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Las leyes de la termodinmica, como todas las leyes cientficas, consisten en resmenes
concisos de numerosas observaciones experimentales. Sin embargo, las leyes de la
termodinmica difieren de la mayora de las otras leyes cientficas en que las leyes de la
termodinmica se expresan generalmente en trminos de la imposibilidad de alcanzar
ciertos tipos de resultados; Es decir, las lminas termodinmicas nos dicen lo que no se
puede lograr en el mbito de los tranferimientos de energa, no importa lo ingeniosos que
seamos de lo duro que lo intentamos. Una situacin similar se encuentra en la Teora
Especial de Relatividad, en la que se afirma que la velocidad de la luz no puede exceder un
cierto valor lmite (alrededor de 3,00 x 10 ^ 8 metros por segundo)
En efecto, la dinmica teodinmica nos dice que es una completa prdida de tiempo tratar
de vencer las leyes de la termodinmica. Innumerables intentos han sido hechos para evitar
las leyes de la termodinmica, pero ninguno de estos intentos ha tenido xito. Las leyes de
los termodinmicos no permiten excepciones. El descubrimiento de una sola excepcin a
una ley termodinmica conducira a un colapso de los fundamentos de la termodinmica y,
a su vez, requerira una reevaluacin cientfica de gran alcance de la naturaleza. Una
evaluacin de los fundamentos de la termodinmica llev a Albert Einstein a la siguiente
conclusin:
Primera ley
Es imposible construir un dispositivo que funcione de manera cclica y realice trabajos sin
la entrada de energa al dispositivo.
Segunda ley:
Tercera ley:
Primera ley
Una mquina de movimiento perpetuo del primer tipo es una mquina que puede producir
energa como trabajo continuo sin necesidad de ninguna entrada de energa a la mquina.
Segunda ley
Una mquina de movimiento perpetuo del segundo tipo es una mquina que puede
convertir continuamente toda la energa consumida como calor en trabajo.
Dicho en trminos de las funciones termodinmicas energa, entrpy y temperatura, las leyes
de la termodinmica para cualquier proceso real (es decir no hipottico) son las siguientes.
Primera ley
Segunda ley
Tercera ley
Si este libro es su primer encuentro serio con las leyes de la termodinmica, entonces las
declaraciones de las leyes de la termodinmica en la seccin 1-2 probablemente parecen
crpticas. No hay motivo para alarmarse. Los conceptos incorporados en las leyes se
discuten a fondo en los prximos tres captulos. En esta coyuntura es suficiente para volver
a leer las declaraciones de las leyes varias veces, pensar en su significado, y luego tomar
nota de los puntos donde necesita clarificacin y amplificacin. La termodinmica es una
ciencia que en el primer encuentro parece inusual. La naturaleza "inusual" de la
termodinmica surge del hecho de que los fundamentos de la termodinmica clsica son
independientes de la teora molecular de la materia. El punto de vista clsico de la
termodinmica es macroscpico y fenomenolgico, a diferencia de lo microscpico
(molecular) y mecanicista.
La naturaleza independiente del modelo o la naturaleza abstracta de la termodinmica
clsica es una consecuencia directa de la declaracin de las leyes en trminos muy
generales.
1.4 Las leyes de la termodinmica rigen la respuesta de los equilibrios qumicos a los
cambios de temperatura, presin y composicin
2. Nos permite descartar en trminos termodinmicos algunos procesos qumicos que, bajo
las condiciones dadas, podran ser considerados como posibles.
3. Nos proporciona las ecuaciones termodinmicas generales que nos permiten predecir
cuantitativamente el efecto de un cambio en la temperatura, la presin o la composicin en
un equilibrio de reaccin.
4. Nos proporciona las ecuaciones termodinmicas generales que nos permiten convertir
datos termodinmicos en una forma en otra forma que es ms til para el problema en
cuestin (por ejemplo, la conversin de datos para el cambio de energa y el cambio de
entropa de una reaccin qumica En una constante de equilibrio para la reaccin o la
conversin de una constante de equilibrio y datos de concentracin para una reaccin en
una tensin de clula electroqumica)
Muchos otros ejemplos de la utilidad de la termodinmica qumica se describirn en los
captulos 6 a 14, pero los ejemplos anteriores son suficientes para determinar la importancia
de la termodinmica qumica en el estudio de los equilibrios de la reaccin qumica.
Resultar til para su estudio de la termodinmica qumica reconocer que usted ya posee un
conocimiento ms que pasajero con las leyes y principios de la termodinmica qumica, que
se obtuvo en su qumica introductoria y couses de fsica. Adems, las leyes de la
termodinmica tienen una aplicacin tan extendida a nuestra vida cotidiana que todas las
restricciones que las leyes imponen a los esfuerzos humanos. Fue notado por P.W.
Bridman, un gran termodinmico experimental, que las leyes de la termodinmica
transmiten un sentido ms fuerte de sus orgenes humanos que otras leyes de la ciencia.
Debe admitirse, creo yo, que las leyes de la termodinmica tienen una sensacin diferente
de la mayora de las otras leyes de la fsica. Hay algo ms palpablemente verbal sobre ellos:
ellos huelen ms su origen humano. El motivo gua es extrao para la mayora de la fsica:
es decir, una capitalizacin del fracaso universal de los seres humanos para construir
perpetaul mquinas de movimiento de la primera o la segunda clase. Por qu deberamos
esperar que la naturaleza se interese positivamente o negativamente en los propsitos de los
seres humanos, en particular los propsitos de un tinte tan incalculablemente econmico?
En la actualidad, Estados Unidos produce cerca del 80% de sus necesidades energticas
anuales; El 20% de dficit est constituido en su mayor parte por el petrleo importado. El
petrleo suministra cerca del 48% del suministro total de energa de los Estados Unidos
(cuadro 1-1), y se importa aproximadamente el 43% del petrleo utilizado en los Estados
Unidos.
A 32 dlares por barril, el costo anual del petrleo importado por los Estados Unidos es de
86 mil millones de dlares. Las principales maneras en que se utiliza la energa en los
Estados Unidos se muestran en la Tabla 1-2. Cabe destacar que las principales reas de uso
de energa son la industria (35%) de transporte (22%) y la calefaccin espacial (18%).
the purpose and scope of thermodynamics
the fascination of a growing science lies in the work of the pioneers at the very borderland
of the unknown, but to reach this frontier one must pass over well travelled roads; of these
one of the safest and surest is the broad highway of themodynamics.
thermodynamics is the science of the utilization and conversion of energy. the laws of
thermodynamics are formulated in terms of completely general restrictions on macroscopic
(i.e. matter in bulk) energy transfers in nature. No one has ever produced a device that
operates in violation of any of the laws of thermodynamics. If such a device were produced,
then modern civilization would be profoundly changed. The evolution of modern
civilization was made possible by increases in the quality and energy utilization.
The laws of thermodynamics, like all scientific laws, consist of concise summaries of
numerous experimental observations. However, the laws of thermodynamics differ from
most other scientific laws in that the thermodynamics laws usually are stated in terms of the
impossibility of achieving certain types of results; that is, the thermodynamic laes tell us
what cannot be accomplished in the realm of energy tranfers, no matter how ingenious we
are of how hard we try. A similar situation is found in the Special Theory of Relativity,
wherein it is asserted that the velocity of light cannot exceed a certain limiting value (about
3.00 x 10^8 meters per second)
In effect, themodynamics tells us that it is a complete waste of time to try to beat the laws
of thermodynamics. Innumerable attempts have been made to bypass the laws of
termodynamics, but no a single such attempt has succeeded. the laws of thermodynamcs
permit no exceprions. The discovery of even a single exception to a thermodynamic law
would lead to a collapse of the foundations of thermodynamics and would, in turn,
necessitate a far-reaching scientific reassessment of nature. An assessment of the
foundations of thermodynamics led Albert Einstein to the following conclusion:
Thermodynamics is the only sciense about which I am firmly convinced that, within the
famework of the applicability of its basic principles, it will never be overthrown.
Stated in terms of the operation of machines, the laws of termodynamics are as follows:
first law:
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cyclical manner and performs work
without the input of energy to the device.
Second law:
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cyclical manner and takes in energy
as heat from a high-temperature reservoir and performs work without, in some part of the
cycle, discharging energy as heat to a low-temperature reservoir. In other words, all heat
engines require a temperature difference in order to operate.
An alternative statement of the second law in terms of the operation of machines is: It is
impossible to construct a device that can transfer energy as heat from a low-temperature
reservoir to a reservoir at a higher temperature without the input of energy as work. (you
have to pay the power company to run your refigerator.)
Third law:
The first two laws of termodynamics sometimes are expressed in terms of the operation of
perpetual machines.
first law
A perpetual motion machine of the first kind is a machine that can output energy as work
continuously without the need for any input of energy to the machine.
Second law
A perpetual motion machine of the second kind is a machine that can continuously convert
all the energy taken in as heat into work.
Stated in terms of the thermodynamics functions energy, entrpy and temperature, the laws
of termodynamics for any actual (i.e. nonhypothetical) process are as follows.
first law
Second law
third law
If this book is your first serious encounter with the laws of termodynamics, then the
statements of the laws of termodynamics in Section 1-2 probably appear cryptic.There is no
cause for alarm. The concepts embodied in the laws are discussed thoroughly in the next
three chapters. At this juncture itis sufficient to reread the statements of the laws several
times, think about their significance, and then note the points where you need clarification
and amplification. Termodynamics is a science that on first encounter seemsunusual. The
"unusual" nature of termodynamics arises from the fact that the foundations of classical
thermodynamics are independent of the molecular theory of matter. The classical
thermodynamics viewpoint is macroscopic and phenomenological, as opposed to
microscopic (molecular) and mechanistic.
The prime objective of thermodynamics is to discover the universal laws governing the
utilization and conversion of energy on a macroscopic level.
The general nature of termodynamics laws enables the utilization of the laws to test any
proposed molecular level model for matter. The termodynamic behavior predicted by any
molescular theory must be consistent with the laws of termodynamics. If a molecular level
theory is inconsistent with the laws of termodynamics, then the teory is untenable.
However, consistency of a theory with the laws of termodynamics does not guarantee the
validity of the theory. The model-independent nature of classical thermodynamics was
obtained at a high price; namely, classical themodynamics cannot be used to provide any
information regarding the molecular level origins of the differences in the properties of one
substance versus the properties of another substance. The derivation of the thermodynamic
properties of a macroscopic system from the molecular properties of its constituent
molecules and/or ions is the objective of statistical thermodynamics. Time-dependent
macroscopic phenomena are treated in nonequilibrium thermodynamics. The major
emphasis in this book is on classical chemical thermodynamics. Chemical thermodynamics
involves the extension of termodynamics to systems that undergo chemical changes.
1.4 The laws of thermodynamics govern the response of chemical equilibria to changes in
temperature, pressure and composition
1. It provides us with the necessary and sufficient conditions for the establishment of a
chemical equilibrium in a system, including systems involving chemical reaction(s).
2. It enable us to rule out on thermodynamic grounds some chemical processes that, under
the given conditions, might otherwise be regarded as possible.
It will prove helpful to your study of chemical thermodynamics to recognize that you
already possess a more than passing acquaintance with the laws and principles of chemical
thermodynamics, which was obtained in your introductory chemistry and physics couses.
Further, the laws of thermodynamics have such widespread applicability to our everyday
lives that all of the restrictions that the laws place on human endeavors. It was noted by
P.W. Bridman, a great experimental thermodynamicist, that the laws of thermodynamics
convey a stronger sense of their human origins than other laws os science.
It must be admitted, I think, that the laws of thermodynamics have a different feel from
most of the other laws of physics. There is something more palpably verbal about them-
they smell more of their human origin. The guiding motif is strange to most of physics:
namely, a capitalizing of the universal failure of human beings to construct perpetaul
motion machines of either the first or the second kind. Why should we expect nature to be
interested either positively or negatively in the purposes of human beings, particularly
purposes of such unblushingly economic tinge?
1.5 The United states utilizes about 84 quadrillion kilojoules of energy annually
A kilojoule per second is equal to a kilowatt, kW. A power usage of 12kW per person is
equivalent to one hundred twenty 100-W light bulbs burning continuously for each person
in the united estates. An annual energy use of 12kW per person is also equivalent to 62
barrels of crude oil per person per year.
At the present time, the united states produces about 80% of its annual energy
requirements; the 20% shortfall is made up for the most part by imported oil. Oil furnishes
about 48% of the total United States energy supply (table 1-1), and about 43% of the oil
used in the United stated is imported.
At $32 per barrel, the annual cost of the oil imported by the United States is $86 billion.
The major ways in which energy is utilized i the United States are shown in Table 1-2. Note
that the major areas of energy use are industry (35%) transportation (22%), and space
heating (18%).