PG.

Topic
Calculus Notes
PG.
BCTopic
3 6 CH. 1 Limits / Continuity 6-2 Growth, Double-Life, and Half-Life formulas

1-2 Find Limits Graphically and Numerically 6-3 Separation of Variables

1-3 Evaluating Limits Analytically 44 50 CH.7 Applications of Integration

1-4 Continuity and One-sided Limits 7-1 Area

1-5 Infinite Limits/ 3-5 Limits that Approach Infinity 7-2 Volume rotated about x-axis

7 13 CH. 2 Derivatives 7-3 Volume rotated about y-axis

2-1 Derivative and the Tangent Line Problem Volume rotated about other lines

2-2 Basic Derivatives and Notation Volumes of known cross sections

2-3 Product and Quotient Rule 7-4 Arclengths and Surface of Revolution

2-4 Chain Rule 51 58 CH. 8 Integration Techniques

2-5 IImplicit Differentiation 8-1 Basic Integration Rules

14 15 2-6 Related Rates 8-2 Integration by Parts

16 24 CH. 3 Applications of Derivatives 8-5 Partial Fractions

3-1 Extrema on an Interval 8-7 Indeterminate Forms and L'Hopital's Rule

3-2 Rolle's Theorem and Mean Value Theorem 8-8 Improper Integrals

3-3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and 1st Derivative Test 59 75 CH. 9 Infinite Series

3-4 Concavity and the 2nd Derivative Test 9-1 Sequences/ 9-2 Series and Convergence

3-6 A Summary of Curve Sketching 9-3 The Integral Test and p-series

3-7 Optimization Problems 9-4 Comparison of Series

3-8 Newton's Method 9-5 Alternating Series

3-9 Differentials 9-6 The Ratio and Root Tests

25 32 CH. 4 Integration 9-7 Taylor Polynomials and Approximations

4-1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration 9-8 Power Series

4-3 Riemann Sum and Definite Integrals 9-9 Representation of Functions by Power Series

4-4 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 9-10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

4-5 Integration by Substitution 76 80 CH. 10 Parametric and Polar Coordinates

4-6 (
Numerical Integration Trap. Rule, Left, Right, and Midpoint ) 10-2 Plane Curves and Parametric Equations

33 39 CH. 5 Transcendental Functions 10-3 Parametric Equations and Calculus

5-1 Natural Logarithm Function and Differentiation 10-4 Polar Coordinates and Polar Graphs

5-2 Natural Logarithm Function and Integration 10-5 Area and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates

5-4 Exponential Functions: Differentiation and Integration 81 Hooke's Law

5-5 Bases other than e and Applications 82 Finding Area Using Limits

5-6 Inverse Trig. Functions: Differentiation 83 Lagrange Error Bound

5-7 Inverse Trig. Functions: Integration 84 89 AP Review

40 43 CH.6 Differential Equations 90 91 8-3 Trigonometric Integrals

6-1 Slope Fields 92 94 8-4 Trigonometric Substitution

1
 Calculator Procedures
Calculator Settings
Your calculator should be in Radian mode when performing Calculus problems.
(Those of you in Physics need to be in Degree mode while in Physics class. You will be switching modes daily).

Graphing Windows
Push ZOOM for pre-set windows
1) ZDecimal is the best for tracing ( 4.7 to 4.7). ( 6.3 to 6.3 for TI-89)
2) ZStandard shows most of the graph ( 10 to 10).
3) ZoomFit will help you find the graph if the graph is not in your current window.

Intersection
TI - 83 / 84 TI - 89
Push CALC Intersection Push CALC Intersection
1) Move cursor near point of intersection. 1) Move cursor near point of intersection.
2) Push enter for first equation. 2) Push enter for first equation.
3) Push enter for second equation. 3) Push enter for second equation.
4) Push enter for guess. 4) Move cursor to left of intersection and press enter.
5) Move cursor to right of intersection and press enter.

Zeroes
Push CALC Zero
1) Move cursor to the left of intercept (lower bound) and push enter.
2) Move cursor to the right of intercept (lower bound) and push enter.
3) Push enter for guess
Derivatives
Derivative at all points 2nd Derivative Derivative at a point
TI-83: NA NA nDeriv ( equation, x, point )
d
TI-84: NA NA ( equation ) x = point
dx
TI-89: d ( equation, x ) d ( equation, x,2 ) d ( equation, x ) x = point

Integrals
Indefinite Integral Definite Integral
TI-83: NA fnInt ( equation, x, lower bound, upper bound )

( equation ) dx
upper bound
TI-84: NA
lower bound

TI-89: ( equation, x ) ( equation, x, lower bound, upper bound )

2
 CH.1 LIMITS
** When evaluating limits, we are checking around the point that we are approaching, NOT at the point.
**Every time we find a limit, we need to check from the left and the right hand side
(Only if there is a BREAK at that point).
1-2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically
No breaking point Hole in the graph piece-wise function radicals

b b b
a a a a
c
lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) =
xa xa xa xa

lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) =
xa + xa +

lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) =
xa xa

Asymptotes Asymptotes Asymptotes

a a a

lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) =

xa + xa + xa +

lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) =

xa xa xa

lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) =

xa xa xa

**If left and right hand limits DISAGREE, then the limit Does Not Exist (DNE) at that point.
**If left and right hand limits AGREE, then the limit exists at that point as that value.
**Even if you can plug in the value, the limit might not exist at that point. It might not exist from the
left or right side or the two sides will not agree.

lim f ( x ) = right hand limit lim f ( x ) = left hand limit

xa + xa

3
**Breaking Points are points on the graph that are undefined or where the graph is split into pieces.
Breaking Points :
1) Holes (when the numerator and denominator equals 0)
2) Radicals (when the radical equals 0)
3) Asymptotes (when the denominator equals 0)
4) Piece-wise functions (the # where the graph is split)

# # #
Note : In general when doing limits, = = =0
0 0

** In limits, if the two sides of a graph dont agree, then the limit does not exist.

1-3 Analyzing Limits Analytically

LIMITS AT NON - BREAKING POINTS ( Very easy. Just plug in the # )
x 1
EX#1 : lim x 2 = EX#2 : lim x+4 = EX#3 : lim =
x1 x5 x1 x +1

HOLES IN THE GRAPH (0 0) ( Factor and cancel or multiply by the conjugate and cancel, then plug in # )
x 2 + 3x 18 x + 5 1
EX#1 : lim = EX#3 : lim =
x3 x3 x 4 x+4

x4 x 6
EX#2 : lim = EX#4 : lim =
x4 x4 x25 36 x

TRIG. FUNCTIONS
Trig. Identities to know : sin 2x = 2sin x cos x cos 2x = cos 2 x sin 2 x
sin x 1 cos x tan x
FACTS : lim =1 lim = 0 lim =1
x0 x x0 x x0 x
sin ax a 1 cos ax tan ax a
lim = lim = 0 lim =
x0 bx b x0 bx x0 bx b

sin 2x sin x tan x

EX#1 : lim = EX#4 : lim =
x0 5x x0 x2
2 tan 5x 8sin x cos x
EX#2 : lim = EX#5 : lim =
x0 9x x0 3x
4 sin 3x 7sin 2 x tan 2 x
EX#3 : lim = EX#6 : lim =

x 2 x x0 x4

4
 1-4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits
RADICALS ( You must first check that the limit exists on the side(s) you are checking )
If a # makes a radical negative, the limit will not exist at that #.
When we check at the breaking point (the # that makes the radical zero) there are two possible answers:
1) 0 if the limit works from the side that you are checking.
2) DNE if the limit does not work from the side that you are checking.

EX #1 : lim x 5 = EX #2 : lim x 5 = EX #3 : lim x 5 =

x5 + x5 x5

EX #4 : lim 16 x 2 = EX #5 : lim 16 x 2 = EX #6 : lim 16 x 2 =

x2 x5 x4

PIECE - WISE FUNCTIONS

3 x x < 3

f ( x ) = 2x + 12 3 x < 4 The breaking points are 3 and 4.

9 x4

EX #1 : lim f ( x ) = EX #2 : lim f ( x ) = EX #3 : lim f ( x ) =

x3 + x4 + x3

EX #4 : lim f ( x ) = EX #5 : lim f ( x ) = EX #6 : lim f ( x ) =

x4 x3 x4

EX #7 : lim f ( x ) = EX #8 : lim f ( x ) = EX #9 : lim f ( x ) =

x7 + x5 x2

CONTINUITY
Continuous functions have no breaks in them.
Discontinuous functions have breaks in them (Asymptotes or Holes / Open Circles).

** To check for continuity at a, you must check left hand limits lim f ( x ) and right hand limits lim+ f ( x )
x a x a

as well as the value of the function at that point f ( a ) . If all three are equal then the function is continuous at a.

If f ( a ) = lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) then the function is continuous at a.

x a x a

If f ( a ) is not equal to either one - sided limit, then the function is not continuous (discontinuous) at a.

a a a a
Continuous at a
Discontinuous at a
5
 1-5 Infinite Limits
( )
ASYMPTOTES # 0 (Since the point DNE we have to check a point that is close on the side we are approaching)
There are three possible answers when checking near the breaking point (the # that makes bottom = zero)
1) If we get a positive answer the limit approaches
2) If we get a negative answer the limit approaches
3) DNE If we get a positive answer on one side and a negative answer on the other side, then the limit DNE

1 1 1
EX #1 : lim+ = EX #2 : lim = EX #3 : lim =
x7 x7 x7 x7 x7 x7

3 cos x
EX #4 : lim = EX #5 : lim = EX #6 : lim tan x =
x2 ( x 2) 2
x0 x x 2
+

3-5 Limits at Infinity

LIMITS THAT APPROACH INFINITY
Check the powers of the numerator and denominator.
1) If the denominator (bottom) is a bigger power the limit = 0.
2) If the numerator (top) is a bigger power the limit = or -.
coefficient of the highest power of numerator
3) If powers are the same the limit =
coefficient of the highest power of denominator
2x 2 + 3 6x x2 8 x
EX#1 : lim = EX#2 : lim = EX#3 : lim = EX#4 : lim =
x 5x 2 7 x 3x 2 + 1 x 3x 1 x x8

8x 2 + 5 7x + 2 6x 3
EX#5 : lim = EX#6 : lim = EX#7 : lim = EX#8 : lim 3 =
x 4 3x 2 x 8x 7 1 x 2x 2 1 x

FINDING VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES AND HOLES

A vertical asymptote is the # that makes only the denominator = 0.
A hole occurs at the points that make the numerator and denominator = 0 at the same time.
EX#1 :
x 2 8x ( x + 5 )( x 7 ) ( x + 1)( x + 4 )
a) f ( x) = b) f ( x) = c) f ( x) = d) f ( x) =
x+3 x +9
2
( x 7) ( x + 4 )( x 6 )
vert.asym. hole vert.asym. hole vert.asym. hole vert.asym. holes

6
 CH.2 DIFFERENTIATION
2-1 The Derivative by Definition and the Tangent Line Problem
Derivative at all points Derivative at the point ( a, f ( a ))
f ( x + h) f ( x) f (a + h) f (a)
f ( x ) = lim f ( a ) = lim
h0 h h0 h
l
f(x+h)

l
f(x+h) l
f(x) f(x) f(x+h)=f(x)

x x+h x x+h x

h h
Line l is a secant line Line l is a secant line Line l is a tangent line

f ( x + h) f ( x) f ( x + h) f ( x)
slope of secant line l = lim means that the distance h is approaching 0 and
x+h x h0 h
the points get closer to each other and the two points become
the same point and line l is now a tangent line.

The derivative of a function finds the slope of the tangent line!

f ( x + h) f ( x)
EX #1 : f ( x ) = x 2 3x + 2 Find f ( x ) and f ( 4 ) . Use f ( x ) = lim
h0 h
f ( x) =

f (a + h) f (a)
EX #2 : f ( x ) = x 2 3x + 2 Find f ( 4 ) Use f ( a ) = lim
h0 h
f (4) =

7
 The derivative finds the slope of the tangent line.
tangent line to curve The normal line is perpendicular to the tangent line.

normal line to curve

1
EX #3 : f ( x) = Find equation of the tangent line and normal line at x = 3.
x

Equation of the tangent line : Equation of the normal line :

8
 2-2 Basic Differentiation Rules, Notation and Rates of Change
Properties of Derivatives
dy
Derivative is a rate of change; it finds the change in y over the change in x, , which is slope.
dx
1st derivative max. and min., increasing and decreasing, slope of the tangent line to the curve, and velocity.
2nd derivative inflection points, concavity, and acceleration.

*Power Rule * Constant Rule Derivative notation

f (x) = x n f (x) = c Newton Notation Leibniz Notation
f ( x ) = nx n1 f ( x) = 0 y = x3 y = x3
dy
y = 3x 2 = 3x 2
EX : y = 4x 3
y=8 dx
d2y
y = 12x 2
y = 0 y = 6x = 6x
dx 2
d 3y
dy dy y = 6 =6
EX#1 : y = 15x 4 Find and . dx 3
dx dx x=2 d4y
y( 4 ) = 0 =0
dx 4

EX#2 : Find f ( x ) for each.

8 1 x
a) f (x) = 500 b) f (x) = c) f (x) = d) f (x) =
x x2 7

Slope of the tangent line to the curve

EX : Given f ( x ) = 3x 2 10x Find equation of the tangent line and normal line at x = 4.
f ( x ) = 3x 2 10x f ( x ) = 6x 10
f (4) = 8 f ( 4 ) = 14
Equation of a Line (point - slope form) : y y1 = m ( x x1 )
Equation of the tangent line : y 8 = 14 ( x 4 )
1
Equation of the normal line : y 8 = (x 4)
14

9
EX #3 : Find the slope, write the equation of the tangent line and the equation of the normal line at x = 3.
f ( x ) = 5x 2 7 Equation of the tangent line Equation of the normal line

*Trig. Functions
2 STEPS : Derivative of the trig. function Derivative of the angle
Function Derivative Function Derivative Function Derivative
2
sin x cos x tan x sec x sec x sec x tan x
cos x sin x cot x csc 2 x csc x csc x cot x

EX #4 : Find each derivative

a) y = sin ( 8x ) b) y = cos ( x 4 ) c) y = tan ( 7x 3 )

d) y = sec ( 6x 2 + 5 ) e) y = csc ( 2x 5 ) f ) y = cot ( 9x 1)

g) y = cos ( sin x ) h) y = sec ( tan 3x )

Use s ( t ) = 16t 2 + v0t + s0 . s ( t ) = ending height s0 = initial height v0 = initial velocity t = time
EX #5 : To estimate the height of a building, a weight is dropped from the top of the building into a pool at
ground level. How high is the building if the splash is seen 2 seconds after the weight is dropped?

EX #6 : A red ball is thrown upward from a building 100 feet above the ground with an initial velocity
of 10ft/s. At the same time, a blue ball is thrown downward from a height of 150 feet with an
initial velocity of 10ft/s. Which ball hits the ground first? How much faster?

10
 2-3 Product and Quotient Rule
*Product Rule
4 STEPS : Derivative of First equation Second equation + Derivative of Second equation First equation
dy
y = f (x) g(x) = f (x)g(x) + g(x) f (x)
dx

*Quotient Rule
Derivative of Top equation Bottom equation Derivative of Bottom equation Top equation
5 STEPS :
( Bottom equation )2
f (x) dy f (x)g(x) g(x) f (x)
y= =
g(x) dx ( g(x))2

2-4 Chain Rule

3 STEPS : 1) Power in front 2) Lower power by 1 3) Multiply by derivative of inside

OR Derivative of outside function Derivative of inside function

y = ( f (x)) y = f ( g ( x )) y = f ( 4x ) y = f ( x2 )
n
OR OR OR
y = n ( f (x)) y = f ( g ( x ) ) g ( x ) y = f ( 4x ) 4 y = f ( x 2 ) 2x
n1
f (x)

f ( x ) = x 2 tan x EX #2 : y = ( x 3 5 )
6
EX #1 :

sin x
EX #3 : f ( x) = EX #4 : y = 2x 4 x 2 5
cos x

11
 2-5 Implicit Differentiation
The differentiable functions we have encountered so far can be described by equations in which "y" is
expressed in terms of "x". We can also find the derivative of the equation expressed in terms of x and y.
*Implicit Differentiation: function in terms of xs and ys
dy
must write everytime you take a deriv. of y

dx

EX : x 2 xy + 3y 2 = 7 EX#1 : x 2 + y 2 = 16 (3, 7 )
dy dy Find the equation of the tangent line at the given point.
2x y(1) + x + 6y = 0
dx dx
dy dy
2x y x + 6y = 0
dx dx
dy dy
x + 6y = 2x + y
dx dx
dy
(x + 6y) = 2x + y
dx
dy 2x + y
= EX #2 : Find first two derivatives of x 3 y 2 = 5
dx x + 6y

dy dy
EX#3 : Find . 5x 2 xy 2 + 3y = x EX#4 : Find . 5x 2 xy 2 + 3y = x
dx dx
( Use shortcut )

12
 Questions from CH. 2 TEST

Derivative of a picture 3

f (1) = f ( 3) = f (4) = 22

f (6) = f ( 7) = f (8) =
0 1 2 3 4 55 6 7 8 9 10
10

-1

Equation of the tangent line at x = 1 Equation of the tangent line at x = 4

Derivative of a chart

x 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

f ( x) 58 63 72 61 62 69 61 74 67

61 63 2 1 74 61 13
EX : f ( 40 ) = = = EX : f (130 ) = =
60 20 40 20 140 120 20

EX#1 : f (140 ) = EX#2 : f (110 ) =

How to read Derivative by Definition Problems

This problem means take a derivative of cos x. This problem means take a derivative of 10x 3 at x = 2.
cos ( x + h ) cos x 10 ( 2 + h ) 80
3

EX : lim = sin x EX : lim = 120

h0 h h0 h

Solve each
5 ( x + h ) 5x 4 ( 3 + h )4 81 =
4

EX#1 : lim = EX#2 : lim

h0 h h0 h

EX#3 : lim
tan ( x + h ) tan x
= EX#4 : lim
(
sin 6 + h 1 2
=
)
h0 h h0 h

13
 2.6 Related Rates
We take derivatives with respect to t which allows us to find velocity. Here is how you take a derivative with
respect to t:
dx dy dr dt
derivative of x is , derivative of y 2 is 2y , derivative of r 3 is 3r 2 , derivative of t 2 is 2t = 2t
dt dt dt dt
dV
V means volume ; means rate of change of volume (how fast the volume is changing)
dt
dr
r means radius ; means rate of change of radius (how fast the radius is changing)
dt
dx dy
is how fast x is changing; is how fast y is changing
dt dt

Volume of a sphere Surface Area of a sphere Area of a circle Circumference of a circle

4 3
V= r A = 4 r 2 A = r2 C = 2 r
3
dV dr dA dr dA dr dC dr
= 4 r 2 = 8 r = 2 r = 2
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt

Volume of a cylinder Volume of a cone

1 r
V = r 2h V = r 2 h use =
3 h
r is not a variable in a cylinder Due to similar triangles, the ratio of the radius
because its' value is always the same to the height is always the same. Replace r or h
depending on what you are looking for.

EX #1 : Suppose a spherical balloon is inflated at the rate of 14 in 3 / min. How fast is the radius of the
balloon changing when the radius is 7 inches?

EX #2 : Water is poured into a cylinder with radius 5 at the rate of 11 in 3 / s. How fast is the height of
the water changing when the height is 4 inches? 5

12

14
EX #3 : Water is leaking out of a cone with diameter 10 inches and height 9 inches at the rate of 5 in 3 / s.
How fast is the radius of the water changing when the radius is 4 in?
10

EX #4 : A 17 foot ladder is leaning against the wall of a house. The base of the ladder is pulled away
at 3 ft. per second.

a) How fast is the ladder sliding down the wall when the base of the ladder is 15 ft. from the wall?

17
b) How fast is the area of the triangle formed changing at this time? y

c) How fast is the angle between the bottom of the ladder and the floor changing at this time?

EX #5 : A person 6 ft. tall walks directly away from a streetlight that is 13 feet above the ground.
The person is walking away from the light at a constant rate of 4 feet per second.
a) At what rate, in feet per second, is the length of the shadow changing?

13

6
x y

b) At what rate, in feet per second, is the tip of the shadow changing?

15
 CH.3 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
3-1 Extrema on an Interval
Let f be continuous on a closed bounded interval [a,b]. Then f has an absolute maximum and
absolute minimum on the interval [a,b].
Procedure for finding absolute max. and absolute min. :
Compute the values of f at all critical points (when f ( x ) = 0) in ( a,b ) and at the endpoints a and b.
The largest of these values is the absolute maximum value of f on [a,b].
The smallest of these values is the absolute minimum value of f on [a,b].

Find the extreme values (max. and min.) of f on given interval and determine at which #'s in they occur.
EX#1 : Let f ( x ) = 12x x 3 ; [0, 3]

There are critical points that show up as undefined in the derivative, but work in the original equation. I call
these special points Hardpoints. The textbooks don't have a name for these points so I gave them one.

Find the extreme values (max. and min.) of f on given interval and determine at which #'s in they occur.
f ( x ) = x 3 2 ; [ 8, 27] f ( x ) = x 4 ; [1, 10]
2
EX#3 : EX#4 :

16
 3-2 Mean Value Theorem and Rolle's Theorem
4

*Mean - Value Theorem f(b)

(Only applies if the function is continuous and differentiable)
2

Slope of tangent line = slope of line between two points f(a)

f (b) f (a)
f (c) = a b
5
ba
According to the Mean Value Theorem, there must be a number c between a and b that the
slope of the tangent line at c is the same as the slope between points (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)).
The slope of secant line from a and b is the
4

same as slope of tangent line through c.

f(b)

f(a)

a c b
5

f (b) f (a)
Use the Mean Value Theorem to find all values of c in the open interval ( a, b ) such that f (c) =
ba
EX #1 : f ( x ) = sin x [ 0, ] EX #2 : f ( x) = x2 + 7 [ 1, 2 ]

EX #3 : f ( x) = x 3 [ 0, 5 ]

17
 3-3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and the First Derivative Test
Properties of First Derivative
increasing : slopes of tangent lines are positive (derivative is positive.) f ( x ) > 0
decreasing : slopes of tangent lines are negative (derivative is negative). f ( x ) < 0
maximum point : Slopes switch from positive to negative at maximum point. ( found by setting f ( x ) = 0 )
minimum point : Slopes switch from negative to positive at minimum point. ( found by setting f ( x ) = 0 )

***1st Derivative Test

a) If f changes from positive to negative at the critical point c, then f has a relative maximum value at c.
b) If f changes from negative to positive at the critical point c, then f has a relative minimum value at c.

3-4 Concavity and the Second Derivative Test

Properties of Second Derivative
concave up : slopes of tangent lines are increasing (2nd Derivative is positive). f ( x ) > 0
concave down : slopes of tangent lines are decreasing (2nd Derivative is negative). f ( x ) < 0
inflection points : points where the graph switches concavity. ( found by setting f ( x ) = 0 )
slopes of tangent line switch from increasing to decreasing or vice versa.

***2nd Derivative Test (Alternate method for finding rel. max. and rel. min.)
Set f ( c ) = 0 to find your critical points c. Plug your critical point(s) into f ( x ) .
a) If f ( c ) < 0, then c is a rel. max.
b) If f ( c ) > 0, then c is a rel. min.
c) If f ( c ) = 0, then from this test alone we can't draw any conclusions about a relative extreme value at c

increasing/concave down increasing/concave up decreasing/concave up decreasing/concave down

slopes are positive and decreasing slopes are positive and increasing slopes are negative and increasing slopes are negative and decreasing

M
M
I
m I
m, I
m
M is a Maximum; slopes switch m is a Minimum; slopes switch I is an inflection point; slopes switch M is a Maximum; m is a minimum;
from positive to negative from negative to positive from decreasing to increasing I is an inflection point

18
 3
2
2

0 1 2 3 4 55
6 7

EX #1 : From [ 0,7 ] tell me about the function. (Use graph above)

List the x - coordinates for each : Find each : On which interval(s) is the graph:
Inflection points Abs. max. value increasing/concave up
Relative maximum Abs. min. value increasing/concave down
Relative minimum Abs. max. value occurs at decreasing/concave up
Hard points Abs. min. value occurs at decreasing/concave down
x2
EX #2 : f ( x) =
3x 2
Find relative extreme values and determine the intervals on which f ( x ) is increasing and decreasing.
Find all inflection points and the intervals on which f ( x ) is concave up and concave down.

f ( x ) = ( x 1) + 27x 27
3
EX #3 :
Find relative extreme values and determine the intervals on which f ( x ) is increasing and decreasing.
Find all inflection points and the intervals on which f ( x ) is concave up and concave down.

19
 3.6 A Summary of Curve Sketching
GRAPHING TRIG. REVIEW
x - intercepts : where a graph crosses the x-axis. The # that makes y = 0.
To find the x-intercept, set the numerator = 0 (plug in zero for y).
y - intercepts : where a graph crosses the y-axis. The # found when x = 0.
To find the y-intercept, plug in zero for x.
Holes : the # that makes both the numerator and denominator = 0.
To find the hole in the graph, you plug the # into the remaining function after
canceling out the like factors. Find the hole first before finding the vertical asymptote.
vertical asymptotes : An undefined point on the graph. A graph will never cross the vertical asymptote.
To find the vertical asymptote, set the denominator = 0.
The vertical asymptote is x = the # that makes only the denominator = 0.
horizontal asymptotes : The graph will approach the horizontal asymptote as x approaches and .
To find the horizontal asymptote, check the highest powers of the numerator and the denominator.
1) If the denominator (bottom) is a bigger power the horizontal asymptote is y = 0.
2) If the numerator (top) is a bigger power there is no horizontal asymptote (there is a different kind of asymptote).
coefficient of the highest power of numerator
3) If powers are the same the horizontal asymptote is y =
coefficient of the highest power of denominator
slant asymptotes : Occur when the numerator is one power higher than the denominator.
To find the slant asymptote, you must use long division to divide the denominator
into the numerator. The quotient is your slant asymptote.
quadratic asymptotes : Occur when the numerator is two powers higher than the denominator.
To find the quadratic asymptote, you must use long division to divide the
denominator into the numerator. The quotient is your quadratic asymptote.

Sketch the graph ( Label the maximum, minimum and inflection points )

EX#1 : y = x 3 3x 2 y = 3x 2 6x y = 6x 6
xint yint v.asym. h.asym. rel.max. rel.min. inc. dec. inf .pts. conc.up conc.down
( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 0 ) NONE NONE ( 0, 0 ) ( 2, 4 ) ( , 0 ) ( 0, 2 ) (1, 2 ) (1, ) ( , 1)
( 3, 0 ) ( 2, )
3
2
2

x 3x = 0
3 2
3x 6x = 0
2
6x 6 = 0 1
M
x ( x 3) = 0
2
3x ( x 2 ) = 0 6 ( x 1) = 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

x = 0, 3 x = 0, 2 x0 = 1 -1
+ 0
- 0 + f "(x)
- +
-2
-2 I
f '(x)
0 2 1 -3
-4
-4
m
-5

20
Note all relevant properties of f and sketch the graph ( Label the maximum, minimum and inflection points )

y = 3x ( x 2 )
3
EX#2 :
x int y int v.asym. h.asym. rel.max. rel.min. inc. dec. inf .pts. conc.up conc.down

5
4
3
2
1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

Note all relevant properties of f and sketch the graph ( Label the maximum, minimum and inflection points )

12x
EX#3 : y=
( x + 1)2
x int y int v.asym. h.asym. rel.max. rel.min. inc. dec. inf .pts. conc.up conc.down

5
4
3
2
1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

21
 3-7 Optimization Problems
1) Draw and label picture.
2) Write equation based on fact given and write equation for what you need to maximize or minimize.
3) Plug in fact equation into the equation you want to maximize or minimize.
4) Take derivative and set equal to zero.
5) Find remaining information.

EX#1 : An open box of maximum volume is to be made from a square piece of material, 12 inches on a side, by
cutting equal squares from the corners and turning up the sides. How much should you cut off from the
corners? What is the maximum volume of your box?
X X X X
X X
X X

12 12 12-2X
X X X X
X X X X
12 12 12-2X

EX#2 : A farmer plans to fence a rectangular pasture adjacent to a river. The farmer has 56 feet of fence in
which to enclose the pasture. What dimensions should be used so that the enclosed area will be a
maximum? What is the maximum area?
RIVER
Y Y
X

22
EX#3 : A crate, open at the top, has vertical sides, a square bottom and a volume of 864 ft 3 . What dimensions
give us minimum surface area? What is the surface area?

X
X

EX#4 : A rectangle is bounded by the x-axis and the semicircle y = 16 x 2 . What length and width
should the rectangle have so that its area is a maximum?

4
Y= 16-X 2

Y
-5
X X 5

-2

23
 3-8 Newton's Method
Newton's method is used to approximate a zero of a function.

*Newtons Method
f (c)
c where c is the approximation for the zero.
f (c)

EX#1 : If Newtons method is used to approximate the real root of x 3 + x 1 = 0, then a

first approximation x1 = 1 would lead to a third approximation of x3 =
f (x) = x 3 + x 1 x1 = 1

EX#2 : Given f (x) = x 2 22 and first approximation x1 = 5. Find third approximation x3 = .

3-9 Differentials
Differentials are tangent lines. Tangent lines hug closely along a graph near the point of tangency.
Sometimes it's easier to use the differential to approximate a value on a graph as opposed to using the graph itself.

EX#1 : f ( x ) = ln x EX#2 : xy 2 + 3y x = 17
a) Find the equation of the tangent line at ( e, 1) . a) Find the equation of the tangent line at (1, 3) .

b) Use the differential to approx. f ( 3) . b) Use the differential to approx. f (1.2 ) .

c) f ( 3) = c) f (1.2 ) =

24
 CH. 4 INTEGRATION
4 -1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration

* * Integrals : They find the antiderivatives, sum/total, Area and Volume.

Integration Formulas
( f ( x ) + g ( x )) dx = f ( x ) dx + g ( x ) dx
c f ( x ) dx = c f ( x ) dx where c is a constant. Constants can move in and out of an integral.
f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + C (notation)

*Integral of a constant
a dx = ax + C EX : 5 dx = 5x + C EX : dx =x+C

*Polynomials
x a+1 x3 4x 7
x dx = 4x dx =
a
+ C EX : x 2 dx = +C EX : 6
+C
a +1 3 7

*Fractions ( Bring up denominator, then take integral)

1 x a+1 1 x 3 1
x a dx x dx = x 4 dx x dx =
a 4
+ C EX : +C = +C
a +1 3 3x 3

*Trig Functions ( Always divide by derivative of the angle )

cos 7x
sin x dx = cos x + C EX : sin 7x dx = 7
+C

sin 3x
cos x dx = sin x + C EX : cos 3x dx = 3
+C

25
 x dx = 12x dx =
8 3
EX#1 : a) b)

7
c) 9 dx = d) x 3
dx =

x 2 + 8x
(x 7x + 4 ) dx = b) dx =
3
EX#2 : a)
x

EX#3 : a) cos12x dx = b) sin 7x dx =

Symbols used
Rectilinear Motion
position : x ( t ) , y ( t ) , s ( t )
position
velocity : v ( t ) Derivative velocity Integral
acceleration : a ( t ) acceleration

EX#4 : v ( t ) = t 2 6t 16 x (0) = 3 t>0

a) Find position at any time t. b) Find acceleration at any time t.

c) Find velocity at t = 7. d) Find acceleration at t = 7.

e) Is the speed inc. or dec. at t = 7? f ) When is the particle at rest?

26
 4-3 Riemann Sums and Definite Integrals
1st Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
After you take the integral, just plug in the top # minus the bottom #.
b

f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) a = F (b ) F ( a )
b

a
b
Area (top equation bottom equation ) dx
a

EX #1 : Find Area of each shaded region 4

4

a) b) c) 3
y=x 2
3 3

22 2
2 2 2

1 1 1

0 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3

3 16

( 3x ) 1
x + 5 dx = dx =
2
EX #2 : Evaluate EX #3 : Evaluate
0 1
x

EX #4 : Find Area of the region between y = sin x and the x-axis from [ 0,2 ] y=sinx
12

0 5 3 2
2 2

-1
-2

27
 4-4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Average Value (use this when you are asked to find the average of anything)
If f is integrable on the closed interval [ a,b ], then the average value of f on the interval is
b
1
b a a
Average value = f (x) dx

EX#1 : Find the average value of f (x) on the closed interval. EX #2 : Find average acceleration from [ 0, 2 ]
a) f ( x) = x2 [ 0, 3] b) f ( x) = x 2 [ 3, 11] v(t) = t 3 + 2t 2 5

2nd Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (When taking the derivative of an integral)

Plug in the variable on top times its derivative minus plug in the variable on bottom times its derivative.
x x
d d
dx f (t ) dt = f ( x)
dx f (t ) dt = f ( x ) 1 f ( 0 ) 0 = f ( x)
0 0
EX #3 : Evaluate each.
x 0
d d
a)
dx 0
t 3 dt = b)
dx x
t 3 dt =

x2 sin x
c) F ( x ) = ( )
t 7 + 1 dt = d) F ( x ) = 1+ t 2 dt =
1 x

F ( x ) = F ( x ) =

22

-5 -4 -2 0 2 4 5
6

-2-2

EX#4 :
4 2 0

a) f ( x ) dx = b) f ( x ) dx = c) f ( x ) dx =
0 2 6
6 6 6

d) f ( x ) dx =
4
e) f ( x ) dx =
4
f) ( f ( x ) + 3) dx =
4

28
 4-5 Integration by Substitution
*Substitution When integrating we usually let u = the part in the parenthesis, the part under the
radical, the denominator, the exponent, or the angle of the trig. function.

f ( g ( x )) g ( x ) dx = f (u ) du = F ( u ) + C = F ( g ( x )) + C
Let u = g ( x )
du = g ( x ) dx

3x ( x + 5 ) dx = ( cos x )
2 3 20 4
EX#1 : EX#2 : sin x dx =

x 4 ( x 5 12 ) dx =
7
EX#3 : EX#4 : x sin x 2 dx =

2
4x 6
x 2 ( x 3 + 2 ) dx =
3
EX#5 : EX#6 : dx =
( x7 + 8)
5
0

EX#7 : x x + 9 dx = EX#8 : x 3 x 2 6 dx =

29
 4-6 Numerical Integration (Approximating Area)
We approximate Area using rectangles (left, right, and midpoint) and trapezoids.
*Riemann Sums 5
5

a) Left edge Rectangles f (x) = x 2 + 1 from [ 0, 2] using 4 subdivisions 4

4

(Find area of each rectangle and add together) 3

3

b a 2 0 5 13 2
2

A =
n
( left height of each rectangle ) A =
4 1+ + 2 +
4 4 1
1

30 0 1 3 2

Total Area= 3.750 2

1
2
2

8 -1

b) Right edge Rectangles f (x) = x 2 + 1 from [ 0, 2] using 4 subdivisions 5

5

(Find area of each rectangle and add together) 4

4

b a 2 0 5 13 3
( right height of each rectangle )
3

A = A = + 2 + + 5
n 4 4 4 2
2

46 1
1

Total Area = 5.750

8 0 1 1 3 2
2
2 2
c) Midpoint Rectangles f (x) = x 2 + 1 from [ 0, 2] using 4 subdivisions -1

5
5

(Find area of each rectangle and add together)

4
b a 2 0 17 25 41 65
4

A =
n
( midpt. height of each rectangle ) A = + + +
4 16 16 16 16 3
3

148 2
2

Total Area = 4.625

32 1
1

0 1 1 3 2
2
*Trapezoidal Rule (used to approximate area under a curve, using trapezoids). -1
2 2

ba
Area
2n
[ f (x0 ) + 2 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 ) + 2 f (x3 ).....2 f (xn1 ) + f (xn )]
where n is the number of subdivisions.

5
5

d) f (x) = x + 1 Approximate the area under the curve from [ 0, 2 ]

2
4
4

using the trapezoidal rule with 4 subdivisions.

3
20
3

1 3
A= f (0) + 2 f + 2 f (1) + 2 f + f (2)
2(4) 2 2 2
2

1 5 13 1
= 1+ 2 + 2(2) + 2 + 5
1

4 4 4
0 1 1 3 2

1 76 76 3 2
= = = 4 = 4.750 2 2
4 4
-1

16 4
All you are doing is finding the area of the 4 trapezoids and adding them together!
2

(x ) x3 8 14
= + 2 ( 0 + 0 ) =
2
e) Actual Area = 2
+ 1 dx = +x = 4.667
3 0 3 3
0

30
*Approximating Area when given data only ( no equation given )
To estimate the area of a plot of land, a surveyor takes several measurements. The measurements are taken
every 15 feet for the 120 ft. long plot of land, where y represents the distance across the land at each
15 ft. increment.

x 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120

y 58 63 72 60 62 69 61 74 67

a) Estimate using Trapezoidal Rule b) Estimate using 4 Midpoint subdivisions

120 0 120 0
A f ( 0 ) + 2 f (15 ) + .....+ 2 f (105 ) + f (120 ) A f (15 ) + f ( 45 ) + f ( 75 ) + f (105 )
2 (8) 4
15
A
2
[ 58 + 126 + 144 + 120 + 124 + 138 + 122 + 148 + 67 ] A 30 [ 63 + 60 + 69 + 74 ]

A 7852.5 A 7980
c) Estimate Avg. value using Trapezoidal Rule d) What are you finding in part c?
1
Avg.Value ( 7852.5 ) 65.4375 The average distance across the land.
120
e) Estimate using Left Endpoint f) Estimate using Right Endpoint
120 0 120 0
A f ( 0 ) + f (15 ) + f ( 30 ) + .....+ f (105 ) A f (15 ) + f ( 30 ) + f ( 45 ) .....+ f (120 )
8 8
A 15 [ 58 + 63 + 72 + 60 + 62 + 69 + 61+ 74 ] A 15 [ 63 + 72 + 60 + 62 + 69 + 61+ 74 + 67 ]
A 7785 A 7920

*Approximating Area when given data only ( no equation given )

Unequal subdivisions: You must find each Area separately.

x 0 2 5 10
y 10 13 11 15

1
a) Estimate using Trapezoids A = ( b1 + b2 ) h
2
1 1 1
A ! (10 + 13) 2 + (13 + 11) 3 + (11+ 15 ) 5 ! 124
2 2 2
b) Estimate using Left Endpoint ( A = width left height )
A ! 2 (10 ) + 3(13) +5 (11) ! 114
c) Estimate using Right Endpoint ( A = width right height )
A ! 2 (13) + 3(11) +5 (15 ) ! 134 Trapezoids shown

31
EX #1 : To estimate the surface area of his pool, a man takes several measurements. The measurements are taken
every 5 feet for the 50 ft. long pool, where y represents the distance across the pool at each 5 ft. increment.

25

x 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20
20

15

y 10 12 17 19 22 17 15 20 18 15 11 10
10

0 5 10 15 20
20 25 30 35 40
40 45 50
Estimate each Area using 10 subdivisions
a) Use Trapezoidal Rule b) Estimate Avg. value using Trapezoidal Rule

c) Use Right Endpoint d) Use Left Endpoint

e) Use 5 Midpoint subdivisions

40
8

35
30
6

25

x 0 2 5 10 20
4

15

y 25 28 40 32 10
2

0 2 5
5
10
10

EX#2 : Estimate each Area using 3 unequal subdivisions

a) Use Trapezoids b) Estimate Avg. value using Trapezoids

c) Use Right Endpoint d) Use Left Endpoint

32
 CH. 5 Logarithmic,Exponential, and other Transcendental Functions
5-1 The Natural Logarithm Function and Differentiation
Properties of Logarithms
n
1
lim 1+ = e
n n 4
y=e x
e = natural number
logarithmic form exponential form (1,e)
y = ln x e = x y 2 y=lnx
(0,1)
Log Laws : (e,1)
y = ln x y y = y ln x ln 8 = ln 2 3 = 3ln 2 (1,0) 5

ln x + ln y = ln xy ln 2 + ln 5 = ln10
x 7 -2
ln x ln y = ln ln 7 ln 2 = ln
y 2
Memorize these graphs.
Change of Base Law : They are inverses of each other so they are symmetric about the line y=x.
ln x log x
y = log a x y = or Memorize : ln e = 1 ln1 = 0
ln a log a

Fact : You cant take a ln/log of a negative # or zero.

We use logarithms to solve any problem that has a variable in the exponent.
ln 24
EX : e5 x = 24 ln e5 x = ln 24 5x ln e = ln 24 x=
5
EX : ln x = 3 eln x = e3 x = e3

*Derivative of Natural Log ( 2 STEPS: 1 divided by function i Derivative of function )

1
y = ln ( f (x)) y = f (x)
f (x)

Find derivative of each

d d d
EX#1 : ln(x) = EX#2 : ln(x10 ) = EX#3 : ln(x 5 1) =
dx dx dx

x ( x 2 + 1)
2
d
EX#4 : log x = EX#5 : f ( x ) = ln =
dx 2x 3 1

33
 5-2 The Natural Logarithmic Function: Integration
f ( x)
f ( x ) dx = ln f ( x ) + C top is the derivative of the bottom

1
x dx = ln x + C

Integrals of other four trig. functions

sin x sin x
tan x dx = cos x dx =
cos x
dx = ln cos x + C

cos x
cot x dx = sin x dx = ln sin x + C

sec x(sec x + tan x) sec 2 x + sec x tan x

sec x dx = sec x + tan x dx = sec x + tan x dx = ln sec x + tan x + C

csc x(csc x + cot x) csc 2 x + csc x cot x (csc 2 x + csc x cot x)

csc x dx = csc x + cot x dx = csc x + cot x dx =
csc x + cot x
dx

= ln csc x + cot x + C

3x 2 x4 1
EX#1 : x 3 5 dx = EX#2 : x 5 1 dx = EX#3 : 9x + 4 dx =

2
sec 2 x 1 2x
EX#4 : dx = EX#5 : dx = EX#6 : dx =
(x + 1)
7
tan x 6
x 2

x2 + x + 1
EX#7 : x 2 + 1 dx =

1 1
EX : tan 5x dx = ln cos 5x + C
5
EX : sec 9x dx = 9
ln sec 9x + tan 9x + C

1 1
EX : csc 8x dx = ln csc 8x + cot 8x + C
8
EX : cot13x dx = 13
ln sin13x + C

34
 5-3 Inverse Functions
INVERSES : To find an inverse, f 1 ( x ) , you switch the x ' s and y' s and solve for y.
EX : f ( x ) = 2x + 3 Find f 1 ( x ) . EX : f ( x ) = e x Find f 1 ( x ) .
Inverse : x = 2y + 3 Inverse : x = ey lnx = ln e y
x3 x3
= y so f 1 ( x ) = ln x = y so f 1 ( x ) = ln x
2 2

Facts about inverses

1) When you plug one inverse into the other you always get the answer x and vice versa.
( )
( f f 1 ) ( x ) = f f 1 ( x ) = x and ( f 1 f ) ( x ) = f 1 ( f ( x )) = x
EX : f ( x ) = ex f 1 ( x ) = ln x
( f f 1 ) ( x ) = eln x = x ( f 1 f ) ( x ) = ln e x = x
4
y=e x
2) Graphs that are inverses are symmetric about the line y = x.
(1,e)
2 y=lnx
(0,1)
dy (e,1)
finds the slope of the tangent line.
dx (1,0) 5

dx 1
=
dy dy -2

dx
dx
finds derivative ( the slope of the tangent line ) of the inverse.
dy

1
Formula for finding derivative of the inverse at a point : g ( y ) = (where g ( y ) is the inverse of f ( x ))
f ( x)

EX #1 : Let y = x 3 + x. If h is the inverse function of f , then h ( 2 ) =

1 1
A) B) C) 1 D) 4 E) 13
13 4

EX #2 : Let f be a differentiable function such that f ( 4 ) = 20, f ( 8 ) = 4, f ( 4 ) = 7, and f ( 8 ) = 5.

The function g is differentiable and g ( x ) = f 1 ( x ) for all x. What is the value of g ( 4 ) ?
1 1 1 1
A) B) C) D)
5 7 8 4
E) The value of g ( 4 ) cannot be determined from the information given.

35
 5-4 Exponential Functions:Differentiation and Integration
Trig. Review
eln x = eln 3 = e2 ln 5 =
Exponential Differentiation Constant Variable ( )
d x
e = e x 1ln e = e x ( 3 steps : itself, multiplied by deriv. of exponent, multiplied by ln of base )
dx
d 2x
e =
dx
d 5x 3
e =
dx
Exponential Integration Constant Variable ( )
ex
e dx = 1ln e + C = e + C
x x
( 3 steps : itself, divided by deriv. of exponent, divided by ln of base )

e
2x
dx =

3
e dx =
5x

EX#1 : Find derivative of each

2
a) y = e7x b) y = e x sin x

EX#2 : Evaluate each integral

ex
ln 2

ex + 1 e
3x
a) dx = b) dx =
0

2
EX#3 : x e x dx =

36
 5-5 Bases other than e and Applications
*Derivative of Constant Variable y = a f (x) y = a f ( x ) f (x)ln a
( 3 steps : itself, multiplied by derivative of exponent, multiplied by ln of base )
d x d x2
EX#1 : 7 = EX#2 : 3 = EX#3 : f (t ) = t 2 5t
dx dx
f (t ) =

ax
*Integral of Constant Variable a dx = +C
x

1ln a
( 3 steps : itself, divided by deriv. of exponent, divided by ln of base )
9 dx = 5 dx =
x 4x
EX#4 : EX#5 :

8
x2 2
EX#6 : dx = EX#7 : x 7 x dx =

*Derivative of VariableVariable y = f (x)g( x )

( take ln of both sides then take derivative of both sides )
1 dy f ( x) dy g( x ) f ( x)
ln y = g ( x ) ln f ( x ) = g ( x ) ln f ( x ) + g( x) = f ( x ) g ( x ) ln f ( x ) + g ( x )
y dx f ( x) dx f ( x)
EX#9 : y = ( 2x )
5x
EX#8 : y = x sin x

*Derivative of VariableVariable y = f (x)g( x ) ( alternate way )

g( x ) g(x)
Need to change y = f ( x ) to y = el n f (x) y = eg(x)l n f (x) then take derivative.
EX : y = x sin x y = esin x ln x
1 sin x
y = esin x ln x cos x lnx + sin x = x sin x cos x lnx +
x x

*Derivative of VariableVariable (Shortcut)

( 2 steps : itself, multiplied by product rule of exponent and ln of base )
37
 5-6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions: Differentiation

1 = 6 + 2n
sin = means give me all the answers.
2 = 5 + 2n ; n Z
6
1 5
sin = ; [ 0, 2 ] means give me only the answers from [ 0, 2 ].
= ,
2 6 6
1
arcsin means give me the principal (first) answer only between x . =
2 2 2 6

EX #1 : Trig. Review EX #2 : Trig. Review EX #3 : Trig. Review

1 1 2 x
a) arcsin = b) arcsin = a) tan arccos = a) sin arccos =
2 2 3 3
1 1
c) arcsin = d) arcsin =
2 2
17
e) arctan 1 = f ) arctan ( 1) = b) cos arc csc = b) sec [ arctan x ] =
8
g) arcsin 1 = h) arcsin ( 1) =
i) arctan 0 = j) arctan 3 =

*Inverse Trig. Functions

1 1
y = arcsin f ( x ) y = f ( x) y = arccos f ( x ) y = f ( x)
1 ( f ( x )) 1 ( f ( x ))
2 2

1 1
y = arctan f ( x ) y = f ( x) y = arc cot f ( x ) y = f ( x)
1+ ( f ( x )) 1+ ( f ( x ))
2 2

1 1
y = arcsec f ( x ) y = f ( x) y = arc csc f ( x ) y = f ( x)
f ( x) ( f ( x )) f ( x) ( f ( x ))
2 2
1 1

Take derivative of each

EX#1 : y = arcsin 3x 4 EX#2 : y = arctan 3x 4 EX#3 : y = arcsec 6 x

EX#4 : y = arcsin e x EX#5 : y = arctan ( ln x ) EX#6 : y = arcsec ( sin x )

38
 5-7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions: Integration
*Inverse Trig Functions
1 x 1 1 x 1 1 x
a x
2
dx = arcsin + C
2 a a 2
+x 2
dx = arctan + C
a a x x a
2 2
dx =
a
arcsec + C
a
OR OR OR
x 1 x 1 x
= arccos + C = arc cot + C = arc csc + C
a a a a a

Find variable v and constant a. The top MUST be the derivative of the variable v.
1 1 1
EX#1 : 25 x 2
dx = EX#2 : x 2
+9
dx = EX#3 : x x 16
2
dx =

10 7
EX#4 : 25 4x 2
dx = EX#5 : 9x 2
+ 36
dx =

12 11
EX#6 : x 16x 2 49
dx = EX#7 : x 81x 4 4
dx =

x
EX#8 : x 2
+ 100
dx =

39
 6-1 Slope Fields and Euler's Method
Draw the slope field for each
dy dy 2x
EX #1 : = xy EX #2 : =
dx dx y

22 22
1 1

-1 0 1 -1 0 1
-1 -1
-2
2
-2
2

Here are the slope fields for the given differential equations. Sketch the solution for the given point.
dy y dy
EX #3 : = (6 y) EX #4 : = x+y
dx 8 dx

Euler's Method
dy dy
New y = Old y + dx dx = change in x (the step), = derivative(slope) at the point
dx dx

dy xy
EX #5 : y = x y passing thru ( 0, 1) , step of h = 0.1 EX #6 : = passing thru (1, 4 ) , step of h = 0. 5
dx 2
Find f (0.3) = Find f (2) =

40
 6-2 Differential Equations: Growth and Decay
*Growth Formula ( Can be used at any time)

y = Cekt ( Comes from y = ky )

*Compound Continuous Formula (Money equation) A, y = ending amount
C, P = initial amount
A = P ert
*Double - Life Formula (Use only when doubling is mentioned) t = time
t
d = double-life time
y = C (2) d
h = half-life time
*Half - Life Formula (Use only when half - life is mentioned) k = growth constant
t

y = C
1 h

EX #1 : A certain kind of algae doubles every 6 days. If the beginning population of the algae is 400,
what will the population be after 2 weeks?

EX #2 : If I invest $20,000 compounded continuously for 25 years and it grows to $150,000. At what rate
was the money invested?

EX #3 : SHHS population in 1980 was 1200 people. SHHS population in 2000 was 1700 people. What will
the population be in 2015 at the same growth rate? (Round answer to nearest whole #)

EX #4 : Carbon has a half-life of 5730 years. We measure the amount of carbon in a tree and it has 40% less
carbon than when it was planted. How old is the tree? (Round answer to nearest whole #)

41
 6-3 Separation of Variables and the Logistic Equation
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (Separating Variables ) (used when you are given the
derivative and you need to find the original equation. We separate the x's and y's and take the integral).

EX #1 : Find the general solution given

dy x 2 + 4
=
dx 3y 2

EX #2 : Find the particular solution of each:

dy
a) xy ln x = 0 y(1) = 8 b) y 12x 3 y = 0 y(0) = 11
dx

dy
= x ( y 1)
2
EX #3 : AP Test 2000 BC#6
dx
a) Find the particular solution y = f ( x ) given f ( 0 ) = 1 b) Draw slope field at 11 points indicated.
2

-2 -1 0 1 2

-1

-2
-2

( )
If the rate of growth of something is proportional to itself ( y = ky ) , then it is the growth formula y = C1e kt .
dy dy dy
Proof : y = ky
dt
= ky
y
= k dt y
= k dt ln y = kt + C

eln y = ekt+C y = ekt eC y = C1ekt

42
Logistical Growth
k = constant of proportionality
dy y L L Y0
= ky 1 y= ; b= L = carrying capacity
dt L 1+ be k t Y0
Y0 = initial amount

k = constant of proportionality
dP P L L P0
= kP 1 P (t ) = ; b= L = carrying capacity
dt L 1+ be k t P0
P0 = initial population

dP P P
EX #1 : = 1
dt 5 12
a) If P ( 0 ) = 3, what is the lim P ( t ) ?
t

If P ( 0 ) = 20, what is the lim P ( t ) ?

t

b) If P ( 0 ) = 3, for what value of P ( t ) is the population growing the fastest?

c) Find original equation if P ( 0 ) = 3.

dP P2
EX #2 : = 2P P ( 0 ) = 3000
dt 5000
a) lim P ( t ) ?
t

b) Find P ( t ) .

c) At what time is the population growing the fastest?

43
 CH.7 Application of Integration
7-1 Area of a Region Between Two Curves
b
*Area A = [top equation-bottom equation] dx
a

f(x) f(x) g(x)

g(x)

h(x)
a b c
a b c
Area from a to c Area from a to c
b c b c
A= [ f (x) g(x)] dx + [g(x) f (x)] dx A = [ f (x) h(x)] dx + [g(x) h(x)] dx
a b a b

Steps to find Area :

1) Find out where the equations meet.
2) Find out which equation is on top.

EX #1 : f ( x) = x2 + 2 g( x) = x Find Area of region between graphs from [ 0, 1]

5
4
4

3
2
2

-5
- 5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5

-1
-2
-2

-3
-4
-4

-5

EX #2 : f ( x ) = 2x + 3 g ( x ) = e x Find the Area of the enclosed region.

88

7
6
6

5
4
4

3
22

1
-5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-1
-2
-2

EX #3 : Find the Area of the region bounded by the graphs of x = 3 y 2 and x = y + 1.

5
44
3
22
1

- 5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
-5 1 2 3 4 5
5

-1
-2
-2

-3
-4
-4

-5
-6

44
 7-2 Volume: The Disc method
Volume V = A( x ) dx where A( x ) is the Area of the cross section.
( This is the formula for all volume problems.)

(
Volume if cross section rotated is a circle A = r 2 )
b
V = ( top function ) ( bottom function ) dx
2 2

a

radius

EX #1 : f ( x) = x [ 0, 9 ]
Find the volume of the enclosed region between f ( x ) and the x-axis rotated about the x-axis.
4
4

3
2
2

-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 10

-1

EX #2 : f ( x ) = 5x x 2 g( x) = x
Find the volume of the enclosed region rotated about the x-axis 7
66

5
44

3
22

-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5
6 7
-1
-2

45
 7-3 Volume: The Shell method
Volume if cross section rotated is a cylinder ( A = 2 rh )
b
V = 2 x [ top function bottom function ] dx
a

radius height

EX #1 : f ( x ) = x 1 [1, 5 ]
Find the volume of the enclosed region between f ( x ) and the x-axis rotated about the y-axis
5
4
4

3
2
2

-5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5

-1
-2
-2

-3
-4
-4

-5
-6

EX #2 : f ( x) = 3 x2 f ( x ) = 3x 2 1 [ 0, 1]
Find the volume of the enclosed region revolved about the y-axis
5
44
3
22
1

- 5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
-5 1 2 3 4 5
5

-1
-2
-2

-3
-4
-4

-5
-6

46
 Volumes: Rotations about other lines
*Volume rotated about : ( Vertical cross section )
the x - axis the y - axis y=m
f(x)
b b
( f (x)) ( g(x)) dx 2 x [ f (x) g(x)] dx
2 2

a a g(x)
the line y = k the line x = c
a b
b b
( f (x) + k ) ( g(x) + k ) dx 2 ( x + c )[ f (x) g(x)] dx
2 2
x=-c x=d
a a
the line y = m the line x = d y=-k
b b
( m g(x)) ( m f (x)) dx 2 ( d x )[ f (x) g(x)] dx
2 2

a a

EX #1 : f ( x ) = 4x x 2 g ( x) = x2 [ 0, 2 ]
Find the volume of the solid formed when rotating the enclosed region about the given lines.
the x - axis the line y = 3 the line y = 8

the y - axis the line x = 1 the line x = 4

EX #2 : f ( x) = x [ 0, 4 ]
Find the volume of the solid formed when rotating the enclosed region about the given lines.
the x - axis the line y = 5 the line y = 6

the y - axis the line x = 3 the line x = 4

47
 Volumes of known cross sections
*Volume (Region is not rotated) V = A ( x ) dx where A ( x ) is the Area of the cross section.
- Sometimes we will find the volume of regions that have different cross sections (not a circle or a cylinder).
- These regions are not rotated but come out at us.
- We must first find the Area of the cross section, then take it's integral.
b
A = multiplier ( top equation bottom equation ) dx
2

a
EX#1 : Let R be the region in the first quadrant below f ( x ) and above g ( x ) from x = a to x = b.
Find the volume of the solid whose base is the region R and whose cross sections cut by planes
perpendicular to the x-axis are :
(
Squares A = s 2 ) f(x)

b
f ( x) g( x) ( f ( x ) g ( x ))
2
V = dx
a g(x)
f ( x) g( x)
s2 3
Equilateral 's A = a b
4

2 3
b b

( f ( x ) g ( x )) ( f ( x ) g ( x ))
3 2
V =
4 dx V = dx
a
4 a

f ( x) g( x)
r2
Semicircle A =
2

( ) dx
b b
f ( x) g( x)
2

2 ( f ( x ) g ( x )) dx
2
V = V =
2 8
a a
f ( x) g( x)
f ( x ) g ( x ) = diameter = radius
2

Rectangle with h = 5 b ( A = 5bh )

b b
5 ( f ( x ) g ( x )) V = 5 ( f ( x ) g ( x ))( f ( x ) g ( x )) dx V = 5 ( f ( x ) g ( x ))2 dx
a a
f ( x) g( x)

Rectangle with h = 12 x ( A = bh = b (12 x ))

b
12 x V = ( f ( x ) g ( x ))(12 x ) dx
a

f ( x) g( x)
48
 1
Isosceles Right Triangle A = b h
2
b b
= ( f ( x ) g ( x )) ( f ( x ) g ( x )) dx = ( f ( x ) g ( x )) dx
1 1
( Leg is base )
2
V V
a
2 2a
f(x)-g(x)
1 f ( x) g( x) f ( x) g( x)
b b
= ( f ( x ) g ( x )) dx
1
= ( Hyp. is base )
2
V
2 2 2 dx V
4a
a
f(x)-g(x)

3 1 3
Multipliers for other figures : 30-60-90 ( SL ): 30-60-90 ( LL ): 30-60-90 ( HYP ) :
2 2 3 8
3 3 # of sides
Regular Hexagon : Regular Polygon : tan ( half of the interior angle )
2 4

EX#1 : Let R be the region in the first quadrant under the graph of y = x 3 for 3 x 7.
Find the volume of the solid whose base is the region R and whose cross sections
cut by planes perpendicular to the x-axis (vertical cross sections) are :

f(x) = x 3
22

R
0 3 5 7

a) Squares b) Equilateral 's c) Semicircle

d) Rectangle with h = 5 b e) Rectangle with h = 6 x f ) Isos.Rt. ( Leg is base )

Find the volume of the solid whose base is the region R and whose cross sections cut by planes
perpendicular to the y-axis (horizontal cross sections) are :
g) Squares h) Isos.Rt. (Hypotenuse is base)

49
 7-4 Arclengths and Surface of Revolution
This formula can be used to find the length of an arc or the distance a particle travels along an arc.

Let the function y = f ( x ) represent the smooth curve on the interval [ a, b ].

The arclength of f between a and b is: d
b
s = 1+ ( f ( x )) dx
2
c
a

Also, for a smooth curve given x = g ( y ) , the arclength between c and d is: a b
d
s = 1+ ( g ( y )) dy
2

EX #1 : Find the arclength of the graph of y = ln cos x from x = 0 to x = .
4

EX #2 : Set up and find the arclength of the graph of ( y 1)3 = x 2 from [ 0, 8 ]. 5

4

0 5 8

EX #3 : Set up and find perimeter of the shaded region.

44

f(x) = x2
2

0 2 5
5

50
 Preview for CH.8
Procedures for fitting integrands to Basic Rules

Technique Example
e2 x
(1+ e ) dx = (1+ 2e + e ) dx
x 2
Expand (numerator) x 2x
= x + 2e +x
+C
2

1 x
= arctan x + ln ( x 2 + 1) + C
1+ x 1
Separate numerator x 2
+1
dx = 2 + 2 dx
x + 1 x + 1 2

3 1 3 x+4
Complete the square x 2
+ 8x + 41
dx = 3
( x + 4 )2 + 25
dx =
5
arctan
5
+C

1 1
dx = dx = arcsin ( x 1) + C
2x x 2 1 ( x 1)
2

x2 1
Divide improper rational function x 2 + 1 dx = 1 x 2 + 1 dx = x arctan x + C

2x 2x + 2 2
Add and subtract terms in the numerator x 2
+ 2x + 1
dx = 2

2 dx =
x + 2x + 1 x + 2x + 1
2x + 2 2 2
x 2 + 2x + 1 ( x + 1)2 dx
= ln x 2 + 2x + 1 +
x +1
+C

Use trigonometric Identities tan 2 x = sec 2 x 1 sin 2 x = 1 cos 2 x cot 2 x = csc 2 x 1

1 1 1 sin x 1 sin x
Multiply and Divide by Pythagorean conjugate 1+ sin x dx = 1+ sin x 1 sin x dx = 1 sin 2
x
dx

1 sin x 1 sin x
= dx =
cos x cos 2 x
2 2
dx
cos x
= ( sec 2 x sec x tan x ) dx = tan x sec x + C

Derivatives and Integrals of Trig. Functions

Integral: -cosx sinx -ln cosx -ln cscx+cotx ln secx+tanx ln sinx

Trig. Function: sinx cosx tanx cscx secx cotx

Derivative: cosx -sinx sec2x -cscxcotx secxtanx -csc2x

51
 8-1 Basic Integration Rules
*Integral ( top is higher or same power than bottom ) *Two problems in One
( Must divide bottom equation into top equation ) (Split top binomial into two integrals )
x 2 + 2x + 3 1+ x
EX#1 : x 2 + 3 dx = EX#2 : x 2
+1
dx =

*Complete the square *Add and Subtract to numerator

( Turn problem into arctangent ) ( Turn problem into natural logarithm)
2 2x
EX#3 : x 2
6x + 13
dx = EX#4 : x 2
6x + 9
dx =

52
 8-2 Integration by Parts
*Integration by Parts
(used when taking an integral of a product and the products have nothing to do with each other)
Always pick the function whose derivative goes away to be u.
There are two special cases.
Case 1: When ln x, arcsin x or arctan x is in the problem they must be u.
Case 2: When neither equation goes away, either equation can be u (the equation we pick as u must be u
both times) and we perform int. by parts twice and add to other side.

f ( x ) g ( x ) dx = f ( x ) g ( x ) g ( x ) f ( x ) dx more simply u dv = uv v du

x3 x2
xe dx = x e x e x dx x ln x dx = ln x dx
x 2
EX : *Special case 1 : EX :
3 3
3 3
x x
= xe x e x + C = ln x + C
3 9
u=x dv = e x dx u = ln x dv = x 2 dx
1 x3
du = dx v = ex du = v=
x 3

*Tabular method
x 3x 3x
x x 3 dx = +C
x
EX : 2
cos x dx = x sin x + 2x cos x 2sin x + C
2 EX :
ln 3 ( ln 3)2
Deriv. Integral Deriv. Integral
x2
+ cos x x + 3x
2x sin x
3x
2 + cos x 1
ln 3
0 sin x 3x
0
( ln 3)2
*Special case 2
( neither function's derivative goes away so we use integration by parts twice and add integral to the other side )
1st time
e = e x + e x cos x dx
x
EX : sin x dx
u=e x
dv = sin x
= e x cos x + e x sin x e x sin x dx
du = e dx x
v = cos x
2nd time 2 e x sin x dx = e x cos x + e x sin x
u = ex dv = cos x e x cos x + e x sin x
e sin x dx = +C
x

du = e x dx v = sin x 2

53
EX#1 : x cos x dx =

EX#2 : ln x dx =

EX#3 : arctan x dx =

x sin x dx =
3
EX#4 :

e sin 3x dx =
2x
EX#5 :

54
 8-5 Partial Fractions
Partial fractions are used when you can factor the denominator.
Simple Partial fractions
Equation A B
( Linear Factor 1)( Linear Factor 2 ) dx = ( Linear Factor 1) + ( Linear Factor 2 ) dx

2x + 3 A B
EX : ( x 4 )( x + 1) dx = ( x 4 ) + ( x + 1) dx 2x + 3 = A ( x + 1) + B ( x 4 )

11 1
1
= ( x 4 ) ( x +51) dx
5 + Let x = 1 1 = 5B B=
5
11 1 11
= ln(x 4) ln(x + 1) + C Let x = 4 11 = 5A A=
5 5 5

Special Cases : (Not on AP Test)

Equation A B
( Linear Factor ) 2 dx = ( Linear Factor ) + ( Linear Factor ) 2 dx

x7 A B C
( x + 5) ( x + 5) + ( x + 5) + ( x + 5) x 7 = A( x + 5) + B( x + 5) + C
2
EX : 3 dx = 2 3 dx

0 1 12
= ( x + 5) + ( x + 5) + ( x + 5)
2 3 dx Let x = 5 12 = C

( x + 5 ) 12 ( x + 5 ) dx
2 3
= Let x = 0 7 = 25A + 5B + C 5 = 25A + 5B
1 6
= + +C Let x = 1 6 = 36A + 6B + C 6 = 36A + 6B
x + 5 ( x + 5 )2
By sub./elim. A = 0 B =1

Equation Ax + B C
(x 2
+ # ) ( Linear Factor )
dx = (x 2
+
+ # ) ( Linear Factor )
dx

2x 2 + x 3 Ax + B
2x 2 + x 3 = ( Ax + B ) ( x 2 ) + C ( x 2 + 9 )
C
EX : ( x 2 + 9 )( x 2 ) dx = (x2
+
+ 9) ( x 2)
dx

19
x + 5113 7 7
= ( x 2 + 9 ) + ( x 132 ) dx
13 Let x = 2 7 = 13C C=
13

ln ( x 2 + 9 ) + arctan + ln ( x 2 ) + C
19 17 x 7 51
= Let x = 0 3 = 2B + 9C B=
26 13 3 13 13
19
Let x = 1 0 = A B + 10C A=
13

55
 1
EX#1 : x 2
5x + 6
dx

x+2
EX#2 : x 2
+ 4x + 3
dx

5x 2 + 20x + 6
EX#3 : x 3 + 2x 2 + x dx

2x 3 4x 8
EX#4 : x ( x 1)( x 2 + 4 ) dx

56
 8-7 Indeterminate Forms and L'Hopital's Rule
Normal Forms Indeterminate Forms
0
and 1 , 0 0 , 0 , , 0
0
* * *If a limit is in indeterminate form, we convert it to normal form then use L'Hopital's Rule.

f ( x) 0 f ( x) f ( x)
L'Hopital's Rule: If lim = or , then lim = lim
xa g( x) 0 xa g ( x ) xa g ( x )

x 2 + 3x 10 sin x
EX#1 : lim = EX#2 : lim =
x2 x 2 x0 x

ex
EX#3 : lim =
x x 3

x2
EX#4 : lim x =
x e 1

3e x 3x 3
EX#5 : lim =
x0 x2

EX#6 : lim+ x ln x =
x0

1
EX#7 : lim x x
=
x

18 x
EX#8 : lim+ =
x3 x 9 x 3
2

57
 8-8 Improper Integrals
b

f ( x ) dx = lim f ( x ) dx = lim F ( x ) a = lim F ( b ) F ( a )

b

a b a b b
c c

f ( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx + f ( x ) dx
c
where c is undefined f ( x ) dx =

lim f ( x ) dx + lim f ( x ) dx
bc ac + c
b b

If f ( x ) dx = finite # then the function converges. If f ( x ) dx = then the function diverges.

a a

1
EX#1 : x dx =
1

1
EX#2 : x
1
2
dx =

e
x
EX#3 : dx =
0

1
EX#4 : x
0
2
+1
dx =

1
1
EX#5 : x dx =
0

58
 CH.9 INFINITE SERIES
9-1 Sequences
Sequence : A sequence is a list of numbers, called terms, in a definite order. Sequences of objects are
most commonly denoted using braces. If the limit of a sequence exists, then we say the
sequence converges. Otherwise the sequence diverges.

nth term of an arithmetic sequence :

an = a1 + (n 1)d
Recursively defined sequence : Each subsequent term depends on the previous term.
EX : ak+1 = 2(ak 1) ; a1 = 4 EX#1 : ak+1 = 5ak + 10 ; a1 = 2
a2 = 6 a3 = 10 a4 = 18 a5 = 34 a2 = a3 = a4 = a5 =

Most famous recursively defined sequence is the Fibonacci Sequence

ak+2 = ak + ak+1 ; a1 = 1, a2 = 1
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, , , , .......

Fibonacci Petals
3 petals lily, iris
5 petals buttercup, wild rose, larkspur, columbine
8 petals delphiniums
13 petals ragwort, corn marigold, cineraria
21 petals aster, black-eyed susan, chicory
34 petals plantain, pytethrum
55, 89 petals michelmas daisies, the asteraceae family
Humans exhibit Fibonacci characteristics.
The Golden Ratio is seen in the proportions in the sections of a finger.

EX#2 : Find lim an .

n

3n + 5
2
7n 2 6n + 8 1
a) an = b) an = c) an = d) an = 5
2n 2 7 8n 2 4 9n 2 +1 n

EX#3 : Simplify each

a)
20!
b)
7!
c)
( n + 1)! d)
( n + 1)!
19! 10! n! ( n + 2 )!

e)
( n + 3)! f)
6n
g)
( x + 2 )n+1 h)
x n+1 5 n
n! 6 n+1 ( x + 2 )n x n 5 n+1

59
 9-2 Series and Convergence
Infinite series :

a n = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + ...........+ an + .......
n=1

Definition of Convergent and Divergent series :

For the infinite series an , the nth partial sum is given by Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + ...........+ an .
If the sequence of partial sums {Sn } converges to S, then the series an converges.
The limit S is called the sum of the series. S = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + ...........+ an + .....
If {Sn } diverges, then the series diverges.

Geometric series :

ar n
= a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + ..........+ ar n + ....... a 0
n=0

* * *Geometric series Test :

A geometric series a r n converges iff r < 1. A geometric series a r n diverges iff r 1.
n=m n=m

a1
If a geometric series converges, it converges to the Sum : S =
1 r

nth term test (Used to show immediate divergence)

If lim an = 0 then it may converge. (bottom power is greater and we must proceed and use a different test,
n

because this test cannot prove convergence).

If lim an 0 then it diverges (top power is the same or greater than the bottom power).
n

EX #1 : Test for Convergence

n
3 3 n
a) n b) c) n +1
n=0 2

n=0 2 n=0

3
EX #2 : A ball is dropped from a height of 6 feet and begins bouncing. The height of each bounce is
4
the height of the previous bounce. Find the total vertical distance travelled by the ball.

60
***Telescoping Series are convergent ( Limit = 0 and the terms get smaller as we approach )
Find the sum of the following telescoping series.

1 1
EX #3 : n n +1
n=1

1 1
EX #4 : n n+2
n=1

4
EX #5 : n(n + 1)
n=2

Repeating decimals
0.222222.... 0.333333....

0.242424.... 0.833333....

61
 9-3 Integral Test / p-series
* * *Integral Test : If f is positive, continuous and decreasing for x 1 and an = f ( n ) , then

an and f ( x ) dx either both converge or both diverge.

n=1 1

EX #1 : Use Integral Test to test for convergence

n 1
a) 2 b) n
n=1 n + 1 +1
2
n=1

1
* * *p -series : n p
n=1

1) Converges if p > 1
2) Diverges if 0 < p 1

1
If p = 1, it is called the harmonic series. n is the divergent harmonic series
n=1

EX #2 : Use p-series to test for convergence

1 3 7
a) n 2
b) n c) 3
n=1 n=1 n=1 n 2

EX #3 : Review (Test each series for convergence)

n
9 n2 7
a) 7 b)
n=1
10 n=1 n + 5

n
6 6 11
c) d)
n=2 n 1 n +1 n=1
7

62
 9-4 Comparison of Series
* * *Direct Comparison Test
Let 0 an bn for all n.

Diverges

1) If bn converges, then an also converges. bn Can't tell bn

n=1 n=1 an Converges
an

2) If an diverges, then bn also diverges. If an converges and bn diverges.
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

* * *Limit Comparison Test

an
Suppose then an > 0, bn > 0, and lim = L, where L is finite and positive. Then the two series an and bn
x bn
either both converge or both diverge.

an
Assume lim >0 If bn converges, then an converges. If bn diverges, then an diverges
n b
n n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1

*** Limit test works well when comparing "messy" algebraic series with a p-series. In choosing an appropriate
p-series, you must choose one with an n th term of the same magnitude as the n th term of the given series.

Determine Convergence and Divergence for each

1 1 2n
EX #1 : n 8 EX #2 : n 2 + 14 EX #3 : 5 + 3n
n=1 n=1 n=1

1

1 n n 2
EX #4 : EX #5 : 2 EX #6 : 2
n=1 2 + n n=1 2n + 5 n=1 n + 1

63
 9-5 Alternating Series
* * *Alternating Series Test

Let an > 0. The alternating series ( 1) an and ( 1)
n n+1
an converge
n=1 n=1

if the following two conditions are met.

1) lim an = 0 (the bottom is bigger than the top)

n

2) an+1 an for all n. (each succeeding term is getting smaller than the preceding term)

This test does not prove divergence. If the condtions are not met, usually bottom not smaller than the top,
then the series diverges by nth term test.

1 n +1
EX #1 : (1)n+1 n
EX #2 : (1) n+1

n
n=1 n=1

*Alternating Series Remainder

If a convergent alternating series satisfies the condition an+1 an , then the absolute value of the remainder R n
involved in approximating the sum S by Sn is less than or equal to the first neglected term.
That is,
S Sn = Rn an+1

EX #3 : Approximate the sum of the series by its first 6 terms (S6 )

(1)n+1
n!
n=1

EX#4 : Find the remainder (error).

64
Absolute Convergence (Alternating Series)
If the series an converges, then the series an also converges.

Definition ofAbsolute and Conditional Convergence

1) a n is absolutely convergent if an converges.
2) a n is conditionally convergent if an converges, but an diverges.

Determine if each series is for absolutely convergent, conditionally convergent, or divergent

1 1
EX #1 : ( 1) ( 1)
n n
EX #2 :
n=1 n n=1 n2

n
2n + 1 8
EX #3 : ( 1) EX #4 : ( 1)
n n

n=1 3n + 1 n=1
9

n
( 1) 2 ( 1)
n n
EX #5 : EX #6 :
n=1 n=1 n +1
2

65
 9-6 The Ratio and Root Test
* * *Ratio Test : Let an be a series with nonzero terms
an+1
1) a n converges absolutely if lim
n an
<1

an+1 a
2) a n diverges if lim
n an
> 1 or lim n+1 =
n a
n

an+1
3) The ratio test is inconclusive if lim =1
n an
( n + 1)5

( 1) n
n5 ( n + 1) 2 n
5
( n + 1)
5
1
EX : 2 n
lim
n
2 n+1
n5
= lim
n 2 n+1

n 5
= lim
n 2n 5
=
2
so series Converges
n=1
2n

* * *Root Test : Let an be a series with nonzero terms

1) a n converges absolutely if lim n an < 1
x

2) a n diverges if lim n an > 1 or =

x

3) The root test is inconclusive if lim n an = 1

x

2n n 2 2 n+1
( 1) n! 3n
n
EX #1 : EX #2 :
n=0 n=0

n + 1
e 2n 2n
EX#3 : nn EX #4 :
n=1 n=1

66
 Summary of tests for Series
Test Series Converges Diverges Comment
This test cannot be used
nth-Term a n lim an 0
n to show convergence.
n=1

a
Geometric Series ar n
r <1 r 1 Sum: S =
1 r
n=0

Telescoping (b n bn+1 ) lim bn = L
n
Sum: S = b1 L
n=1

1
p-Series n p
p >1 p 1
n=1

0 < an+1 an Remainder:

( 1)
n1
Alternating Series an
n=1
and lim an = 0 R N aN +1
n

Integral if f ( x ) dx converges if f ( x ) dx diverges Remainder:
( f is continuous, a , n 1 1

0 < RN < f ( x ) dx
n=1
positive, and
an = f ( n ) 0 f ( x ) dx is finite f ( x ) dx = N
decreasing) 1 1

Test is inconclusive if
Root an lim n an < 1
n
lim n an > 1
n lim n an = 1.
n=1
n

Test is inconclusive if

a a
Ratio a n lim n+1 < 1
n a
lim n+1 > 1
n a lim
an+1
= 1.
n=1 n n n an

Either show your series

0 < an bn and 0 < bn an and
Direct comparison is less than a convergent
( an ,bn > 0 ) a n

bn converges

bn diverges series or greater than a
n=1
n =1 n =1 divergent series.
an an If you know your series

lim =L>0 lim =L>0
Limit Comparison n b n b is convergent then compare
( an ,bn > 0 ) a n
n

n
your series to a convergent
n=1
and bn converges and bn diverges
n=1 n=1 series and vice versa.

67
 9-7 Taylor Polynomials and Approximations
Definition of nth Taylor Polynomial and MacLaurin Polynomial ( c = 0 )
If f has n derivatives at c, then the polynomial:
f (c) f ( c ) f ( c ) f n (c)
Pn ( x ) = f ( c ) +
( x c) + ( x c )2 + ( x c )3 + ......+ (x c)n
1! 2! 3! n!
is the nth Taylor Polynomial for f at c.

If c = 0, then
f (0) f ( 0 ) f ( 0 ) f n (0)
Pn ( x ) = f ( 0 ) +
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
x 0 + x 0 + x 0 + ......+ (x 0)n
1! 2! 3! n!
is called the nth MacLaurin polynomial for f .

f n
(c)
Taylor series of f ( x ) this is a power series n!
( x c )n
n=0

EX #1 : Find the Taylor Polynomials P4 ( x ) for f ( x ) = ln x centered at 1.

EX #2 : Find the fifth degree MacLaurin Series ( centered at c = 0 ) for f ( x ) = sin x.

68
EX #3 : Find the fourth degree MacLaurin Series for f ( x ) = cos x.

EX #4 : Find the fourth degree MacLaurin Series for f ( x ) = e x

EX #5 : Find the fourth degree Taylor Polynomial for f ( x ) = sin x centered at c = .
4

69
 9-8 Power Series
When finding the interval of convergence we use either Geometric Series Test, Root Test or Ratio Test.

Find the interval of convergence, radius of convergence and the center for each example below.

xn
3( x 2 ) n
n
EX #1 : EX #2 :
n=0 n=1

interval of convergence : interval of convergence :

radius of convergence : radius of convergence :
center : center :

( 1)n ( x + 1)n
( x 8 )n
EX #3 : 2n
EX #4 : n 15 n
n=0 n=0

interval of convergence : interval of convergence :

radius of convergence : radius of convergence :
center : center :

70
Special Cases

When finding the interval of convergence :

If lim = 0 then the power series converges from ( , ) .
n

If lim = then the power series converges at the center only.

n

n!( x + 9 ) ( x 7 )n
n
EX #5 : EX #6 :
n=0 3n n=0 n!

lim
( n + 1)!( x + 9 )
n+1

3n
lim
( x 7)
n+1

n!
n 3 n+1
n!( x + 9 )
n
n ( n + 1)! ( x 7 )n

lim
( n + 1)( x + 9 ) = lim
( x 7) = 0
n 3 n n +1

Never less than 1. Always less than 1.

Converges at center 9 only. Converges always.

interval of convergence : Converges at center 9 only interval of convergence : < x <

radius of convergence : 0 radius of convergence :
center : 9 center : 7

71
 9-9 Representation of Functions by Power Series

a a
a1r = 11r , r < 1 We will work backward and convert 11r to
n
a r .1
n

n=0 n=0

a1
There are two techniques to convert to a power series.
1 r
a
1) Rewrite function to look like 1 .
1 r
2) Use Long Division

Write the power series and find the interval of convergence for each example below.
1 1
EX #1 : f ( x) = , c=0 EX #2 : f ( x) = , c=5
2x 2x

1 1
EX #3 : f ( x) = , c=0 EX #4 : f ( x) = , c=3
2x 5 2x 5

72
 Power Series for Elementary Functions
Function Interval of Convergence
1
= 1 ( x 1) + ( x 1) ( x 1) + ( x 1) !+ ( 1) ( x 1) +!
2 3 4 n n
0<x<2
x

1
= 1 x + x 2 x 3 + x 4 x 5 +!+ ( 1) x n +!
n
1 < x <1
1+ x
1
= 1+ x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + x 5 +!+ x n +! 1 < x <1
1 x

ln x = ( x 1)
( x 1) ( x 1) ( x 1)
2

+
3

+!+
( 1) ( x 1)
n1 n

+! 0<x2
2 3 4 n

x2 x3 x4 x5 xn
ex = 1+ x + + + + +!+ +! < x<
2! 3! 4! 5! n!

x3 x5 x7 x9
sin x = x + + !+
( 1) x 2n+1 +! n

< x<
3! 5! 7! 9! ( 2n + 1)!

x2 x4 x6 x8
cos x = 1 + + !+
( 1) x 2n +! n

< x<
2! 4! 6! 8! ( 2n )!

x3 x5 x7 x9
arctan x = x + + !+
( 1) x 2n+1
+!
n

1 x 1
3 5 7 9 2n + 1

arcsin x = x +
x 3 1 3x 5 1 3 5x 7
+ + +!+
( 2n )!x 2n+1 +! 1 x 1
23 24 5 24 67 ( 2n n!) ( 2n + 1)
2

k ( k 1) x 2 k ( k 1) ( k 2 ) x 3 k ( k 1) ( k 2 ) ( k 3) x 4
(1+ x )k = 1+ kx + + + +! 1 < x < 1*
2! 3! 4!
*The convergence at x = 1 depends on the value of k.

73
 9-10 Taylor and MacLaurin Series
We will find other series by adjusting known series. We can adjust by adding/subtracting,
multiplying/dividing, replacing(substituting) or taking a derivative/integral.
Taylor Series to memorize :
x3 x5 x7 x9
sin x = x + + ....
3! 5! 7! 9!
x2 x4 x6 x8
cos x = 1 + + ....
2! 4! 6! 8!
x2 x3
e x = 1+ x + + +!
2! 3!
1
= 1+ x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 !
1 x

x2 x4 x6
EX #1 : Given cos x = 1 + + ....
2! 4! 6!
Find each:
x cos x =

sin x =

sin 2x =

1 d 1
EX #2 : Given = 1 x + x 2 x 3 +! Find arctan x Hint: arctan x =
1+ x dx 1+ x 2

74
 1
x2 x3
Find e x dx
2
EX #3 : Given e = 1+ x + + +!
x

2! 3! 0

1 cos 2x
EX #4 : Find sin 2 x (sin 2 x = )
2

Formulas for sign changes

n( n+1)
( 1) 2
=+++++
( n+1)( n+2 )
( 1) 2
=++++
( n+2 )( n+3)
( 1) 2
=++++
( n+3)( n+4 )
( 1) 2
=++++

75
 10-2 Plane Curves and Parametric Equations
Parametric equations : equations in terms of a third variable (usually t or )

t
EX #1 : Graph x = t 2 4 y= , 2 t 3 and show direction.
2

5
t x y 4
-2 3
-1 2
0 1

1 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
2
-2
3 -3
-4
-5

dx
is the change in x over time.
dt
dy
is the change in y over time.
dt
dy
is the change y over change in x. (slope)
dx

dx dy dy
EX #2 : Graph x = 3t 2 7t y = e4t Find and and at t = 2.
dt dt dx

76
 10-3 Parametric Equations
If a smooth curve c is given by the equation, x = f ( t ) and y = g ( t ) , then the slope of c at ( x, y ) is
d dy d d2y
d y d dy dt dx d 3 y d d 2 y dt dx 2
dy 2
dy dx
Slope = = dt , 0 Also, = = = =
dx dx dt dx 2 dx dx dx dx 3 dx dx 2 dx
dt
dt dt
2 2
dx dy
( x ( t )) + ( y ( t ))
2 2
speed = + or
dt dt

EX #1 : x = t y=
4
(t 4 )
1 2
t0 Find slope, concavity, and speed at ( 2, 3) .

Arclength in parametric form :

If a smooth curve c is given by x = f ( t ) and y = g ( t ) such that c does not intersect on the interval a t b
(except possibly at the endpoints) then the arclength of c over the interval is given by
b 2 2 b
dx dy
s= or s = ( f ( t )) + ( g ( t ))
2 2
+ dt dt
a
dt dt a

Reminder : Arclength in function form :

b

s = 1+ ( f ( x )) dx
2

EX #2 : Find arclength of x = 2sint and y = 2 cost [ 0, 2 ]

77
 Using Parametric Equations to solve Rectilinear Motion problems
EX #3 : 1997 #1 t = 0 to t = 6 x ( t ) = 3cos ( t ) y ( t ) = 5sin ( t )
a) Find the position of the particle when t = 2.5. b) Sketch from t = 0 to t = 6.

c) The # of times it passes thru (0, 5) d) Find velocity vector

e) Distance travelled from t = 1.25 to t = 1.75.

1 1
EX #2 : 2000 #4 Position at t = 1 is (2, 6) Velocity vector at any time t > 0 is given by 1 2 , 2 + 2
t t

a) Find acceleration vector at t = 3. b) Find position at t = 3.

dy
c) When is slope = 8 d) lim =
t dx

= cos ( t 3 ) , = 3sin ( t 2 ) , 0 t 3 At t = 2 position is (4, 5).

dx dy
EX #3 : 2001#1
dt dt
a) Equation of tangent line at (4, 5) b) Find speed at t = 2

c) Distance travelled from 0 t 1 d) position at t = 3.

78
 10-4 Polar Coordinates and Polar Graphs
Equations to convert rectangular to polar and polar to rectangular
polar to rectangular rectangular to polar
r Rectangular: (x, y) x = r cos x 2 + y2 = r 2
y
y
Polar: (r, ) y = r sin = tan 1
x
x
EX #1 : Convert each
7
a) ( 5, 6 ) RP b) 3,

6
PR

EX #2 : Graph r = 1+ 2 cos

2 r
120= 90=
3 2 60= !!!!!!!!!! 0
3
3
135= 45= !!!!!!!!!!
4 4 6
5 !!!!!!!!!!
150= 30= 4
6 6
!!!!!!!!!!
3
!!!!!!!!!!
2
!!!!!!!!!! 2
180= 0,360=0,2 3
!!!!!!!!!! 3
4
!!!!!!!!!! 5
6
210=
7 11 !!!!!!!!!!
330=
6 6 !!!!!!!!!! 7
5 7 6
225= 315=
4 4 !!!!!!!!!! 5
4 5 4
240= 300=
3 3 3 !!!!!!!!!! 4
270= 3
2
!!!!!!!!!! 3
2
!!!!!!!!!! 5
3
!!!!!!!!!! 7
4
!!!!!!!!!! 11
6
! !!!!!!!!!! 2

79
 10-5 Area and Arclength in Polar Coordinates
* * *Area in Polar Coordinates
If f is continuous and nonnegative on the interval [ , ], then the area of the region bounded by the
graphs of r = f ( ) between the radial lines = and = is given by

1
A = f ( ) d
2

2

1 2
2
A = r d

EX #1 : r = 3cos 3 Find area of one leaf. 2

EX #2 : r = 1 2sin

2 2

Area of the Inner Loop : Area of the whole figure : Area of the Outer Loop :

EX #3 : r = 4 + 4 cos r = 2 Find area of the enclosed region.

6 g() = 4 + 4cos()

f() = 2 2

5 10

Arclength of a polar curve (Not on AP Test) 6

b 2
dr
s= ( f ( )) + ( f ( )) s=
2 2
d or r + d
2

a
d

80
 Hooke's Law
Hooke's Law: The Force required to compress or stretch a spring (within its elastic limits) is
proportional to the distance d that the spring is compressed from its original length.

F = kd
b

W = kx dx
a

EX#1 : A force of 750 lbs compresses a spring 3 inches from its natural length of 15 inches.
Find the work done in compressing the spring an additional 3 inches.

EX#2 : A force of 10 lbs is required to stretch a spring 4 inches beyond its natural length. Assuming
(1997 MC) Hooke's Law applies, how much work is done in stretching the spring from its natural length
to 6 inches beyond its natural length.

81
 Finding Area Using Limits
n
b a b a
Area = lim f a+

i
n $ !"
i = interval, n = # of subdivisions
#n #
n
i=1 !##"## $
height width

b a b a b a b a b a
Area = f a+ 1 + f a+ 2 + f a+ 3 + ......... f a + n
n n n n n
Summation Formulas
n
1) c = cn
i=1
n
n ( n + 1)
2) i= 2
i=1
n
n ( n + 1) ( 2n + 1)
3) i 2
=
6
i=1

n 2 ( n + 1)
n 2

4) i = 3

i=1 4
Summation Properties
n n n
5) (a b ) = a b
i i i i
i=1 i=1 i=1
n n
6) ka i = k ai , where k is a constant
i=1 i=1

EX#1 : f ( x) = x3 [ 0, 1] n subdivisions EX#2 : f ( x) = x2 [1, 3] n subdivisions

EX#3 : 1988 MC #41

1 1 2 n
lim + + ...... =
n n n n n
1 1 1 2 1
1 1
2 0 x x dx x dx
A) dx B) x dx C) D) E) 2 x x dx
0 0 1 0

82
 Lagrange Error Bound
f n+1 ( z ) ( x c )
n+1

Error = f ( x ) Pn ( x ) Rn ( x ) where Rn ( x )
( n + 1)!
f n+1 ( z ) is the MAXIMUM of ( n + 1) derivative of the function
th

EX : Find the 4th degree Maclaurin Series for cos x.

f ( x ) = cos x f (0) = 1
f ( x ) = sin x f (0) = 0
x2 x4
f ( x ) = cos x f (0) = 1 cos x = 1 + .....
2! 4!
f ( x ) = sin x f (0) = 0
f 4 ( x ) = cos x f (4 ) (0) = 1

EX : Use Maclaurin Series to approximate value of cos ( 0.1) .

(0.1)2 (0.1)4
P4 (.1) ! 1 + ! 0.9950041667 Actual value of cos ( 0.1) = 0.9950041653
2! 4!

EX : Lagrange Error Bound at 0.1

f 5 ( x ) = sin x ( The MAXIMUM of sin x is 1)

cos x P4 ( x )
(1)( 0.1 0 )5 = 0. 000000083 Actual gap: 0.0000000014
5!

EX #1 : f (1) = 2, f (1) = 5, f (1) = 7, f (1) = 12

a) Write a 2nd Degree Taylor Polynomial

b) Use Taylor Polynomial to approximate 1.1

c) Lagrange Error Bound at 1.1

83
 Interpreting the graph of f (x)
Looking at the graph of f (x) is different than looking at f ( x ) . f (x) = 0 (x-int) is where the possible max. and min. are.
Remember a graph is :
increasing when f ( x ) > 0
decreasing when f ( x ) < 0
rel.max. occurs when f ( x ) switches from + to .
rel.min. occurs when f ( x ) switches from to + .

The f ( x ) is the slope of the tangent line of f ( x ) .

concave up when slope is positive( f ( x ) > 0.)
concave down when slope is negative ( f ( x ) < 0 ) .
inf. pts. occur when slopes switch from + to or to + ( peaks and valleys of f ( x )) .

5
4
4

3
2
2

-6 -5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5 6
-1
-2
-2

-3
-4 Graph of f '(x)
-4

EX : Graph of f ( x ) from 6 x 6
f ( x ) is increasing from ( 4, 0 ) and ( 3, 6 ) because f ( x ) > 0
f ( x ) is decreasing from ( 6, 4 ) and ( 0, 3) because f ( x ) < 0
f ( x ) has a rel.max. at x = 0 because f ( x ) switches from + to .
f ( x ) has a rel.min. at x = 4 and x = 3 because f ( x ) switches from to + .

The f ( x ) is the slope of the tangent line of f ( x ) .

f ( x ) is concave up from ( 6, 2 ) , ( 2, 4 ) and ( 5, 6 ) because f ( x ) is increasing ( slope is positive ) .
f ( x ) is concave down from ( 2, 2 ) and ( 4, 5 ) because f ( x ) is decreasing ( slope is negative ) .
x = 2, 2, 4, 5 are inf. pts. because f ( x ) switches from + to and vice versa.
(slopes switch from + to or to + )( peaks and valleys of f ( x )).

84
 Integral as an accumulator
A definite integral finds the change in the equation above it.
The integral of velocity from a to b is the change in position (distance travelled) from a to b.
The integral of acceleration from 0 to 3 is the change in velocity from time 0 to time 3.
The integral of f (x) is the change in f (x).
EX#1 : If f ( 0 ) = 5 then find f (1) .
1
Since f (x) dx = f (1) f ( 0 ) it finds the change in f from 0 to 1 .
0
4
4

Since the area under f from 0 to 1 = 2 this will help find f (1) .
3 f' 1

2 2 f (1) = f ( 0 ) + f (x) dx = 5 + 2 = 7
1 2 0

0 1

1
1.5 2
EX#2 : Integrals going left are negative.
Integrals going right are positive. -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2-1 4
-2 Graph of f'(x)
If f ( 0 ) = 10 then:
-4 -2
f ( 4 ) = 10 + f ( x ) dx = 10 + 2 1.5 = 10.5 f ( 2 ) = 10 + f ( x ) dx = 10 + 2 = 12
0 0
4 8
f ( 4 ) = 10 + f ( x ) dx = 10 4 = 6 f ( 8 ) = 10 + f ( x ) dx = 10 4 + 2 = 6 + 2
0 0

( )
EX#3 : Given v ( 2 ) = 8 and a ( t ) = sin t 2 + 1 find v ( 5 ) .
v(2) = 8
5
v ( 5 ) = 8 + a ( t ) dt = 8 + 0.02336 = 7.97663 (The integral of acceleration finds the change in velocity)
2

85
 Finding Derivatives and Integrals given a graph of f(x)

44
4 4

3 3
22
2 2
3 8
1 1 4 3
2
0 1 2 3 4 55
6 7 8 9 10 10
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5
6 7 8 9 10 10

-1 -1 2
-2
-2
-2 -2

Graph of f(x) Graph of f(x)

-3 -3
The integral finds the total area between f(x) and the x - axis.
The derivative is the slope of each line.
10 8

f (1) = 3 2 f ( 7 ) = DNE f ( x ) dx = 17 2 + 3 = 18 f ( x ) dx = 3
0 10
f ( 2 ) = DNE f (8) = 2 10 2

f ( 3) = 0 f ( 9 ) = DNE f ( x ) dx =
0
17 + 2 + 3 = 22 f ( x ) dx =
8
2 12 = 10
f (5) = 2 f ( 9.5 ) = 0 10 10

( f ( x ) + 5 ) dx = 68
0
f ( x ) dx =
6
1

1010 10
10

9 9

88 88

7 7

66 66

5
5
70
44

44

3
3
15
22

22

1
1
0 1 2 3 4 5
5
6 7 8 9 10
10

0 1 2 3 4 5 5
6 7 8 9 10 10

velocity of runner in meters per second

velocity of runner in meters per second -2
-2

EX : EX :
Find the velocity of the runner at t = 2 and t = 7 seconds. Given x(0) = 45 find x(3) and x(10).
10 20
v(2) = 2 = v ( 7 ) = 10
3

3 3 x(3) = 45 + v(t) dt =
Find the acceleration of the runner at t = 2 and t = 7 seconds 0

45 + 15 = 60
Since v ( t ) = a ( t ) , you find acceleration by finding the
10
derivative (slope) of velocity. x(10) = 45 + v(t) dt =
10 0
a (2) = a ( 7) = 0 45 + 85 = 130
3
Find the distance travelled by the runner from t = 0 and t = 10 seconds
10 10

Distance travelled = v (t ) dt
0
v (t ) dt =
0
85

86
 Approximations / Charts

t 42
(hours) 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 48
S(t) 23 31 36 34 22 30 37 38 29
(ft3/hr)
EX#1 : The rate of snow fall, in cubic feet per hour, recorded over a 48 hour period is given by a twice differentiable
function S of time t. The table of selected values of S(t) for the time interval 0 t 48 hours, are shown above.
a) Use data from the table to find an approximation for S (21). Show the computations that lead to your answer.
Indicate units of measure.

48
b) Approximate the value of S(t) dt using a midpoint Riemann sum with the four subintervals indicated by the data
0
48
in the table. Using correct units explain the meaning of S(t) dt .
0

24
1
c) Approximate the value of
24 S(t)dt using the trapezoidal rule with the four subintervals indicated by the data
0
24
1
in the table. Using correct units explain the meaning of
24 S(t)dt .
0

48
d) Find S (t) dt . Indicate units of measure. e) For 0 t 48 what is the fewest number of times that S (t) = 0.
0
Give a reason for your answer.

87
 Rectilinear Motion (Position, Velocity, Acceleration Problems)
We designate position as x ( t ) (moving along the x-axis), y ( t ) (moving along the y-axis), or s ( t ) .
The derivative of position, x ( t ) = v ( t ) velocity. P
The derivative of velocity, v ( t ) = a ( t ) acceleration.
Derivatives V Integrals

A particle is at rest or is changing direction when v ( t ) = 0. A

A particle is moving to the right or up when v ( t ) > 0 and to the left or down when v ( t ) < 0.

The integral of velocity finds the position equation; v ( t ) dt = x ( t ) + C

b
The integral of velocity from a to b , v ( t ) dt ,finds the change in position from a to b (displacement).
a
b
Distance travelled is v (t ) dt
a

The integral of acceleration finds the velocity equation; a ( t ) dt = v ( t ) + C

b
The integral of acceleration from a to b , a ( t ) dt ,finds the change in velocity from a to b.
a

b b
1 1
b a a b a a
Average velocity of a particle v(t)dt or Average acceleration of a particle a(t)dt

To find the maximum or minimum acceleration of a particle set a ( t ) = 0.

To find the maximum or minimum velocity of a particle set v ( t ) = 0 ( a ( t ) = 0 ) .
To find absolute maximum or minimum velocity on an interval we must check the endpoints and the critical pts.
To find when velocity increases find v ( t ) > 0 ( a (t ) > 0 ) or when velocity decreases find v (t ) < 0 ( a (t ) < 0 ).

Speed is the absolute value of velocity, v ( t ) .

v (t ) a (t )

If v ( t ) and a ( t ) agree (both positive or both negative) + + then speed is increasing.

v (t ) a (t )

If v ( t ) and a ( t ) disagree (one positive or both negative) + then speed is decreasing.

+

88
 Continuity / Differentiability Problem
We must show a function is continuous before we discuss its differentiability.
If a function is not continuous, then it cannot be differentiable.
To show continuity, we must show that lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = f ( a ) .
xa xa

To show differentiability, we must show that lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = f ( a ) and that f ( a ) exists.
xa xa

x 2 , x<3 2x , x < 3
EX : f ( x) = f ( x) =
6x 9 , x 3 6 , x 3
At 3 f ( 3) = 9
lim f ( x ) = 9 lim f ( x ) = 6
x3 x3

lim f ( x ) = 9 lim f ( x ) = 6
x3+ x3
Therefore f (x) is continuous at x = 3. Therefore f (x) is differentiable at x = 3.

f (x) is continuous iff f ( 3) = lim f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x )

x3 x3

f (x) is differentiable iff lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) and the function is continuous.

x3 x3

Determine the continuity and differentiability of each.

EX#1 : EX#2 :
2x 3 , x < 1 x 3 1 , x 2

f ( x) = f ( x) =
3x + 1 , x 1 27 5x , x < 2
2 2

EX#3 :

a b c d

To be continuous a graph can't have any holes or asymptotes.

To be differentiable a graph can't have any holes or asymptotes or hard points.
The graph is continuous at the points a and d.
The graph is differentiable at the point a only. (d is a hard point)

89
 8-3 Trigonometric Integrals
sin x cos n x dx
m

If n is odd, set aside cos x and change everything to sine. Substitute u = sin x, use cos 2 x = 1 sin 2 x.
If m is odd, set aside sin x and change everything to cosine. Substitute u = cos x, use sin 2 x = 1 cos 2 x.
If m and n are both even, reduce so that either m or n are odd using trig. double angle identities.

sec x tan n x dx
m

If m is even, set aside sec 2 x and change everything to tangent.

If m is odd, set aside sec x tan x and change everything to secant.

Identities we should know :

Double angle identities Reduction Formulas Pythagorean Identities
1 cos 2x
sin 2x = 2sin x cos x sin 2 x = sin 2 x = 1 cos 2 x / cos 2 x = 1 sin 2 x
2
1+ cos 2x
cos 2x = cos 2 x sin 2 x cos 2 x = 1+ tan 2 x = sec 2 x / sec 2 x 1 = tan 2 x
2
1+ cot 2 x = csc 2 x / csc 2 x 1 = cot 2 x

sin x cos 4 x dx
3
EX#1 :

sin x cos 3 x dx
6
EX#2 :

90
 cos
2
EX#3 : 5x dx

sec x tan 2 x dx
4
EX#4 :

sec x tan 3 x dx
3
EX#5 :

sec x tan 5 x dx
4
EX#6 :

91
 Useful trigonometric integrals

x 1 cos x x 1+ cos x
From trigonometry half angles: sin = cos =
2 2 2 2
1 cos 2x 1+ cos 2x
sin x = cos x =
2 2
1 cos 2x 1+ cos 2x
sin 2 x = cos 2 x =
2 2

1+ cos 2x 1 sin 2x
cos x dx = sin x + C cos x dx = dx = x+ +C
2

2 2 4

1 cos 2x 1 sin 2x
sin x dx = cos x + C sin x dx = dx = x +C
2

2 2 4

sin x
tan x dx = cos x dx = ln cos x + C tan x dx = sec x 1 dx = tan x x + C
2 2

cos x
cot x dx = sin x dx = ln sin x + C cot x dx = sec x 1 dx = tan x x + C
2 2

sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + C sec x dx = tan x + C

2

csc x dx = ln csc x + cot x + C csc x dx = cot x + C

2

Useful trigonometric derivatives

d d d
Reminder : sin x = cos x cos x = sin x tan x = sec 2 x
dx dx dx
d d d
csc x = csc x cot x sec x = sec x tan x cot x = csc 2 x
dx dx dx

Useful trigonometric identities

Reminder : sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1 sin 2 x = 1 cos 2 x cos 2 x = 1 sin 2 x

1+ tan 2 x = sec 2 x sec 2 x 1 = tan 2 x
1+ cot 2 x = csc 2 x csc 2 x 1 = cot 2 x

92
 8-4 Trigonometric Substitution
Trigonometric Substitutions
If the integrand contains a 2 x 2 then substitute x = asinu dx = a cosu du

a 2 x 2 dx = (a a 2 sin 2 u ) a cosu du = a 2 (1 sin 2 u ) a cosu du ( cos x = 1 sin 2 x )

2 2
EX :

= a 2 cos 2 u a cosu du = a cosu a cosu du = a cos 2 u du = a 2 cos 2 u du

2

If the integrand contains a 2 + x 2 then substitute x = a tanu dx = asec 2 u du

a 2 + x 2 dx = (a + a 2 tan 2 u ) asec 2 u du = a (1+ tan u ) asec u du (1+ tan = sec )

2 2 2 2 2 2
EX :

= a 2 sec 2 u asec 2 u du = asecu asec u du = a sec u du = a sec u du

2 2 3 2 3

If the integrand contains x 2 a 2 then substitute x = asecu dx = asecu tanu du

EX : x 2 a 2 dx = (a 2
sec 2 u a 2 ) asecu tanu du = a 2 ( sec 2 u 1) asecu tanu du ( sec 2 1 = tan 2 )

= a 2 tan 2 u asecu tanu du = a tanu asecu tanu du = a secu tan 2 u du = a 2 secu tan 2 u du
2

dx
EX#1 : x2 9
=

dx
EX#2 : 4x 2 + 1
=

93
 x
EX#3 : 16 x 2
dx =

dx
EX#4 : =
(x + 1)
3
2 2

25 x 2
EX#5 : x
dx =

94