k

Safety Services

SAFE HANDLING OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

Revised June 2007

 CONTENTS

Radioactivity and properties of radiation

Biological effects of ionising radiations

Monitoring

External radiation hazards

Calculation of dose rates and shielding

Contamination hazards
32
Safe handling of P
125
Safe handling of I

Precautions during dispensing

These notes are edited excerpts from the book Radiation Protection Handbook for
Laboratory Workers by K J Connor and I S McLintock, H & H Scientific Consultants
Ltd, Leeds, Second Edition,1995. They have been revised by Dr David S. Hewick.

They have been compiled so that each section can be read standing alone as a
summary of information on its topic. There is therefore some duplication of material.
 Radioactivity and properties of radiation

Radioactivity

Each element exists as several different nuclides, a nuclide being a variety of atom
characterised by a given number of protons and of neutrons in its nucleus. Atoms of a
given element have the same number of protons and its nuclides differ by having
different numbers of neutrons. Different nuclides of the same element are also called
isotopes of that element.

For example:
1 2 3
H H H
11 12 13 14
C C C C
31 32 33
P P P

Most nuclides are stable but in the case of radionuclides the nucleus is unstable.
Particles or radiation are emitted by radionuclides and an atom of a different nuclide is
formed. If the new atom is also unstable further nuclear transformations and emissions
occur until a stable nucleus is formed. Radionuclides are said to disintegrate or decay.
The energies of emitted particles or radiations are quoted in units of electron volts (eV).
Their energies are in the range 5 keV to several MeV.

A property common to all emitted particles and radiations is that they ionise materials
through which they pass. Ions are produced in tracks in the material; an important
parameter is the distance between ions in a track and this depends on both the type of
radiation and on its energy.

The possible types of emission are:

α particles
α particles are doubly-charged helium nuclei. Their kinetic energies are of the order of
several MeV. α particles have single energies characteristic of the radionuclide.

β particles
β particles are electrons of kinetic energy ranging up to over 3 MeV. Strictly speaking
electrons emitted from radionuclides should be called β- particles but they are often
simply called β particles.
The energies of β particles from a given radionuclide are not single-valued but range up
to a maximum value characteristic of the nuclide. The distribution curve which shows
how the number of β particles varies with energy is the β spectrum of the radionuclide.
The shape of all β spectra is similar but the precise shape and E(max) are characteristic
of the radionuclide.

β+ particles
β+ particles (positrons) have the same mass and charge as electrons but the charge is of
opposite sign. β+ spectra are analogous to β- spectra.

1
 N(E)dE

Energy

An extra feature of β+ emissions is that each β+ particle eventually interacts with an

electron in the material through which it is passing. This causes the annihilation of both
particles and the conversion of their masses to energy, which appears as two γ rays each
of energy 0.51 MeV emitted at 180° to each other. Thus positron emission is
accompanied by γ emission.

γ radiation
This arises only in conjunction with other types of decay when the product nucleus is
formed in an excited state which loses its excess energy by emitting γ radiation. This is
not particulate but is electromagnetic radiation. A radionuclide may give off several γ
photons but the energy of each is single-valued and characteristic of the nuclide. Typical
γ energies are in the range 0.1 to 2 MeV. It also accompanies positron emission as
annihilation radiation, as described in the previous paragraph.

Electron-capture decay
This occurs when an orbital electron is captured by the nucleus. The capture of electrons
leads to vacancies in electronic orbitals and these are filled when electrons from outer
orbitals occupy them and lose energy in the process The energy difference between
atomic orbitals is of the order of 10s of keV and the process leads to emission of X rays
of energies in the range 5 to 50 keV.

A complex series of X rays of different energies results because different electrons can
be captured and electrons from a range of outer orbitals can refill the vacant orbitals.
One or two energies usually predominate.

When an electron falls to a lower vacant orbital a different outcome can result. This is
the ejection of an electron from the lower orbital by what is called the Auger effect.
These Auger electrons are of very low energy and, because of their higher probability of
causing radiation damage, may contribute significantly to the dose produced from
internal contamination by electron capture nuclides such as 125I.

2
Decay schemes

A knowledge of decay schemes is necessary for radiation protection. Some decay

schemes are simple,
14
C Half-life 5600 y

β- 0.156 MeV 100%

14
N (stable)

Every disintegration involves an emission of a β- particle and the maximum energy of the β
spectrum is 0.156 MeV.

For many radionuclides several means of decay occur and only a percentage of the total
number of disintegrations occurs by each process. For example:
22
Na Half-life 2.6 years

EC 11% β+ 89% β+ 0.06%

0.54 MeV 1.83 MeV

γ 100%
1.28 MeV
22
Ne (stable)

Two further γs, each of 0.51 MeV, follow because of positron annihilation in about 89% of the
disintegrations.

Decay equation, half-life and unit of radioactivity

The rate of decay is described by the equation:

− dN
= λN
dt

where N is the number of radioactive atoms of a radionuclide at time t and λ is the

disintegration constant.

3
The unit of radioactivity is based on the rate of decay and is the becquerel. One
becquerel (Bq) is the amount of radionuclide decaying at a rate of one transformation
per second.

Because the becquerel is such a small unit it is usually convenient to use prefixes:

kBq = 103 s-1

MBq = 106 s-1
GBq = 109 s-1

Radionuclides are bought typically in activities of 10s to 100s of MBq, dispensed in

these activities and used in quantities of 10s to 100s of kBq.

An alternative form of the equation is:

N = N 0 exp( − λt )
where N0 is the number of radioactive atoms at time t0.

The characteristic half-lives of radioactive decay are a reflection of this exponential

expression and the related direct dependence of the activity on the number of atoms of
the radionuclide. The half life of a nuclide is related to λ by:

0.693
t1/ 2 =
λ
N0
because, = exp( λt ) ∴ ln 2 = λt1/ 2
N
ln 2
and ∴ t1/ 2 =
λ

The most common decay calculations involve working out,

♦ the fraction of decay after a given time,

♦ or the time to decay to a given fraction

and the following two equations are useful for these purposes.

A ⎡ −0.693t ⎤
= exp ⎢ ⎥
A0 ⎣ t1/ 2 ⎦

⎡ A⎤
− ln e ⎢ ⎥t1/ 2
t= ⎣ A0 ⎦
0.693

4
where A is the activity at time t;
A0 is the activity at time t0.
⎡ A⎤
and therefore, ⎢ ⎥ is the fraction of activity remaining after time t.
⎣ A0 ⎦

Properties of radiation

α, β, γ and X radiations lose energy by causing ionisations, and also excitations, in the
material through which they pass. The ions are not produced uniformly but form tracks
in the material.

Ionisation has two important consequences in radiation protection:

♦ Ionisation in biological tissues causes changes in biomolecules and this

can lead to eventual observable radiation damage to the irradiated
organism.

♦ Very sensitive methods exist for the detection of the radiations. This is
the feature which allows sensitive monitoring of contamination and of
radiation doses and dose rates.

Absorption

The absorption of the various radiations can be summarised as follows:

α particles:
These are relatively large and doubly-charged and therefore interact strongly with
materials. Consequently ions are formed close together, giving a track with a high ion
density. They lose their energy in a short distance and have a short range.
-
β and β+ particles:
These are much lighter than αs and have only one atomic unit of charge. They therefore
interact less strongly with an absorbing medium. Their ranges are longer because of the
lower ion densities in their tracks.

Annihilation-reaction γs always follow β+ emissions but electromagnetic radiation of a

different kind also results from both types of β emission. When β particles pass close to
an atom they lose some of their energy by a radiative process and this appears as
bremsstrahlung, which consists of X rays. Most of the β energy is lost by ionisation
and only a small proportion as bremsstrahlung; this proportion increases with the β
energy and also with the atomic number of the absorbing material.

5
γ and X radiation
These travel much farther than particulate radiations of the same energies. The electrons
produced by the primary ionisations form secondary ion-tracks with an ion density
comparable to that in β tracks but the distance between interactions in the primary γ
track itself is much greater.

Range

A fundamental difference between particulate radiation and electro-magnetic radiation

is that α and β particles are completely absorbed by a sufficient thickness of material
whereas γ and X radiations are never completely stopped but are only attenuated. The
electromagnetic radiations therefore have no finite range.

The lower the ion density produced by radiation the greater its penetrating power
which therefore increases in the order,

α < β < X or γ for a given energy.

It is sometimes assumed that γ radiations are always of higher energy than X radiations
but some γs have energies of the same order as those of X rays. For example 125I emits a
γ of energy 35.5 keV, comparable to the X rays from its EC decay. The distinction is
that γs originate in the nucleus and X rays from processes involving orbital electrons.

α and β
Ranges of α and β particles are usually given in the units mg.cm-2 because in these units
the range is, to a good approximation, independent of the density of the absorber. A
thickness of 1 mgcm-2 is the amount of absorber in a section of cross-sectional area 1
cm2 and of mass 1 mg. The range in centimetres decreases as the density of the absorber
increases.

To calculate the range in centimetres from the value in mgcm-2 use the formula,
mg. cm −2
= cm
mg. cm −3
where mg.cm-3 is the absorber density. Care must be taken to express the density in
units of mg.cm-3 (not g.cm-3).

Typical Ranges of α and β Particles

Range
-2
Energy mg.cm Linear
In tissue In air
α Several MeV A few ≈ 50 μm A few cm
β Emax in MeV
3
H 0.018 5 50 μm 4 cm
14 0.156 30 0.3 mm 20 cm
C
32 1.71 800 8 mm 600 cm
P

6
γ and X radiation
Range is not an appropriate term for electromagnetic radiations, which are attenuated
rather than completely absorbed. Their attenuation follows the equation,
I = I 0 exp( − μx )
where Io is the initial intensity and I is the intensity after passing through a thickness x
of absorbing material; μ is a constant for a given energy and absorber. This is the same
form as the decay equation,
N = N 0 exp( − λt )
which means that attenuation can be characterised by a quantity called a half-value
layer (HVL) analogous to half-life. The intensity drops to half its value after passing
through each HVL. A similar quantity called a tenth-value layer (TVL) is sometimes
used. TVL = 3.3 x HVL. They depend on the γ or X energy and on the absorbing
material. Typical values of HVL in lead lie in the range 0.5 to 1.5 cm..

Units

The units of most relevance and importance are those which deal with radiation dose
and the unit (becquerel) used for the amount of radioactivity. The becquerel has already
been introduced with the decay equation.

Radiation dose is measured in terms of the energy deposited in biological tissue in units
of joules per kg of irradiated tissue. This energy is used principally to produce ions in
the biological materials.

The unit of radiation dose is the gray,

1 gray = 1 J.kg-1

Because not all ionising radiations cause the same biological damage for the same dose
in grays it is necessary to define a further quantity known as the equivalent dose.

The equivalent dose is expressed in sieverts,

sievert = gray x radiation weighting factor (WR)
where WR takes into account the ability of the radiation to produce biological damage.
For βs, γs and X radiation WR is unity and the dose in grays is the same numerically as
the equivalent dose in sieverts.

The abbreviations for the two dose units are Gy and Sv.

7
 Biological Effects of Ionising Radiations

Basis of biological damage

The primary cause of biological damage is the ionisation of biological molecules. These
can be biologically critical molecules such as DNA whose direct ionisation leads to their
damage in the form of broken bonds. In addition ionisation of other, more numerous,
molecules can produce free radicals, for example,
H2 O ⇒ H ⋅ + OH ⋅
and these then react with important biomolecules to produce indirect damage, again in
the form of broken bonds.

The consequences of this can be:

Death of the cell

If enough cells are killed the effects on an irradiated person appear in a
short time (days or weeks). These are the typical signs of radiation sickness.
High acute doses (3-5 gray) to a large proportion of the body can be fatal.

Cell survival but permanent molecular damage within it

This can lead to observable damage in the long term. The most likely
expression of this would be a cancer such as leukaemia, bone cancer or
thyroid cancer.

Repair
It is possible that the damage will be repaired with no lasting effect on the
cell.

Some types of cell can be killed outright by radiation. Most require the molecular
damage to be expressed further by cell division; the cell metabolism develops the latent
damage. Therefore cells which divide frequently are particularly sensitive to ionising
radiations. These include the blood-forming cells in the bone marrow and the cells
which line the gut; it is radiation damage to these cells which causes the radiation-
sickness syndrome.

The types of observable effect can be divided into,

♦ Deterministic
These have a threshold dose below which the effect does not appear; the severity of
the effect increases with dose above the threshold.
Deterministic effects include radiation sickness, cataracts and damage to skin.

8
♦ Stochastic
These have no threshold dose. The term stochastic means of a random or statistical
nature. The probability of the effects increases with dose but the severity of any
resultant effects is not a function of dose.
Cancers and genetic damage are stochastic effects. The latter is caused by irradiation
of the germ cells and its effects appear in future generations. Cancers develop during
a latent period following exposure and this period may last for 5 to 40 years.

Dose limits

The dose limits are recommended by a body called the International Commission on
Radiological Protection (ICRP).

The limits are of two kinds,

◊ Limits for deterministic effects

These are set below the thresholds for effects such as skin damage or cataracts. The
ICRP 1990 values for occupational exposure are:

Annual equivalent doses

Lens of the eye 150 mSv

Skin 500 mSv

Hands and feet 500 mSv

◊ Limits for stochastic effects

Any dose above background is assumed to increase the risk of cancers and hereditary
effects. The exposure limits are set at a level where the increased risk becomes just
tolerable. This choice involves subjective decisions about what could be regarded as
just tolerable or acceptable.
The stochastic limit must not be treated in the same way as a speed limit on the
roads. Employers must keep exposures below the limit but are also required to keep
exposures as low as is readily achievable below the limit.
The current statutory value for the stochastic risk is 20 mSv. (Ionising Radiations
Regulations 1999).

9
Most exposures are likely to result in partial or non-uniform irradiations of the body.
Use of the concept effective dose takes account of this situation. Different organs of the
body are assigned a weighting factor (WT) which depends on their sensitivity to
radiation and these are used to calculate the effective dose to the body for a given dose
to that organ. For example, WT for the red bone marrow is 0.12 and a dose of 167 mSv
to the red bone marrow gives an effective dose of (167 x 0.12) = 20 mSv. A dose of
167 mSv to the red bone marrow produces the same risk of fatal cancer as 20 mSv to the
whole body.

It is unusual for workers in laboratories to record a dose which is at all a significant

fraction of the exposure limit. The only common exception in Universities is that
32
neglect of proper procedures when using high-energy β emitters such as P can cause
high doses to fingers and hands.

The average annual dose from background radiation in the United Kingdom is
2.2 mSv.

Assessment of compliance with exposure limits

There are two routes of exposure:

External radiation exposure

Internal exposure after contamination.

The contributions from external and internal exposures

added together must not exceed the annual exposure limit.

External exposure
This can be measured by,

♦ Personal monitoring using film badges or thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs).

♦ Environmental monitoring using dose-rate meters.

Personal monitors are worn for a period, commonly four weeks, and the dose over the
period is obtained in units of mSv. Dose-rate meters are instruments which measure
dose rate in units of μSv.h-1.

10
Internal exposure and contamination

The second type of exposure arises from contamination. This can lead to skin
contamination or to internal irradiation after the introduction of radioactivity by
inhalation, ingestion or via a break in the skin. Some labelled compounds, for example
radioiodines, can penetrate intact skin.

There is a need for secondary limits to take account of the contamination risks. These
are:
Annual limits on intake (ALIs)

They are in units of Bq.year-1. Each radionuclide has its own set of ALIs which are the
intakes in Bq which lead to a dose commitment equal to the annual exposure limit. The
ALI depends on the route of exposure as well as the radionuclide, and the ALI for
inhalation is usually different from that for ingestion.

For radionuclides which are retained in the body for a long time, the dose may not be
completed in the year in which the material was taken in; this is the reason for the use of
the term dose commitment, the dose integrated over the time to which the individual is
committed by the intake. The integration period is usually 50 years.

Some factors which determine the ALI are:

Type and energy of the radiation

Physical half-life
Biological half-life
Concentration of the nuclide in a particular organ
The chemical nature of the labelled compound.

The ALIs of some common radionuclides are:

ALIs which lead to a commitment of 20 mSv

Nuclide ALI / MBq ALI / MBq

Ingestion Inhalation Nuclide Ingestion Inhalation
3 36
H 1000 1000 Cl 20 3
14 45
C 40 40 Ca 20 10
22 51
Na 7 10 Cr 400 200
32 63
P 8 5 Ni 100 10
33 86
P 80 30 Rb 8 10
35 125
S 70 30 I 1 2

The presence of radioactivity in the body can be measured but it is often difficult
to do so and even more difficult to do anything about removing it. Control of
internal exposure and of skin contamination relies on the routine monitoring of
surface contamination in working areas.

11
 Monitoring
Radioactive materials have a great advantage over other carcinogenic materials; their
presence in the environment can be monitored much more easily than can that of
chemical carcinogens. Those who work with radionuclides should take advantage of this
and carry out routine monitoring of radiation and contamination levels.

The general rule is to detect contamination and to remove any detected

contamination as soon as possible.

If excessively high radiation levels are detected these should be reduced

without delay to acceptable levels.

Efficiency of monitoring methods

The most common method of monitoring is to use an instrument to detect radiation or

radioactivity by direct measurement. An important property of a monitoring instrument
is its efficiency, which depends on the type and energy of the radiation and hence on the
radionuclide.

Efficiency = counts per second / disintegrations per second

= counts per second / Bq

The efficiency of hand-held monitors ranges from zero to about 50%, depending on the
monitor and the radiation being measured. Efficiency is determined by,

Geometry
A radioactive source radiates in all directions in what is called 4π geometry (4π radians
of solid angle). A monitoring probe held at a contaminated surface can detect at most
only radiations emitted into 2π of the 4π radians. The proportion of the 2π presented to
the probe decreases with its distance from the surface.

Absorption
This occurs principally in the air and in the window of the monitor. The loss in
efficiency due to absorption depends on the radiation. For example, the βs from 3H are
completely absorbed in window materials, resulting in zero efficiency. In contrast,
absorption of the high energy βs from 32P or of γs is insignificant.

12
Intrinsic Efficiency
This is the efficiency with which the radiation is detected once it has entered the
monitor. Again this depends on the radiation.
For example, the intrinsic efficiency of gas-filled detectors (Geiger monitors for
example) for α and β particles is high - 90-100%. Their efficiency for X rays and for γs
is low, generally only a few %. This is principally because the detection medium is the
gas and its low density does not stop the γs and X rays efficiently. In contrast the range
of the α and β particles is short and they have a high chance of producing ionisations in
the low-density gas detection medium.
In scintillation monitors the detection medium is a solid and its higher density leads to
good efficiencies for γs and X rays as well as the particulate radiations. The overall
efficiency of a scintillation monitor for α and βs depends on its window thickness and
sometimes on its electronics; absorption losses in the window can be high or complete
in some cases.

Contamination monitoring and radiation monitoring

There are two types of monitoring: contamination monitoring and radiation monitoring.

Contamination monitoring
In laboratories this generally involves monitoring for α and β emissions and for the
X rays from electron-capture nuclides. Suitable contamination monitors can detect γ
radiation but contamination by γ emitters is usually measured by detecting the emitted
βs.

The purposes of contamination monitoring are,

To detect contamination

To confirm its removal

If necessary, to measure it in units of Bq or Bq.cm-2.

The following data can be used to estimate the activities on spot or extended
contamination:

Typical responses of Mini Instruments contamination monitors

-1 -2 -1
s per 100 Bq.cm s per 100 Bq spot
Type E Type EP15 Type E Type EP15
14 35 70 150 15 25
C/ S
32 180 450 30 50
P

Type 44 Type 42 Type 44 Type 42

125 400 60 300 100
I

13
Monitoring tritium
The low energy of the βs from tritium means that they cannot be detected by any of the
common monitors because of complete absorption in their windows. 3H is more
commonly monitored by the indirect method of wipe testing.

Wipe testing
The nuclides which are the most difficult to detect are low energy β emitters, say of
E(max) less than 0.2 MeV, for example,

3
H, 14C, 35S, 45Ca, 63Ni
and 55Fe, which emits X rays of energy only 5 keV.

For these nuclides an alternative method of monitoring is the indirect method of wipe
testing.

Wipe testing involves,

1. A glass-fibre disc is moistened with water or a solvent inwhich the

labelled compound is soluble.
Glass fibre is preferable to filter paper because it is wetted more
effectively; this allows the liquid scintillator to penetrate the fibres
of the disc and produces a higher counting efficiency, which is
especially important for 3H.

2. A known area, say 100 to 1000 cm2, of the surface is wiped once.

3. The activity on the disc is counted using a liquid scintillation

counter.

4. It is assumed that 10% of the activity in the wiped surface has been
transferred to the disc.

For example, if an area of 1000 cm2 produced a disc giving 9000 counts per second in a
counter of efficiency 30% the contamination level would be:

9000 x 10 2
= 300 Bqcm-
0.3 x 1000

This method gives an estimate of removable contamination but not fixed contamination.

14
Radiation monitoring

This is required when there is a radiation hazard from penetrating radiations. This could
arise when handling,

♦ γ emitters
♦ Electron capture nuclides
♦ β emitters of E(max) greater than about 0.75 MeV

all at activities greater than about 0.1 MBq.

There are two kinds of radiation monitoring:

• Personal monitoring
• Environmental monitoring

Personal monitoring
Personal monitoring involves the wearing of dosimeters such as film badges or
thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) for a period, commonly four weeks. The
dosimeters give the integrated dose in mSv over that period.

Personal monitoring is undertaken to check that the appropriate exposure limits are not
being exceeded and that the personal doses are as low as is reasonably practicable below
these limits.

Environmental monitoring
Environmental dose rates are measured principally for comparison with the values of
2.5 μSv.h-1 which is the maximum value normally expected in laboratories to which
uncontrolled access is allowed.

Biological monitoring

Biological monitoring is not required unless large activities of open sources are being
handled or there has been a serious radioactive accident. This type of monitoring
involves measuring the radioactivity in samples such as urine and using a knowledge of
the metabolism of the labelled material to work out the activity in the body.

In laboratories one type of monitoring which could be called biological monitoring is

the external measurement of iodine radionuclides in the thyroid. The sensitivity of a
suitable hand-held monitor, such as the Minimonitor models 44 and 42, is such that an
125
I thyroid burden only a very small fraction of an annual limit of intake (ALI) can be
easily measured. Those who carry out iodinations can be advised to carry out this check
of the thyroid within a few hours of each iodination.

15
 EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS

There are two hazards involved in working with radioactive materials. These are an
external radiation hazard and a contamination hazard. They require different
precautions.

In most laboratories radioactive work deals with open sources and in principle this can
involve both a radiation and a contamination hazard.

Radiation hazard

The need to take account of a possible radiation risk arises only for nuclides which emit
the more penetrating radiations and then only if the activity handled is sufficiently large.
External radiation should be considered as a hazard if the materials are:

γ sources
EC sources
β sources of E(max) greater than about 0.75 Mev.

all at activities above about 0.1 MBq.

The E(max) value of 0.75 MeV for β emitters is chosen because typical glassware has a
thickness approximately the same as the range of βs of E(max) 0.5 to 0.75 MeV. For β
emitters in thin plastic containers, or for spilled materials, this limitation will not
necessarily apply. The activity at which the radiation hazard from these sources becomes
significant depends on the type and energy of the radiations and on the container in
which the material is held. The possible contribution of bremsstrahlung from β emitters
is not normally significant enough to need consideration.

Radionuclides which give off less penetrating emissions than those described above can
be an external radiation hazard if they are present on skin; kBq (μCi) amounts of nuclides
such as 14C or 35S produce very high dose rates to skin if they are present on the skin as
contamination.

There are four ways to reduce the external hazards:

Minimise the activity (MBq) used

Minimise the handling time.

Keep as much distance as reasonably practicable

between people and the source.

If necessary provide adequate shielding.

16
The first two measures involve planning the work before ordering and dispensing the
material.

The third measure makes use of the inverse square relationship between dose rate and
distance.

Inverse square relationship

In many situations the dose rate decrease with the distance from a source with the inverse
of the square of the distance:
1
d2

This inverse square relationship describes the decrease in dose rate resulting from
geometry It does not take into account absorption by the container or air. The dose rate
for β emitters of low β energy; such as 14C or 35S will decrease significantly more rapidly
because of absorption.

The relation holds only for point sources, which effectively are those whose dimensions
are less than about 10% of the distance. It therefore cannot be used to calculate accurately
the changes in dose rate with distance very close to a container such as a stock vial but it
can be used to estimate the dose rate to within about 10 centimetres from such a
container. The dose rate from , for example a filled syringe or Eppendorf tube will
decrease less rapidly close to the source than the inverse square law predicts.

The dose rates in the graphs below are in mSv.h-1 and it is clear that close to unshielded β
sources they can be very high.

10000
9000
8000
7000
mSv per hour

6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
mm
Dose rates very close to an unshielded 1 MBq point source of 32P

17
 100
90
80
70
mSv per hour

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
cm
Dose rates up to 5 cm from and unshielded 1 MBq point source of 32P

The dose rate from 1 MBq of 32P, taking absorption by the air into account, does not fall
below 7.5 μSv.h-1 until a distance of about 80 cm from the source.

This unshielded situation would arise for a β emitter only after a spillage. A glass
container 1 mm thick would absorb about 70% of the βs from 32P and the dose rates
would be 0.3 of the plotted values. The plastic walls of typical Eppendorf tubes are of a
thickness which reduces 32P β dose rates to about 0.7 of their unshielded values. Despite
these levels of absorption the contact dose rates at the surfaces of containers with β
emitters is very high.

The dose rate rises very rapidly close to a source. Handling a source with fingers can
give high finger doses. Using a simple form of handling tool can reduce the dose
considerably. A pair of tongs only 10 cm long can give a considerable decrease in dose
rates to fingers. The extra protection given by the use of a longer handling tool, say 50
cm long, is proportionately much less than the decrease in dose rate offered by the 10 cm
tool.

The β dose rates close to a source are higher than γ or X ray dose rates from the same
activities of γ emitters or EC nuclides although these also produce high doses near a
source. Note that in the plot below for 125I the dose rates are again in mSv.h-1.

18
 35

30

25
mSv per hour

20

15

10

0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
mm

Dose rates very close to an unshielded 1 MBq point source of 125I

An important lesson of the inverse square relation is that containers of radioactive

materials should not be picked up by hand without first considering whether the dose to
fingers would be acceptable.

It would not be reasonably practicable to insist that all containers of radioactivity must
never be picked up directly by hand. Where the radioactive material does not fill its
container it may be reasonable to hold it in the fingers at a position sufficiently far from
the source to provide protection by distance. This applies to tubes, flasks etc and also to
containers such as pipettes and syringes, many of which are of a design which keeps
fingers at a distance from their contents or which can be manually handled if they are not
full:

32 125
P or I
Not acceptable Acceptable

19
If the radiations emitted are totally or adequately shielded by the container direct manual
handling adjacent to the contents is acceptable. For example, tubes of any kind
containing 3H, 14C and 35S can be picked up by hand. It may also be acceptable to use
hands to pick up containers of, for example, 32P, 22Na, 86Rb or 125I if the activity is low
enough or if the container is adequately shielded:

A syringe with an annular perspex shield

It must always be remembered that dose rates to fingers can be very high in some
circumstances. A thin plastic container such as an Eppendorf tube gives less protection to
fingers than does typical glassware.

Shielding

Shielding will be necessary if a combination of low activity, short handling time and
reasonable distance cannot decrease doses to an acceptable level. In some situations
consideration must be given to shielding other people as well as the person handling a
source.

β emitters
Perspex is used to shield β emitters. A perspex thickness of about 6 mm will provide
complete shielding for all common β emitters.

γ emitters
Lead bricks are normally used to shield γ emitters. Concrete can also be used but greater
thicknesses (about x 5 greater) are needed to achieve the same results. γ radiation is
attenuated rather than completely absorbed and shielding requirements are therefore
described in terms of half-value layers (HVLs) or tenth-value layers (TVLs),

HVLs and TVLs in lead (cm)

HVL TVL
22
Na 1.0 3.3
42
K 1.3 4.3
60
Co 1.1 3.6
86
Rb 0.9 3.0

EC Radionuclides
The low energy X radiation from electron-capture radionuclides is more easily attenuated
than most γ radiation. For the activities normally used in laboratory work lead sheet up to
about a millimetre thick provides adequate attenuation. Lead-loaded glass or perspex are
useful transparent alternatives; commercially available perspex of this type is of the order
10 mm thick with an equivalent lead thickness of 0.5 mm.

20
 CALCULATION OF DOSE RATES AND SHIELDING

Before obtaining a radionuclide which gives off penetrating radiations it is necessary to

estimate the dose rates which will be involved. The correct working procedures and any
necessary shielding can then be predicted.

γ emitters

These can be calculated using the formula:

AEF -1
μSv.h
7d 2

where A = activity in MBq

E = the γ energy in MeV
F = fraction of the disintegrations in which the γ is emitted
d = the distance from the source in metres

This applies to point sources which are sources whose dimensions are small compared
to the distance The formula gives reliable results if the dimensions of the source are <
about 10% of d.

Examples of calculated γ dose rates from point sources are:

Dose rates at 1 metre from

100 MBq point sources
-1
μSv.h
22
Na 32
24
Na 50
42
K 4
59
Fe 16
60
Co 40
86
Rb 1.3

The absorption of electromagnetic radiation such as ϒs follows an exponential

expression similar in form to the decay equation. Absorption can therefore be described
by a parameter similar to half-life. This is the half value layer (HVL) which is the
thickness of a given material which decreases the dose rate by a factor of one half. An
analogous property is the tenth value layer (TVL); the relationship between HVL and
TVL is,

TVL = 3.3 x HVL

21
Examples of these in lead, the usual shielding material for ϒs ,are:

HVLs & TVLs in

lead (cm)
HVL TVL
22
Na 1.0 3.3
24
Na 1.7 5.6
42
K 1.3 4.3
60
Co 1.1 3.6
86
Rb 0.9 3.0

For laboratories it is sufficient for most γ emitters to use:

a HVL of 1 cm for ϒs in lead

a TVL of 3.5 cm for ϒs in lead

Commercial lead bricks are usually 5 cm thick and will therefore attenuate most ϒs by a
5
factor of 2 which is about 30.

EC Radionuclides

An EC radionuclide frequently used in University laboratories is 125I. Its X ray dose

rates as a function of distance are,

125
Dose rates from 100 MBq of I
-1
cm μSv.h
10 350
20 87
30 38
50 14
100 3.5

The low energy X radiation is more easily attenuated than most γ radiation. Lead sheet
less than a millimetre thick provides an attenuation of more than 0.01. This is normally
more than adequate. for the activities used in laboratory work Lead-loaded glass or
perspex are useful but expensive transparent alternatives; commercially available
perspex of this type is of the order 10 mm thick with an equivalent lead thickness of 0.5
mm and this gives an attenuation of more than 0.01.

22
Bremsstrahlung

The bremsstrahlung dose rates from β emitters are much lower than the β dose rates.
Calculated values for 32P are:

Bremsstrahlung dose rates from

32
100 MBq point source of P
cm μSv.h-1
10 6.0
20 1.5
30 0.7
40 0.4
50 0.25

The bremsstrahlung from β emitters has a continuous spectrum of X ray energies from
zero up to the maximum β energy. The bremsstrahlung from 32P is significantly
attenuated by thin lead sheet but is more penetrating than the 28 keV X rays from 125I:

32
Transmission of P bremsstrahlung in lead
Millimetre of lead Transmission
0.1 0.50
0.2 0.25
0.4 0.15
1.0 0.05
2.0 0.0025

The conclusion to be drawn from these data is that bremsstrahlung presents no dose rate
32
problems at the activities of P usually encountered in laboratory work.

β dose rates

The β dose rate at 0.1 metres from a point source is given approximately by,

1000 A μSv h-1

where A = activity in MBq.

This assumes no absorption of the βs but in practice this can be complete or appreciable,
depending on the β energy. Glassware 1 mm thick will completely absorb β particles of
energy up to about 0.5 to 0.75 MeV. The more energetic βs from 32P have a
transmission of about 25% in a 1 mm thick-walled glass container and of around 70% in
the walls of a typical plastic Eppendorf tube.

23
The β emitter whose use in laboratories could most commonly lead to significant β
doses (to skin) is 32P. An appreciation of the β doses which could be involved is
obtained by considering the potential dose to hands from handling 32P.

The dose rate at 0.1 metres from 1 MBq is,

1000 x 1 = 1000 μSv.h-1 assuming no absorption.

If the 32P is in a 1 mm thick glass vessel approximately 25% of the βs will be

transmitted and subsequent transmission in 0.1 metres of air will be about 90%. The
dose rate at 0.1 metres will therefore be approximately,

(0.2 x 1000) = 200 μSv.h-1 = 0.2 mSv.h-1.

If the container was handled with a handling tool, the average distance from the hands
was 0.1 metres, and the operation took 5 minutes the dose to hands would be,

0.2 x (5/60) = 0.017 mSv.

If the operation was carried out once a day for a 200 day working year, the annual dose
would be,

(200 x 0.017) = 3.4 mSv

If the activity of 32P in this situation was 370 MBq the estimated annual dose to fingers
would be 1200 mSv. This can be compared with the annual deterministic dose limit of
500 mSv to the skin of the hands.

The applicability of the inverse square law means that very much higher doses will be
sustained if containers of 32P are consistently picked up by hand.

24
 Contamination Hazards

The main measures for controlling contamination are:

Segregation of radioactive work

Containment of radioactive materials

Frequent monitoring

Use of personal protective equipment.

Segregation

The required degree of segregation of radioactive work from other work depends on the
radionuclides, their activities and the operations involved. Segregation is the concept
behind the idea of controlled and supervised areas. In laboratories which do not require to
be designated as controlled or supervised it is good practice to set aside areas for
radioactive work, with a material such as Benchcote to protect bench surfaces and with
these benches labelled with radioactive warning tape.

Containment

Various levels of containment can be used to limit the potential spread of contamination.
Fume cupboards act as a method of containing volatile materials or aerosols. At the
initial dispensing stage many materials are present at high specific activities (MBq.ml-1)
and aerosols produced by using syringes and pipettes etc are a possible inhalation hazard.

Trays lined with material such as Benchcote should be used to contain radioactive
materials. Any contamination from spillages is likely to be contained within the tray. The
Benchcote (absorbent side up, plastic side down) helps to minimise the spread of any
contamination and it can be disposed of as solid radioactive waste.

Double containment is an extra level of containment. If the primary container (tube or

flask for example) is put inside another container such as a beaker the contamination due
to a breakage of the tube is held within the beaker. Double containment is a particularly
useful precaution when materials are in storage; in its absence breakage of a primary
container can seriously contaminate a freezer or refrigerator and its decontamination is a
tedious affair. When radioactive materials are being carried through a building both the
primary and double containers should be fitted with lids or an effective seal; it is also
good practice to add an absorbent material to the secondary container to absorb any
spillage of liquid.

25
The laboratory is the final level of containment. Equipment which has been used in an
area segregated for radioactive work should be monitored before removal and so should
people before they leave the laboratory.

Personal Protective Equipment

A laboratory coat must always be worn (and fastened) when working with open sources
of radioactive materials.

Gloves should be worn to protect hands from contamination if there is a significant risk.
Some glove materials are permeable to some labelled compounds and it may be
advisable on occasions to wear two pairs of gloves, possibly of different types; this is
recommended for handling radioiodines at activities used for labelling procedures.

To avoid contaminating equipment such as monitors, light switches or pens, either:

♦ Gloved hands and fingers should be checked by presenting

them to a monitor,
or
♦ A tissue should be used to touch the equipment and discarded
as solid radioactive waste.

When removing contaminated gloves care must be taken to avoid contaminating the
hands. One glove can be taken off by pulling it inside out and the same can then be done
with the second glove, this time by putting two fingers inside its cuff.

If gloves become contaminated, high doses to the hands could result from radiations
which penetrate the gloves. Transmission of high-energy βs or of X rays through the
gloves would be effectively complete. Gloves should be monitored frequently and
replaced if they are found to be contaminated.

Typical glove materials have a thickness of 15 mg.cm-2 and the transmission of the βs
from 14C or 35S would be less than 5%. The risk lower for these nuclides.

Miscellaneous

◊ There must be no operations such as eating, drinking, using mouth-operated pipettes

or licking labels.

◊ Nobody should work with an undressed cut below the wrist.

26
 Safe handling of 32P

32
P is a β emitter with a maximum energy of 1.7 MeV, which is among the highest
encountered in β decay.
86
The description below applies equally to Rb, which emits a β particle of Emax the same
86
as that of 32P. For Rb a γ ray is given off in 9% of the disintegrations and although the
dose from this needs to be considered; the β dose rates are more significant.

The range of 32P βs is 800 mgcm-2. The linear ranges in air and biological tissue are
approximately,

Air 6 metres

Tissue 8 mm

Significant proportions of the β spectrum are absorbed at much smaller thicknesses and
half the βs are absorbed by approximately 100 mgcm-2, corresponding to linear values of,

Air 80 cm

Tissue 1 mm

32
P labelled compounds are generally not volatile and the risk of internal irradiation
resulting from inhalation is small, provided that precautions are taken against inhaling
aerosols. Procedures such as centrifuging, blending or the use of syringes can produce
aerosols. For centrifugation, the use of capped centrifuge tubes usually provides
sufficient protection and this can be checked by monitoring the inside of the centrifuge
after each use. Other operations capable of producing aerosols of high activity can be
carried out in a fume cupboard.

Exposure resulting from ingestion of 32P compounds will not be a problem if basic rules
for radioactive laboratories are followed and backed by routine contamination
monitoring.

◊ The greatest risk in handling 32P is external irradiation of skin.

◊ The possibility of irradiation of the eyes should also be considered.

♦ The annual exposure limit for skin is 500 mSv.

♦ The corresponding exposure limit for eyes is 150 mSv.

27
The main aim of radiation protection in the use of 32P is therefore to keep external
irradiation of skin and eyes as far below these exposure limits as is reasonably practical.
This can be achieved by a combination of,

DISTANCE and SHIELDING

The rate of change of β dose rate with distance is high at distances close to a source.
There is a large decrease in dose rate when a simple handling tool is used instead of
fingers to pick up a container of 32P. The following plot of dose rate against distance for a
1 MBq source is an example.

100

90

80

70
milliSv per hour

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
cm

-1 -1
Note that the dose rates here are in mSv.h rather than μSv.h and that extension of the
-1
curve to 0.1 cm (1 millimetre) would give a dose rate of 10,000 mSv.h . This is the
order of dose rate experienced by fingers in contact with a tube containing the relatively
low activity of 1 MBq. In practice adsorption in the walls of a container will reduce the
level by up to ≈ 70% but the dose rates will still be very high.

Where the radioactive material does not fill its container it may be reasonable to hold it in
the hand at a position sufficiently far from the source to provide protection by distance.
This applies to tubes, flasks etc and also to containers such as pipettes and syringes,
many of which are of a design which keeps fingers at a distance from their contents or
which can be manually handled if they are not full:

28
 Finger
Finger

Not acceptable Acceptable

The protection produced by distance can be supplemented by shielding. This is usually

provided by perspex, 6 mm of which will completely absorb the βs from 32P. Perspex
shielding can take the form of screens (to protect body and eyes), of boxes or bored-out
blocks (to hold tubes and other containers) and of bored-out cylinders (to shield the
bodies of syringes or chromatography columns).

Commercial suppliers market a range of perspex shields. Most suppliers say that the
125
leaded perspex shields used for I should not be used for 32P because the lead content
would significantly increase the dose rate due to bremsstrahlung but for the activities
used in laboratories this is not a problem. The added expense of the leaded perspex
3
means that if only 2P is present the cheaper non-leaded perspex is appropriate. If leaded
125 32
perspex is present for use with I it can be used for P as well.

29
Procedures for opening and dispensing packages of 32P

The package should be placed in a Benchcote-lined tray behind a perspex screen.

Gloves must be worn.

A monitor should be accessible and switched on in readiness to monitor gloves, wipes

and equipment.
After the can has been opened the top layer of polystyrene packing should be removed
and monitored.. If it is contaminated it means that leakage of 32P has occurred in the
package in transit; in that case assistance should be sought from the Radiation
Protection Supervisor.
The lid of the outer container should be removed and monitored. The inner container can
then be removed using a handling tool and wiped with a tissue to test for leakage; the
tissue can be checked using the monitor.
The operations beyond this stage should be carried out with the vial in a suitable vial-
shield. The vial itself must be handled only with suitable handling tools.

◊ Gloves must be monitored frequently and replaced if they are

contaminated. Contaminated gloves will irradiate the skin at high
dose rates through the glove material.
◊ The vial should be held with one set of handling tools while its cap is
removed with another. A preferred alternative is to use a specially-
designed perspex container which acts both as a shield and as a secure
means of supporting the vial. Forceps can be used to bend upwards the
metal ring protecting a serum seal; if the cap and serum seal are to be
removed at this stage it should be appreciated that they will be
contaminated with 32P.
◊ If the 32P solution is to be extracted with a syringe its barrel must be
shielded by a bored-out cylinder of perspex unless it is of a design which
does not need to be handled by the barrel. The bremsstrahlung at the
surface of the cylindrical shield. is not a significant hazard for the
activities of 32P normally used in laboratories.
◊ If the 32P in a serum-capped vial is to be diluted before its removal a
needle should be placed in the serum cap to release pressure caused by
the addition of the diluting liquid. Syringe needles should be removed
slowly and carefully to minimise the spread, possibly by aerosol
formation, of contamination from the tip of the needle. The top of the vial
should be wipe-tested and if necessary decontaminated, with moist tissues
until it is clear of contamination.
◊ A significant activity of 32P will remain in needles and syringes and care
will be required in their treatment and disposal.

30
 Safe handling of 125I

I is an electron capture radionuclide. It also emits a γ ray but its energy is 35 keV,
125

comparable to the 28 keV of the most energetic X ray, and it does not require special
consideration.

The dose rates from an unshielded 1 MBq point source of 125I are:

cm μSv.h-1
10 3.5
20 0.87
30 0.38
40 0.22
50 0.15

Lead sheet a few millimetres thick, or typical commercially-available leaded-perspex,

will attenuate the X rays from 125I by a factor of more than 100.

The Annual limits on intake of 125I are 2 MBq by inhalation and 1 MBq by ingestion.
These are the lowest of those for nuclides commonly used in laboratories; this is
because iodine concentrates in the thyroid.

Normal precautions should prevent significant ingestion.

Inhalation is a greater risk than either ingestion or external irradiation. Even labelled
proteins produce volatile 125I.
Labelled molecules such as proteins can release radioiodine from solution by a
mechanism in which covalently-bound radioactive iodine atoms are converted to
radioactive iodide ion, probably in a process involving isotopic exchange, such as,

125 -
125
I + I- ⇔ I + I

where represents the protein molecule.

Then iodide ion is oxidised to I2,

4 I - + O2 + 4 H + ⇔ 2 I 2 + 2 H 2 O

The dissolved molecular iodine is in equilibrium with vapour phase molecular iodine ,

I 2(aqu) ⇔ I 2(vap) 3

The various equilibria move towards the removal of 125I from solution to the atmosphere
in the form of I2. The use a fume cupboard is therefore usually recommended for the
handling 125I in activities above certain levels. If the activity of 125I in use is less than ≈
10 MBq it is usually handled on an open bench.

31
At the levels involved in dispensing and labelling there is evidence that iodine-labelled
materials penetrate gloves. They can also be absorbed firmly on to skin. These are
125
probably the greatest risks of working with I. It is advisable to wear two pairs of
gloves in these situations.
125
I liquid waste held for storage presents a risk of contamination by volatilisation. This
can be reduced by preparing a solution of,

25g sodium thiosulphate and 2g sodium iodide

in 1 litre of 1M sodium hydroxide

to which waste is added as it arises.

Spillages of 125I may require special treatment, again because of the volatility problem.
They can be treated with a solution of 5% sodium thiosulphate to reduce the iodine
before decontamination by the usual methods.

Mini-Instruments contamination probes Types 42 or 44 are suitable for checking for

contamination due to 125I. The type 44 is particularly sensitive and can lead to
unnecessary alarm if this is not appreciated. Typical responses to 125I contamination, net
above the background count rates, are:

Monitor s-1 for 100 Bq.cm-2 s-1 for 100 Bq spot

42 60 100
44 400 350

Geiger probes are not sufficiently sensitive.

The response of many types of dose rate meter falls rapidly at photon energies below
about 50 keV. Suitably-calibrated contamination probes can give useful indications of
125
I dose rates. The type 44 is really too sensitive to be useful for this purpose and a
practical range of dose rates is covered by the type 42 and, for the higher dose rates, the
type E Geiger probe. Calibration plots for these monitors are available from the
University’s Radiation Protection Service.

Those who handle 10s of MBq amounts of 125I should check their thyroid within a few
hours of each occasion. This can be done with a suitable portable monitor such as a
Mini-Instruments Types 42 or 44.

32
 Some precautions to be taken
when dispensing radioactive materials

♦ The dispensing must be carried out in a fume cupboard if the radioactive material is
volatile or if there is a significant risk of inhaling an aerosol.

♦ Decisions on any necessary shielding must be made in advance.

♦ Gloves must be worn. It should be remembered that they may become contaminated
and may contaminate things which they touch. Also, heavily contaminated gloves
should be changed for fresh ones because they may cause external irradiation of
hands.

♦ The work should start with an empty lined tray or trays. At the end of the work all
contaminated equipment should be in the trays.

♦ A contamination monitor should be accessible with its probe in a position to allow

articles to be presented to it for monitoring without the need to touch the monitor with
a gloved hand.

♦ All apparatus which has been used to hold or dispense radioactive materials should be
labelled with radioactive warning tape. This should be removed when the apparatus
has been decontaminated.

♦ As accurate a record as possible should be made of the solid, liquid or gaseous

radioactive waste which requires disposal. Appropriate entries should be made in the
records of radioactive stock for the labelled compound which has been involved.
These records are needed for the overall records required by the Radioactive
Substances Act 1993.

♦ Sufficient time must be available to decontaminate apparatus in the trays and to

monitor the working area and personnel. Hands should be washed after the work even
if contamination was not detected.

♦ Containers of all radioactive substances must be labelled before putting them into a
store. The label should state the radionuclide, the activity and the date. Radioactive
warning tape should be fixed to the container.

Some of the above precautions are also relevant when smaller activities are being
handled on the bench.

33