from mussels can be studied using the apparatus shown below. Describe
how this apparatus could be used to compare the catalase activity in two different types of mussel.

By measuring the volume of oxygen evolved. It can be taken as oxygen produced in unit time. The
initial rate of reaction is to be measured. Mass of the muscle can be controlled. Moreover, volume of
hydrogen peroxide, the temperature and the concentration of catalase and pH must be the same. In
order to achieve a reliable result, repetition was carried out.

Describe how atherosclerosis develops

Atherosclerosis is caused by the damage of the endothelium lining of the artery. Then, inflammatory
response occurs and white blood cells migrate to that area. The cholesterol builds up and atheroma
form. Due to the loss of elasticity, the walls become hardened and the lumen gets removed.

Genotype: The allele a person has

Allele: An alternative form of a gene.


Describe how a molecule of mRNA is made during transcription

DNA unwinds by helicase enzyme. Hydrogen bonds break up. Antisense strand acts as a template for
mRNA. RNA mono nucleotides line up according to complementary base pairing strands. Nucleotides
are joined by phosphodiester bonds by condensation reaction. Unwind by hilogase enzyme RNA
polymerase lines up nucleotide. Ligase join RNA polymerase detaches from the DNA strand and
mRNA is released.

Two differences between the structures of tRNA an mRNA

tRNA is folded; mRNA is straight. tRNA has hydrogen bonds to hold the structure together; mRNA
does not.

Describe the structure of a cell membrane

It is made up of phospholipid bilayerwhich has hydrophilic head which consists of glycerol and
phosphate, hydrophobic region consists of fatty acids. Proteins are scattered throughout the bilayer.
There are two types of proteinsintegral and peripheral. Integral proteins are embedded in the
bilayer and peripheral proteins are attached to both sides of the bilayer. The other component found:
glycolipid, cholesterol and glycoprotein. Glycolipid is formed from glycogen chain (carbon attached to
lipid). Cholesterol is located in between the lipids. Glycoprotein is formed by carbohydrate attached
to protein molecule.

Describe how this investigation could be carried out using Daphnia instead of chicken embryos

Make up a range of caffeine solutions of different concentrations and a control solution that has no
caffeine in it at all. Transfer one Daphnia into the dimple on the cavity slide. Place the slide ontot the
stage of a light microscope and focus it on the beating heart of the Daphnia. Place a small drop of
caffeine solution onto the Daphnia. Count the number of heartbeats in 10 seconds and multiply this
by six to calculate beats per minute. Repeat this 10 times using the same concentration of caffeine
but a different Daphnia individual each time. Dont forget to keep all other factors constant
(temperature and volume of caffeine solution). Repeat the experiment using the other
concentrations of caffeine solution.

One ethical issue in the use of chicken embryos in this investigation

They are vertebrate so they feel more pain. (OR they have the right to survive).

Explain how the structure of the aorta relates to its function

Thick walls with lots of collagen can withstand high pressure. Presence of elastic fibres can recoil and
maintain blood pressure. Presence of smooth endothelium wall reduces friction. Presence of
semilunar valves prevents backflow of blood into left ventricle during diastole. Presence of large
lumen can accommodate large volumes of blood. Branches from aorta can supply blood to different
parts of the baby including coronary artery.

Catalyst: Speeds up the rate of reaction without itself being used up. It lowers activation energy and
does not change after the reactions.
Hydrolysis: Process by adding water to break down glycosidic bonds

Describe how amino acids join together to form the three-dimensional structure of a protein

First, the primary structure which is determined by sequence of amino acid is joined by peptide
bonds between amino group of one amino acid and carboxy group of another amino acid.
Secondary structure is formed by folding of primary structure and held by hydrogen bonds.
The tertiary structure or coiling which is a 3D structure is formed by further coiling.
It is supported by four types of bonds; hydrogen bonds between 2 bases, ionic bonds between two
oppositely charged ions, Van Der Waals force between very close molecules, disulfide bridge
between 2 cysteine molecules.

Recessive genetic disorder: Disorder resulted from defect in genes in which both defective alleles are
homozygous recessive.

Suggest how these gene therapy investigations could have been carried out

Normal gene was isolated and inserted into vector such as liposome. The vector is then injected into
targeted cells. The control is also prepared by using empty liposome without the genes inserted. The
progression of disease is monitored and life spans of the animals are recorded. Control is made for
comparison with the result of treated sheep. The investigation is repeated to obtain reliable results.

Why water is an effective molecule for transporting other molecules around living organisms

Water is a solvent and is a polar molecule. The polar molecules or ions can dissolve in water. As
water is fluid in nature, it assists in mass flow. Due to cohesion and adhesion, it can transport other
molecules around living organisms.

Suggest why a faulty atrioventricular valve could lead to Sandras symptoms of breathlessness and
lack of energy

The valve cannot shut properly so there is backflow of blood from ventricle to atrium during
ventricular systole. Due to lower blood pressure, less sufficient supply of oxygen and blood pressure
in lungs also pressure in lungs also increases.

Explain why ATP is needed for the active transport of chloride ions into the lumen of the small
intestine.

The concentration gradient of chloride ions is larger in the small intestine. Hence, the chloride ions
have to travel against the concentration gradient by transport proteins. The transport proteins need
to change its shape to carry chloride ions. Thus energy from the ATP is required for the change in
shape of transport proteins.

Suggest why a person with cholera loses large volumes of fluid as diarrhea.

More chloride ions are present in the lumen of intestine of a person who suffers from cholera. So
that other ions such as sodium follow chloride and move into the lumen. As more solutes in the
lumen, water also moves into the lumen by osmosis. Moreover, chloride ions cannot be reabsorbed
fast enough into the blood and excess water cannot be reabsorbed into the blood. Thus, large
volume of fluid is lost.

Compare the processes of facilitated diffusion and active transport

Both processes use proteins. Facilitated diffusion moves down the concentration gradient while
active transport moves against the concentration gradient. Facilitated diffusion does not use energy
from ATP while active transport does.

Suggest why oral rehydration therapy is effective in the treatment of cholera

As it contains water, it can replace lost water and extra water lowers the solute concentration in
lumen. As a result of this, less water enters the lumen of intestine from blood. As it contains starch
which in insoluble so that it does not affect osmosis. Since starch is polysaccharide it is digested
slowly.

Explain how circulatory system in mammals enables efficient gas exchange

Mass flow that is generated by heart maintains a concentration gradient due to moving blood. Steep
concentration gradient provides a faster rate of diffusion. Presence of network of capillaries have
very thin walls, diffusion can get faster over small differences. And there is no cells which are far
away from capillaries which cover the alveoli because of the efficiency of double circulation.

Explain why the combination of a high-fat diet and low activity levels may lead to CVD

Energy imbalance will occur which can lead to overweight and obese. Obesity also leads to diabetes
which is a CVD risk factor. Increase blood pressure can be occurred. Increased blood cholesterol can
damage endothelial lining of the artery to form atherosclerosis. This can cause loss of elasticity of
artery and narrowing of lumen.

Explain why a mutation in the gene coding for the enzyme Gal-1-PUT could lead to the inability to
break down galactose.

The sequence of code in gene dictates the order in which specific amino acids are to be assembled
and combined together. A mutation in gene causes a change in the sequence of bases of a particular
gene mRNA with different codons to that of the normal mRNA is transcribed due to mutation in the
gene coding for the enzyme, Gal-1-PUT. During translation, the altered mRNA causes the involvement
of different amino acid and a change in sequence of amino acid in primary structure. The secondary
structure of poly peptide chain will fold into a different form.

The tertiary structure will also change.

As a result, the active site that is formed will be different, due to the different bonding and folding.
Due to this, galactose can no longer fit into the active site of the enzyme. Thus, galactose cannot be
broken down by mutant gene Gal-1-PUT.

Semiconservative replication: In replication of DNA, the new DNA synthesized contains one original
strand and one new strand.
Describe how the structure of a saturated lipid differs from that of an unsaturated lipid

Saturated lipid contains carbon-carbon single bond while a double bon is present in unsaturated
lipid. The H to C ratio is larger in saturated lipid than in unsaturated lipid. Fatty acid chain is straight
in saturated fatty acid while the chain is bent in saturated fatty acid.

Describe the structure of glycogen

As a glycogen is a polymer, it consists of several a-glucose molecules joined with 1-4 glycosidic bond
by condensation reaction. Branches coming out from every 10 glucose molecules are joined by 1-6
glycosidc bonds.

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