Santos 2015 The Novice Disciplinary Insider Model - Editforpdf 24d8fp6

ELTWorldOnline.
com September 2015

http://blog.nus.edu.sg/eltwo Volume VII
The Novice Disciplinary Insider:

How Novices Can Write Research Papers Like Disciplinary Insiders
by Percival Santos
Dongbei University of Finance and Economics (Dalian, China)
Keywords: Expert Insider Prose, Discipline-Specific Writing, research paper, EAP
Abstract
EAP foundation programs should prepare students to write at least at the novice disciplinary
level by the time they leave the program. To do so, they must situate the writing process within
a given discipline. This paper proposes to teach research paper writing, a specific genre of
academic writing prevalent in many social sciences disciplines, according to a 4-phase process.
It adapts a novice disciplinary insider model wherein each phase corresponds with the kinds of
knowledge needed to achieve the writing expertise of the novice disciplinary insider. Phases 1
to 3 pertain to the cognitive, epistemological and behavioral aspects of quantitative research
methods (i.e., subject matter and discourse community knowledge) whereas phase 4 pertains
to the skills needed to produce the research paper (i.e. genre, writing process, and rhetorical
knowledge).
Introduction
Research papers or reports are a core genre in many academic contexts. They tend to be the
form of written assessment in both graduate and undergraduate academic writing (Samraj, 2004,
p. 6). Casanave and Hubbard (1992) have ranked graduate-level research papers, both brief and
long, in the top five common writing tasks in the humanities/social sciences and
science/technology departments. In addition, Bridgeman and Carlsons (1984, p. 260) study of
graduate and undergraduate writing noted that brief research papers are common across fields
such as civil engineering, electrical engineering, psychology, chemistry, and computer science.
Also, Hale et al. (1996) examined the writing assignments of graduate and undergraduate
students at U.S. universities and concluded that the library research paper was one of the most
commonly observed genres in the different disciplines studied.
Copyright 2015, ISSN 1793-8732 1

Percival Santos The Novice Disciplinary Insider
However the label research paper is not without its detractors. Larson (1982, p. 813), for
example, calls it a generic, cross-disciplinary term with no conceptual or substantive entity.
Similarly, Johns (1997) argues that undergraduates may not be clear as to the meaning of the
research paper because of the great variation in the tasks required under the label. In this paper
the label research paper will be used to refer to a social science paper written by
undergraduate students involving an element of primary data-collection and quantitative
analysis. This type of research paper requires that students identify a topic, formulate a research
question(s) and hypotheses, discuss secondary research in a relevant area, collect and interpret
data, and finally write it in accordance with accepted norms and conventions in the social
sciences.
This papers focus is on teaching research paper writing as embedded in a particular course:
quantitative research methods, which is taught as a compulsory subject in many social science
disciplines. It aims to teach this specific genre in this particular way as a solution to perceived
deficiencies in the existing ways of approaching writing in many EAP foundation programs in
the tertiary sector.
This paper will first discuss the inadequacies of some of the current dominant approaches to
teaching writing. It will then propose an alternative approach to teaching writing. Specifically,
it shall focus on research paper writing, a specific genre of academic writing prevalent in many
social sciences disciplines. It will adapt a novice disciplinary insider model to teaching research
paper writing according to a 4-phase process wherein each phase corresponds with the kinds
of knowledge needed to achieve the writing expertise of the novice disciplinary insider. Phases
1 to 3 pertain to the cognitive, epistemological and behavioral aspects of quantitative research
methods (i.e., subject matter and discourse community knowledge) whereas phase 4 pertains
to the skills needed to produce the research report (i.e. genre, writing process, and rhetorical
knowledge).
Approaches to Writing
Literacy education, or the practice of teaching students to be literate, is underpinned,
consciously or subconsciously, by particular ways of conceptualizing writing, and by particular
ways of conceptualizing how writing can be learned (Ivanic, 2004, p. 220). Academic literacy,
or the practice of teaching undergraduate students how to produce academic text such as essays,
ELTWorldOnline.com 2
papers, reports, dissertations, etc., is similarly informed by explicit or implicit theories and
approaches to the teaching and learning of writing.
Many undergraduates who speak English as a second or foreign language studying for a degree
in an English-speaking context will receive instruction in English for Academic Purposes
(EAP) programs. These programs will provide instruction in the four skills and will typically
emphasize the academic writing skill as the preeminent one. The effectiveness of a programs
writing instruction will depend in part on the particular approach it adopts towards the teaching
of academic literacy. An appreciation of how the dominant approaches and theories inform
how writing is taught in these programs is thus desirable.
One approach to writing has, at its core, the belief that writing is a unitary, context-free activity,
in which the same patterns and rules apply to all writing, independent of text type (p. 227).
This belief leads to a skills approach, which focuses on the autonomous linguistic skills of
correct handwriting, spelling, punctuation and sentence structure (Ibid.) This approach
employs methods, often in formulaic, prescriptive, and sequenced forms, to develop a series of
skills or strategies, heavily focused on rhetorical structures, grammar, reading comprehension,
and conventions.
However, the primacy of this knowledge in relation to other aspects of writing, the way in
which such knowledge is best developed, and the place of explicit teaching in this is highly
contested (p. 228). It is evident that EAP students will be expected to write acceptable academic
texts in the different disciplines and this requires much more than simply knowing how to
generate well-formed words, syntactic patterns which generate well-formed sentences (p.
227). Discipline-specific writing demands considerable content knowledge, cognitive abilities
and behavioral traits associated with that discipline.
Another approach to academic writing believes that good writing is not just correct writing,
but writing which is linguistically appropriate to the purpose it is serving (p. 233). This
approach seeks to explore ways of scaffolding students learning and using knowledge of
language to guide them towards a conscious understanding of target genres and the ways
language creates meanings in context (Hyland, 2003, p. 21). Thus, following this line of
reasoning, academic writing is largely a process of mastery of a limited number of genres,
whereby students are taught textual modeling, or how to write according to an essay template,
or a case study template, etc. This text-based, or genre-based approach positions texts at the
heart of the approach (de Chazal, 2014, p. 104). Thus, if a teacher wants to teach students how
to write a research paper, then research papers are used as materials.
However, genre-based approaches to teaching academic writing have had their share of
criticism. For instance, Badger and White (2000, p. 157) stated that it may undervalue skills
needed to produce a text, and see the learners as largely passive. In addition, Lin (2006, p.
228) has warned it can pose the inherent risk of becoming (and has indeed sometimes become)
overly product-focused in a prescriptive way, since the curriculum is usually defined in terms
of products text in various genres. The genre-based approach thus focuses too much on the
product of writing at the expense of the discipline-specific cognitive abilities and skills
inherent in the process. It is thus clear that a pure genre-based approach to teaching disciplinary
academic writing is, by itself, inadequate.
Yet another approach conceptualizes writing as primarily a process in the mind involving
both the processes and procedures for composing a text (Ivanic, 2004, p. 231). This contrasts
with the approach that conceptualizes writing as a product. This process approach sees
writing as a process of generating ideas, planning, drafting, various ways of providing and
working with feedback on drafts, revising and editing (Ibid.). It is driven by meaning, rather
than form, and sees feedback as central to the writing activity. Feedback on students written
work can come from their peers (other EAP students) and their EAP teachers (de Chazal, 2014,
p. 203).
But the process of writing can only be the means to an end: the point of learning and improving
the processes involved in writing is in order to improve the quality of the end result, not for
their own sake (Ivanic, 2004, p. 231.). The act of academic writing must embed the textual
aspects of writing within the mental and social aspects (p. 222). The creation of an academic
text must embed the process of writing within the conventions of thinking and behaving in a
given discipline.
The approaches described above conceptualize the practice of teaching writing as a

decontextualized activity, something separate from the process of thinking and conceptualizing
in a given discipline. They do not attempt to embed the process of writing within the ways of
thinking about an issue, conceptualizing, and doing, that are characteristic of particular
disciplines. They do not address the need to conceptualize writing as only one element, albeit
a crucial one, in a process of making knowledge claims within a particular discipline. Writing
involves more than words and language is only one of the resources that go into writing
(Canagarajah, 2013, p. 440). Subject teaching and knowledge must be embedded with writing
about knowledge so that students can see how their own opinions from within their subject
area (Perrin, 2014, p. 23). Disciplinary-specific writing demands considerable content
knowledge, cognitive abilities and behavioral traits associated with that discipline. Hyland
(2013, p. 241) asserts:
In most higher education contexts, however, students are not attending academic writing
courses in order to learn to write, or even to write in some abstractly academic way; they are
learning to write for purposes which lay outside the English class. For them, writing is a tool
they need in order to participate in their disciplines and to demonstrate their learning to readers
in those disciplines. Writing therefore contributes to learning in areas other than writing itself.
This paper will attempt to fill a gap in the literature by demonstrating how writing and subject
knowledge can be integrated into an EAP writing program. It will attempt to show how subject-
specific novice-level expertise can be combined with writing-process knowledge in an EAP
writing program. Specifically, it will explore how research paper writing can be embedded in
a particular course, that is, quantitative research methods, which is taught as a compulsory
subject in many social science disciplines.
This papers approach is based on two related notions of disciplinary expertise and
apprenticeship, or of getting novices to think, act, and write like disciplinary experts,
something not currently studied in the Second Language Writing, or EAP literature. This notion
seeks to explore what it means to be an expert in a given discipline. This broad question can be
broken down into several sub-questions:
1. What kinds of content, behavioral, and writing knowledge does an expert need in a
given discipline?
2. Does an expert have certain ways of thinking or doing that are implicit, and if so, can
they be made explicit for the novice?
3. Can these disciplinary moves be broken down into a sequence and taught to a novice?
4. How does a disciplinary expert make knowledge claims and how can the novice
reproduce them?
This paper will break down the process of social science research into its constituent parts and
will attempt to show how it can be taught in a 4-step sequence within a writing program. It is
intended as a possible alternative to the current ways of teaching writing.
Expert Insider Prose

College students will go through four phases of writing (Figure 1). They enter university with
non-academic writing skills in the first phase. The second one, which is generalized academic
writing, occurs when they take freshman composition courses. The third phase, novice
disciplinary writing, starts during the early phase in their major, usually in the second and third
years. And finally, they acquire expert insider writing skills as they take advanced major
courses in their senior year (Macdonald, 1994). These four phases of writing skill development
also apply to undergraduate EAP students doing a foundation year program with the intention
of pursuing a degree in an English-medium university.
1. Nonacademic writing
2. Generalized academic writing
3. Novice approximations of particular disciplinary ways of making knowledge
4. Expert insider prose
Figure 1: Macdonalds Four Stages in Students Development as Writers
This paper will argue that EAP foundation programs should prepare students to write at least
at the disciplinary novice level by the time they leave the program. For students to begin to
think and write like disciplinary novices and later on expert insiders, they must possess writing
expertise. In order to do so they must situate the writing process within a given discipline. A
disciplinary insider draws on different sources of knowledge; subject matter, genre, methods
of argument, kinds of evidence, ways of referencing other experts, rhetorical contexts and
audiences (Beaufort, 2007) to be able to produce texts acceptable within the discipline (Figure
2).
Genre
Knowledge
Subject Discourse
Matter Community
Knowledge Knowledge
Writing
Writing Rhetorical
Process
Expertise Knowledge
Knowledge
Figure 2: Beauforts Five Skill Sets of Writing Expertise
Some of the skills necessary to achieve writing expertise are already being taught in EAP
foundation programs, namely, genre, writing process, and rhetorical knowledge. However
subject matter and discourse community knowledge are normally only acquired once students
enter their chosen major. This paper proposes to teach research paper writing by focusing on
these latter kinds of knowledge.
The Research Paper

Research papers or reports are a core genre in many academic contexts, and they can be
subdivided into more specific genres such as research reports and law reports (de Chazal, 2014,
p. 193). Reports are characterized by their conventional structure, which broadly follows an
objective subjective pattern: methodology and an account of the research (more objective)
is followed by interpretation, evaluation and recommendations (more subjective) (p. 194).
Carter (2007) coined the term metadiscipline, an umbrella term meant to describe a group of
distinct disciplines with surprising similarities to each other in the kinds of disciplinary work
they do. He identified 4 of them: Problem-Solving, Empirical Enquiry, Interpretive/Theoretical,
and Performance. Bean (2011, p. 256-262) has created various templates for each one of
Carters metadisciplines. The second one, Empirical Enquiry, involves using disciplinary
knowledge and procedures to advance empirical understanding of the world and is the research
format usually employed in the physical and social sciences. It shall be the template (Appendix
1) employed by this paper to teach research paper writing in the social sciences.
What do social science research papers do? These papers describe social research. Some social
research merely describes the state of social affairs, meaning it asks what but not why. But
often it has an explanatory purpose-providing reasons for phenomena, in terms of causal
relationships. Why do some cities have higher unemployment rates than others? Why are some
people more prejudiced than others (Babbie, 2005, p. 22)?
Social research can broadly be classified into two kinds: qualitative and quantitative research.
Qualitative research usually emphasizes words rather than quantification in the collection and
analysis of data and attempts to understand the social world through an examination of the
interpretation of that world by its participants (Bryman, 2008, p. 366). The qualitative research
report is beyond the scope of this paper. Its principal focus is writing about quantitative research.
Quantitative research is the principal way of determining causal relationships between

phenomena. It is a research strategy that emphasizes quantification in the collection and
analysis of data (p. 22). In other words, it collects data that can be counted or measured, usually
numerical information, and subjects it to statistical analysis. It can be divided into 4 distinct
phases: research question, data collection, data analysis and research paper writing. The
proposed model for teaching EAP students research paper writing in the social sciences follows
this 4-part sequence (Figure 3) and it has been developed from several years of teaching
research methods and EAP academic writing at undergraduate level.
Research Survey Data Data Analysis Research Paper

Question Collection Writing
literature write survey level of

review questions significance Structural
formulate decide appropriate Template for
hypotheses response test (ANOVA, Empirical
determine categories T-test, Research
variables decide target regression, Chi- Report
population square)
decide sample
size
select sample
conduct survey
record data as
excel file
Figure 3: Four Phases of Quantitative Research
These phases correspond with the kinds of knowledge needed to achieve the writing expertise
that the expert writer possesses (Figure 4). Phases 1 to 3 pertain to the cognitive,
epistemological and behavioural aspects of quantitative research methods (i.e., subject matter
and discourse community knowledge) whereas phase 4 pertains to the skills needed to produce
the research report (i.e. genre, writing process, and rhetorical and knowledge).
Subject Matter and Genre, Writing Process,

Discourse Community and Rhetorical
Knowledge Knowledge
Research
Research
Paper
Question
Writing
Survey Data
Collection
Data Analysis
Figure 4. The Research Process and Forms of Knowledge
Subject Matter and Discourse Community Knowledge (Phases 1 to 3)

This paper will now illustrate the process of attaining writing expertise at the novice
disciplinary level by describing the research paper writing experiences of a group of
undergraduate students. It will focus on a group who researched the topic of body image. It
will show extracts of one specimen research paper belonging to a member of that group. The
course had the following characteristics:
12 students took a research methods course in the Fall Semester of 2013 and each one
submitted a research paper at the end of the course
they were asked to form small groups of 3 to 4
each group was asked to pick a topic, do a literature survey, formulate research
questions and hypotheses and collect and analyze data together
however, writing was to be done individually and each student had to hand in a
minimum 2,000-word quantitative research paper as the final assessment for the course
At the beginning of the semester the teacher led a discussion on what learning a discipline
meant, and on the nature of expertise in an area. This point is crucial because disciplinary
expertise is only partly about knowing the appropriate terminology, tools and methodology.
According to Hyland (2006, p. 38), learning a discipline implies:
learning to use language in disciplinarily approved ways. It involves learning a

specialized discourse for reading and writing for presenting orally, for reasoning and
problem solving, and for carrying out practical research activities (p. 38).
The teachers initial aim was to provide them with discourse community knowledge. For
Barton (1994, p. 57):
A discourse community is a group of people who have texts and practices in common,
whether it is a group of academics, or the readers of teenage magazines. In fact,
discourse community can refer to the people the text is aimed at; it can be the people
who read a text; or it can refer to the people who participate in a set of discourse
practices both by reading and writing (p. 57).
Belonging to a discipline implies learning to use language in disciplinarily approved ways and
becoming a member of a discourse community. Being a member of a discipline means knowing
how to pose questions, analyse evidence, apply theories, and produce arguments in
conversation with other members. With this in mind, the class had to read extensively on their
chosen topic in order to familiarize themselves with the sort of discourse community the
experts in the area belonged to. They were asked to answer the questions:
1. What are the most common topics or issues they talk about?
2. Are there any important debates or controversies in the discipline?
3. Are the experts in general agreement on the basic issues in their field, or are there major
areas of disagreement regarding the appropriate data, method, tools and theories, etc.?
4. What language do they use to make an argument, present data, support the argument,
etc.?
5. What kind of genre (lab report, essay, etc.) do they often use?
6. What kind of technical terms, or jargon frequently appear in the publications?
7. What citation style do the journals use (APA, Chicago, etc.)?
After the class had a discussion on the above points they were shown how to do a literature
review. The literature review is arguably the purest expression of a discourse/ disciplinary
community. To be members of a discipline, in particular to be consumers and producers of
knowledge of a discipline, students must be able to comprehend its fundamental role and
function.
The groups had to write a gap in knowledge literature review (Santos, 2014, p. 34). This kind
of literature review is common in the physical sciences and in some social sciences. It shows
what is known and not known about an empirical problem and aims to fill the gap through new
research (Figure 5):
1) Orientation or introduction
Issue x has been a prominent subject of much research.
Issue x has attracted a lot of attention in the field of y.
2) Previous studies
Author A was concerned with topic x. Several authors (D, E, F) addressed
problem y.
Authors A and B examined problem z.
Author A studied issue y with a view to accomplishing z.
Work by author A researched topic y.
3) Establishing a gap
Nevertheless, aspect x still needs to be addressed.
However, question x remains unanswered.
However, a solution to the issue of x still has not been found.
4) Gap to be filled
This paper will propose a solution to issue x.
This essay will address problem x by doing y.
Figure 5: Gap in Knowledge
This particular group of students interested in researching body image found several studies
indicating a strong relationship between race/ethnicity and body image, and a link between
gender and body image. The extract below (Extract 1) shows the first half of the specimen
research papers literature survey:
Extract 1: Literature Survey on Body Image and Nationality

Body image has been defined as body satisfaction with one's body (Feingold and
Mazella, 1998) and research has shown that ethnicity and race have an important effect
on it. For example, Caucasian American women have been shown to be less accepting
of their weight than African American women (Thompson et al., 1996; Abood and
Chandler, 1997; Wilfley et al., 1996). Also Caucasian American females are less
satisfied with their bodies than African American women (Abood and Chandler, 1997;
Wilfley et al., 1996; Fitzgibbon et al., 1997). Vaughan et al. (1981) has showed
Caucasian children placed a lower value on their bodies than African American children.
Also Caucasian American women have shown higher incidences of anorexia and
bulimia than African American women (Fitzgibbon et al., 1997). All these studies have
focused on issues of race and body image of people living in the United States but they
are limited to women and children.
They then established a gap and proposed to fill it (Extract 2):
Extract 2: The Gap in Nationality/Ethnicity Research

There are no similar studies comparing Caucasian and African American males with
regards to body image. Similarly there are no studies that have tried to explore the issue
on an international level. There is no research that attempts to find links between
different nationalities and body image. This study proposes to find a link between
nationality and body image.
The following extract (Extract 3) shows the second half of the literature survey:
Extract 3: Continuation of Literature Survey on Gender and Caring about How One is
Perceived
The question of the effect of gender on body image has been extensively researched. In
one study, Cash and Henry (1993) conducted a survey, which was distributed to over
803 women in the United States. Their study indicates that almost one-half of the
women surveyed had negative self-evaluations of their appearance and were worried
about becoming overweight. In another study by Feingold and Mazella (1998) that
conducted a meta-analysis of gender differences with body image and physical
attractiveness showed there has been a dramatic decrease in body image among women.
Rozin and Fallon (1988) examined cross-generation body image attitudes and have
indicated that daughters preferred a thinner ideal similar to their mothers. In addition,
girls valued their body parts less than boys valued their own body parts. Other findings
have shown similar results in adult men and women (Vaughn, Stabler, and Clance,
1981).
With regards to men and body image, Mintz and Betz (1986) argue that men have felt
pressured by culture to become muscular. Also Raudenbush and Zellner (1997) give
evidence that men have preferred a bigger physique. In addition, Rozin and Fallon
(1988) found that sons, similar to their fathers, preferred a heavier body ideal in a cross-
generation study of body image. The general population of men have preferred wide
shoulders, muscularity, and strength for their ideal body (Raudenbush and Zellner,
1997). Likewise, Abell and Richards (1996) argued that because men had a desire to be
bigger, this meant that they were more dissatisfied with their bodies than women. Miller,
Coffman and Linke (1980) found that men have seen themselves as underweight,
whereas women have seen themselves as overweight.
They then established a second gap and proposed to fill it (Extract 4):
Extract 4: The Gap in Gender Research

However, the findings are not definitive. The studies can be grouped according to those
that show that women are not confident or satisfied in general, those that show men not
to be confident or satisfied in general, those that show women to be less confident or
satisfied than men, and lastly those that show the opposite. The body of previous
research is inconclusive at best and contradictory at worst. Furthermore, the relationship
between gender and the degree to which a person cares about how other people perceive
their appearance has not been studied. This study proposes to find a link between gender
and the extent that people care about how they are perceived.
Subject matter knowledge is essential to the task of writing a social science research paper.
They will need to know what kind of evidence the discipline often employs, how it is collected,
what methods and tools are necessary, how the data are analyzed, and how knowledge claims
are made.
From the sources in the literature review the group decided to ask two related research
questions and formulated testable hypotheses for each one (Extract 5):
Extract 5: Research Questions and Hypotheses

1. Is there a difference among various nationalities regarding body image?
Null Hypothesis: There is no difference between nationalities with regard to body
image
Research Hypothesis: There is a difference between nationalities with regard to
body image
2. Is there a gender difference regarding the degree to which someone cares about how
he is perceived by others?
Null Hypothesis: There is no gender difference regarding the degree to which
someone cares about how he is perceived by others
Research Hypothesis: There is a gender difference regarding the degree to which
someone cares about how he is perceived by others
They then determined that there were to be four principal variables in their study: nationality,
gender, satisfaction with ones own appearance, and caring about how others perceive ones
own appearance. For the first research question they wanted to investigate whether body image,
or the degree of satisfaction with ones appearance, varied among different nationalities. Thus
nationality is the cause, or independent variable, and degree of satisfaction with appearance is
the effect, or dependent variable. For the second research question they wanted to know
whether there was a gender difference regarding the extent to which people cared how they
appeared to others. Thus gender is the causal or independent variable, and caring how one
appears to others is the effect, or dependent variable (Figure 6).
Nationality Gender
Caring
Body about how
one is
Image perceived
Figure 6: Two Research Questions
The body image team has up to now accomplished the first phase of social research which
usually starts with the researcher finding a suitable topic and reading as much as s/he can on it.
S/he does a literature review, consulting published books and articles that elaborate on the topic.
S/he will then formulate a theory about the phenomenon or how things to do with it are causally
related, or simply make use of one that already exists. The researcher then will set out to test
it. This usually means proving or disproving it in the form of a testable hypothesis. Hypothesis
testing establishes a causal relationship between two things. It says that if one thing occurs, or
is present, or is true, then another thing will also occur, or be true, or be present. It is a process
in which scientists evaluate systematically collected evidence to make a judgment of whether
the evidence favors their hypothesis or favors the corresponding null hypothesis (Kellstedt
and Whitten, 2013, p. 4).
Turning a theory into a testable hypothesis involves breaking the former down into a few
abstract concepts, then working out what kind of relationship, preferably a causal one, exists
between them. The next step is to work out how these abstract concepts can be quantified or
measured. Quantifying a concept implies transforming it into a numerical value, known as a
variable, which can increase or decrease. The concept/variable that is suspected of being the
cause of the phenomenon is called the independent variable, and the one that is suspected of
being affected is the dependent variable. The latter is the phenomenon that the investigators
are attempting to explain. It is vitally important that the chosen variables are valid, that is, they
really embody or can stand in for the concepts they are supposed to represent.
For the second phase of the project the body image investigators needed to choose the kind
of data they would need to test their hypotheses and they used a survey format. That meant
they would have to create a survey questionnaire and utilize the responses to the survey
questions as raw data for their research purposes. A comprehensive description of Phase 2
(Survey Data Collection) falls outside the scope of this paper. It will not be covered in detail
due to constraints of word-length.
The group proceeded to write their own questionnaire. This groups questionnaire consisted of
a total of nineteen questions, each one with a limited range of answers. They had to ensure that
the data their questionnaire would yield would be able to test the hypotheses so they included
four questions to that effect. The extract below (Extract 6) features the first part of their survey,
which contains all of the four variables they are testing:
Extract 6: Research Method Questionnaire

1. What is your age? _______________
2. What is your nationality? ___________________
3. What is your year in school? (Circle one)
Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior 5th Year 6th Year
4. What is your gender? (Circle one)
Male Female
5. How satisfied are you with your physical appearance? (Circle one)
Very Unsatisfied Unsatisfied Somewhat Satisfied Satisfied Very Satisfied
6. How much do you care about how other people perceive of your appearance? (Circle
one)
Not at all Not very much Moderately A little A lot
Thus respondents answers to questions 2 and 5 would constitute their independent and
dependent variables for the first hypothesis. Their answers to questions 4 and 6 would
constitute their independent and dependent variables for the second one. The groups target
population was the entire student body of 800 at Akita International University and their sample
consisted of the 80 students who they approached in order to fill in the questionnaire. Finally,
once the group had retrieved the surveys they then entered the raw data in an Excel spreadsheet.
The body image researchers have now completed phase 2, which involves collecting data that
can be expressed in numerical form so that it can help them test their hypotheses. Once they
had collected all the questionnaires they then proceeded to transfer the raw numerical data onto
the spreadsheet software that will allow him to subject them to statistical analysis.
The first step in statistical analysis is to visually represent the data in such a way that certain
patterns are intelligible. This usually takes the form of pie charts, bar graphs as well as other
graphs. The specimen research paper extracts below visually depicts the respondents
nationalities (Extract 7), gender (Extract 8), year of study (Extract 9), body image (Extract 10),
relationship between body image and having a boy/girlfriend (Extract 11), and the relationship
between time spent grooming and body image (Extract 12):
Japanese respondents constituted the majority (Extract 7).
Extract 7: Nationality of Respondents
50
0
Female
Male
There were slightly more males (44) than females (36) (Extract 8).
Extract 8: Male and Female Respondents
Male
Female
Sophomores constituted one-third of all respondents (Extract 9).
Extract 9: Respondents Year of Study
6th Year
5th Year
Senior
Junior
Sophomore
Freshman
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
More than half of respondents (44) were somewhat satisfied with their body image (Extract
10).
Extract 10: Body Image Scale
50
40
30
20
10
0
Very Unsatisfied Somewhat Satisfied Very
Unsatisfied Satisfied Satisfied
Respondents answers to Q6 (Extract 11) tended to cluster around the middle values not very
much (18), moderately (26), a little (23).
Extract 11. Degree of caring about how they are perceived
30
20
10
0
Not at all
Not very much
Moderately
A little
A lot
There seems to be a negative correlation between body image and time spent grooming. The
ones with the highest scores for body images tended to spend less time grooming themselves
(Extract 12).
Extract 12. Time Spent Grooming and Body Image

50
40 Very Satisfied
30 Satisfied
20 Somewhat Satisfied
10 Unsatisfied
0 Very Unsatisfied
0-15 15-30 30-45 45-60 More than
Minutes Minutes Minutes Minutes an hour
The body image team was now ready to analyze the raw survey data. They needed to know
how to use ANOVA to compute, analyze and interpret the f-value for the data on the first
research question as well as how to use the t-test to compute, analyze and interpret the t-value
for the data on the second research question. They were asked to read and discuss chapters 11
and 13 of Statistics for People Who (Think They) Hate Statistics (Salkind, 2011), a bestselling
introductory textbook on basic statistics. The class also practiced computing the procedures by
answering the practice questions at the end of the chapters (using the excel data sets
downloaded from the publishers website). As the book uses the SPSS (not Excel) statistical
program the class also read the relevant chapters of Excel Statistics: A Quick Guide (Salkind,
2010), which shows how to utilize Microsoft Excel 2010 for basic operations.
The group had determined that the level of significance of the study, or p-level, was 5% or 0.05
and that the appropriate statistical functions needed to test their hypotheses were the t-test for
Independent Samples and ANOVA. Single factor ANOVA is used to determine if there is a
significant difference between three or more groups. They subjected the data from questions 2
and 5 of the 80 respondents to that procedure because they wanted to find out whether there
was a significant difference between nationalities regarding their level of satisfaction with their
appearance. In addition, they subjected the data from questions 4 and 6 to a t-test procedure.
The t-test assesses whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each other.
So they wanted to see whether there was a significant difference between males and females
regarding how much they cared about how they were perceived. Students were then shown
how to present statistical results (Figure 7):
1) Statement of Purpose
According to the data obtained in the (ANOVA/t-Test/etc.) for (purpose)
To determine if there was a significant difference between.(ANOVA/t-Test/etc.)
procedure was conducted.
2) Positive Result
The results revealed there was a statistically significant difference between
The results indicated significant differences between
The data showed a significant difference between
or Negative result
The results revealed no significant differences between
The results indicated no significant differences between
The data showed no significant differences between
3) Elaboration of Result
The obtained value was
The critical value was
4) Interpretation of negative result
As the obtained value is not greater than the critical value, then (it can be said that)
there is no significant difference
or, Interpretation of positive result
As the obtained value is greater than the critical value, then (it can be concluded that)
there is a significant difference
5) Maintaining the Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis will be kept
The alternative hypothesis is rejected
or, Rejecting the Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis is rejected
The alternative hypothesis is accepted
Figure 7: Presenting Statistical Results
The extract (Extract 13) below from the specimen research paper shows the results:
Extract 13: Calculating ANOVA and t-Test

According to the data obtained in the single factor ANOVA for nationality differences
with regards to body image, the results showed no significant differences between the
students from different countries. The obtained value given was 2.114277 and the
critical value was 2.22559. Because the obtained value was smaller than the critical
value it can be said that there is no significant difference and the author will keep the
null hypothesis.
ANOVA
Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between Groups 8.283333 6 1.380556 2.114277 0.06175 2.22559
Within Groups 47.66667 73 0.652968
Total 55 79
Also, the t-test for Independent Samples measuring any gender difference regarding caring
about how one is perceived shows that there was no significant difference between males and
females. As the author had assumed that females would care more than males, she decided to
use a one-tailed test. The obtained value given was 0.026535 and the one-tailed critical value
was 1.664625. Again the author will keep the null hypothesis as the obtained value was lower
than the critical value.
t-test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances
Gender differences regarding Satisfaction in appearance
Variable 1 Variable 2
Mean 2.977273 2.972222
Variance 0.627378 0.827778
Observations 44 36
Pooled Variance 0.717301
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0
Df 78
t Stat 0.026535
P(T<=t) one-tail 0.489449
t Critical one-tail 1.664625
P(T<=t) two-tail 0.978899
t Critical two-tail 1.990847
The body image group has now completed phase 3, or data analysis. Data analysis refers to
the practical application of statistical procedures to the analysis of social science data. It
involves knowing which techniques apply to which sort of data or which can best deal with
certain kinds of problems in analysis (Rose & Sullivan, 1996, p. 4). There are many statistical
procedures but this course trained students to use the ones that determine the strength of
relationships between variables; the t-Test, ANOVA, correlation, linear regression and Chi-
square. Put simply, the collected data set are subject to a given procedure using the Microsoft
Excel program and the computer is instructed to compute for a relevant test value or score
(called obtained value). The researcher then compares it against another value (called critical
value). He then compares the obtained and critical values and makes a decision:
If obtained value > critical value, then he rejects the null hypothesis
(and accepts the research hypothesis)
If obtained value < critical value, he then retains the null hypothesis
The p-value, is the degree of risk you are willing to take that you will reject a null hypothesis
when it is actually true (Salkind, 2011, p. 166). It is a numerical value ranging from 0 to 1.
For Kellstedt and Whitten (2013, p. 147) it is:
The probability that we would see the relationship that we are finding because of
random chance. Put another way, the p-value tells us the probability that we would see
the observed relationship between the two variables in our sample data if there were
truly no relationship between them in the unobserved population.
Statistically speaking, the lower the p-value the better. However, a level of significance of 5%
or 0.05 is the one used by most social scientists. Any observed relationship between variables
at p = 0.05 means that there is a 5% chance that it is due to chance. A p-value of 0.05 is generally
considered significant. Thus, when the obtained value of a given data set is greater than the
critical value, and in addition the p-value is at least 0.05, it means the purported causal
relationship between the two variables has a 95% or greater probability of being valid and the
relationship is considered significant.
Genre, Writing Process and Rhetorical Knowledge (Phase 4)

Once the statistical analyses have been completed the findings need to be interpreted. At this
stage they will need to learn genre and rhetorical knowledge in order to present the results and
discuss them in a persuasive manner. Rhetorical knowledge is really about the writers
awareness of the audience and purpose of the intended text. For Bean (2011, p. 40) what sets
expert writers apart from novice ones is that the former think about the audience early in the
writing process. Students discussed the following questions:
1. Who is the reader(s)?

2. What is h/er level of expertise on the topic?
3. What does s/he know about the topic?
4. What is their level of openness to it?
5. How do I want to change their h/er views on it?
The students agreed that the reader would be a relatively sophisticated and intelligent college
student who was relatively nave or uninformed, so s/he was going to need some background
information on the topic. They also agree s/he would be relatively open to changing their minds
so long as the paper had done a sufficiently rigorous job of framing the question, collecting
data, analyzing it and arguing the case.
They now needed genre knowledge in order to frame the discussion. The research paper genre
has been explored in a previous section (see page 8). This section will focus on the discussion
section of the research paper. This is the place where findings are analyzed, and possible
reasons or explanations are given for them. This is also the place where the writer articulates
for the readers benefit the significance and possible implications of the research. It is important
for the researcher to stay very close to the data. This means s/he must be able to point to the
specific data that allow those claims. Sometimes students take leaps of faith with their data
and make claims that are unwarranted by their actual data (Heppner and Heppner, 2009, p.
249). The discussion section of the research paper should try to do the following:
1) Give possible reasons why there is a positive finding (independent variable), or give
possible reasons why there is a negative finding (possible reasons are flaws in the
research procedure, wrong choice of statistical test, or inappropriateness of previous
research)
2) Position results within the larger literature of the area and discuss how it supports,
contradicts, or extends that scholarship
3) Discuss the implications of the findings for future research
The students were given the three points above to think about for homework and they discussed
them the next lesson. After the class discussion on how to interpret results, students were shown
how to write it (Figure 8):
1) Restatement of Main Findings

The main findings of this study include
Our research shows
2) Explanation of Positive Results
It appears that (independent variable) affects (dependent variable) because
The results of the main analysis suggests that
The findings may indicate
One possible explanation for this finding is that
or, Explanation of Negative Results
It appears that (independent variable) has no effect on (dependent variable) because
The absence of any significant difference may indicate
The failure of this study to find any significant differences between the variables may
be attributed to
3) Relationship of Results to Previous Theory or Research
Most of the studies only.
None compared in general.
The studies were contradictory.

4) Errors
Sampling
The ratio of A did not correspond to B.
The sample was unrepresentative
The sample was not random
The sample size was too small
Method
There was an insufficient number of participants
The method of recruitment of informants was flawed
Figure 8: Interpreting the Results
The extract below (Extract 14) features the students interpretation of the findings:
Extract 14: Discussion

The research showed that there is no significant difference among nationalities
regarding body image. The obtained value of 2.114277 was insufficient to prove the
researchers first hypothesis. In addition the research also showed that there is no
significant gender difference with regards to caring about how ones physical
appearance is perceived by others. The obtained value of 0.026535 was insufficient to
prove the researchers second hypothesis.
The failure of this study to find any significant differences between the variables may
be attributed to several factors- non-relevance of previous research as well as possible
shortcomings of the research design and execution:
Non-relevance of previous research- At first glance the studies pointed to a strong

relationship between race and body image as well as gender and body image. However,
a closer examination of the findings shows that taken as a whole, the studies could not
give conclusive proof that nationality/ethnicity was a factor in body image. Most of the
studies compared Caucasian and African American women only. None compared
Caucasians and African Americans in general. Similarly the studies pointing to a strong
relationship between gender and body image were contradictory. Thus the previous
research could not establish a definitive link between the variables in this study.
Not a representative sample- The ratio of the respondents nationalities did not
correspond to the actual makeup of the student body. There was a high ratio of Japanese
students relative to the overall student population responding to the survey. There was
only one respondent each from Korea and Australia, New Zealand, although their actual
numbers were substantially greater. This could have made the results invalid.
Flaws in data-collection method- As the surveys were given out personally by the
researchers, there could be a chance that a large number of respondents were friends of
the investigators. It is possible the respondents might have not answered what they truly
thought, worrying that the researchers might see their answers.
A sample research paper from a past course was given to the class as well as Beans Structural
Template for Empirical Research Report (Appendix 1). The latter will assist them with phase
4 of the research process. In this phase, each student had to work individually to write the report.
The class read the sample research paper for gist and they then identified the elements
according to Beans template. They were then asked to write an introduction containing the
elements shown in the template. The extract below (Extract 15) is from the specimen research
paper:
Extract 15: The Introduction

This research report will investigate two related issues. First is the extent to which
nationality can affect body image. Second is the degree to which a person cares about
how other people perceive their appearance is affected by gender. This author is an
undergraduate student at Akita International University, in Akita, Japan, and there is a
wide range of nationalities represented here. Because of this one is able to encounter
different cultures and perspectives from variety of students. One of the biggest
differences the author noticed throughout her school life here is the way Japanese and
international students present themselves. It seems that international students,
especially western students have more self-satisfaction with their appearance and their
characteristics than Japanese students do. Often times the author would hear female
Japanese students talking about how fat they think they are and how they have to lose
weight. Whenever the author talked about these things with international friends, they
always come to a conclusion that the way one is right now is the best one can possibly
be. Also, it seems like female students care more about their physical appearance than
male students. From these two aspects, the researcher wanted to know if there is a
difference between nationalities regarding satisfaction with physical appearance, and
also a difference in gender and caring about how others perceive ones appearance.
At this point students need to put into practice a different set of skills and knowledge in order
to complete the paper. Writing process knowledge involves the skills of drafting, revising,
editing, and proofreading that are necessary for a well-polished text. The drafting process is
described below:
they wrote a draft focusing on the results and discussion sections

the instructor read and suggested revisions to it
they then wrote another draft and included the other sections of the paper; title page,
abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, references, appendix
the instructor read the second draft and suggested revisions for the final report
Conclusion
This paper has argued that EAP foundation programs should prepare students to write at least
at the novice disciplinary insider level by the time they leave the program. They must possess
writing expertise. They must situate the writing process within a given discipline. A novice
disciplinary insider draws on different sources of knowledge; subject matter, genre, methods
of argument, kinds of evidence, ways of referencing other experts, rhetorical contexts and
audiences. This paper aimed to teach research paper writing, a specific genre of academic
writing prevalent in many social sciences disciplines, by focusing on these latter kinds of
knowledge.
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Appendix 1:
Structural Template for Empirical Research Report (APA Style)
Title Page
Gives title of paper and authors name; provides a running head that will subsequently
appear before the page number in the upper right-hand corner
Follows format of an APA title page and body of research report (see current APA
manual)
Abstract
Provides one-paragraph summary of whole paper (problem, methods, major findings,
significance of study)
Introduction
Explains the problem to be investigated
Show importance of problem
Reviews previous studies examining the same problem (a literature review) and point to
conflicts in these studies or to unknowns meriting further investigation
Poses the determinate research questions(s) to be investigated
Presents the researchers hypothesis
Method
Describes how the study was done (enabling future researchers to replicate the study
exactly
Often has subheadings such as participants, materials, and procedure
Often provides operative definitions of key concepts in the problem/hypothesis
Results
Presents the researchers findings or results
Often displays the findings in figures, charts, or graphs as well as describing them in
words
Usually does not present raw data or behind-the-scenes mathematics; data focuses on
composite results
Presents statistical analysis of data to show confidence levels and other advanced
statistical implications or meanings
Discussion
Presents researchers analysis of the results
Interprets and evaluates the collected data in terms of the original research question and
hypothesis
Speculates on causes and consequences of the findings
Shows applications and practical or theoretical significance of the study
Usually includes a section pointing out limitations and possible flaws in the study and
suggests directions for future research
References
Presents a bibliographic listing of cited sources
Follows APA formant (see current APA manual)
Appendices
Provides a place to include questionnaires or other materials used in study
About the author

Percival Santos is Assistant Professor at the Center for Academic English Studies, Global
Institute for Management and Economics (GIME), a faculty of Dongbei University of Finance
and Economics, Dalian, China. He holds a doctorate from the London School of Economics, a
PGCE from Cambridge University and the CELTA.

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com September 2015

The Novice Disciplinary Insider:

Keywords: Expert Insider Prose, Discipline-Specific Writing, research paper, EAP

Copyright 2015, ISSN 1793-8732 1

The approaches described above conceptualize the practice of teaching writing as a

Expert Insider Prose

Figure 2: Beauforts Five Skill Sets of Writing Expertise

The Research Paper

Quantitative research is the principal way of determining causal relationships between

Research Survey Data Data Analysis Research Paper

literature write survey level of

Figure 3: Four Phases of Quantitative Research

Subject Matter and Genre, Writing Process,

Figure 4. The Research Process and Forms of Knowledge

Subject Matter and Discourse Community Knowledge (Phases 1 to 3)

learning to use language in disciplinarily approved ways. It involves learning a

Extract 1: Literature Survey on Body Image and Nationality

They then established a gap and proposed to fill it (Extract 2):

Extract 2: The Gap in Nationality/Ethnicity Research

Extract 4: The Gap in Gender Research

Extract 5: Research Questions and Hypotheses

Figure 6: Two Research Questions

Extract 6: Research Method Questionnaire

Japanese respondents constituted the majority (Extract 7).

Extract 7: Nationality of Respondents

Extract 8: Male and Female Respondents

Sophomores constituted one-third of all respondents (Extract 9).

Extract 9: Respondents Year of Study

Extract 10: Body Image Scale

Extract 11. Degree of caring about how they are perceived

Extract 12. Time Spent Grooming and Body Image

5) Maintaining the Null Hypothesis

Extract 13: Calculating ANOVA and t-Test

Genre, Writing Process and Rhetorical Knowledge (Phase 4)

1. Who is the reader(s)?

1) Restatement of Main Findings

The studies were contradictory.

Extract 14: Discussion

Non-relevance of previous research- At first glance the studies pointed to a strong

Extract 15: The Introduction

they wrote a draft focusing on the results and discussion sections

About the author

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