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LECTURE 6 - CONTENTS

7.3 Polar coordinates

7.3.1 The definition of polar coordinates
7.3.2 Elementary coordinate equations and inequalities
7.3.3 Cartesian versus polar coordinates

Problems

Lesson 8
8.1 Complex Numbers
8.1.1 Argand Diagrams

8.2 Sequences and numbers

8.3 Infinite Series

8.4 Geometric Series

8.5 Power Series

8.6 Taylor Polynomials

Problems

7.3 Polar coordinates

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The equations of ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas all have the same form in this system of
coordinates and there is no need to have different forms as we do in Cartesian coordinates. Once
we know an orbits eccentricity and the distance from one focus to its associated directrix, we
know the orbits equation in a polar coordinate system centered at the focus.

7.3.1 The definition of polar coordinates

Although a point in the plane has just one pair of Cartesian coordinates, it has infinitely many
pairs of polar coordinates as shown by the definition.
First fix an origin O and an initial ray from O as shown in Fig.7.13. Each point P can be located
by assigning to it a polar coordinate pair (r , q ) , where
r - the directed distance from O to P and q - the directed angle from the initial ray to OP.

Fig. 7.13: The origin and the initial ray Fig. 7.14: The ray q = 30o is the same as
as q = -330o.

The angle q is positive when measured counterclockwise and negative when measured
clockwise (Fig. 7.13). But the angle associated with a given point is not unique (Fig.7.14).
For example, the points 2 units from the origin along the ray q = 30o has polar coordinates

r = 2 , q = 30o . It also has coordinates r = 2 , q = -330o and r = 2 , q = 390o .

In some occasions, the directed distance r is allowed to be negative. Whenever the angle

between two rays is 180o , the rays make a straight line and then, each ray is opposite of the

other. Points on the ray q = a have polar coordinates (r , a ) with r 0 . Points on the opposite

ray q = a + 180o, have coordinates (r , a ) with r 0 .

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Fig. 7.15: The rays q = 30o and q = 210o make a line.

The point P has polar cdts. r = 2 , q = 210o and it also has polar cdts. r = -2 , q = 30o .

EXAMPLE 14 Find all polar coordinates of the point (2, 30o) .

Solution We can list formulas for the coordinates pairs in which r = 2 and r = -2 and
convert the formulas to radian measure.
For r = 2 : The angles

30o + 1
360o = 390o 30o + (-1)
360o = - 330o
30o + 2
360o = 750o 30o + ( -2)
360o = - 690o
30o + 3
360o = 1110o 30o + ( -3)
360o = - 1050o
. .
. .
. .

all end in the same ray as the angle 30o . Thus, the polar coordinates

(2, 30o + n
360o) , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . . . (7.1a)

all identify the point (2, 30o) .

For r = - 2 :

The coordinates in (2, 30o + n

360o) are not the only coordinates of the point

(2, 30o) . The angles

- 150o -150o
-150o + 1
360o = 210o -150o + (-1)
360o = - 510o
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-150o + 2
360o = 570o -150o + ( -2)
360o = - 870o
. .
. .
. .

All define the ray opposite the ray q = 30o . Hence, the polar coordinates

(-2, - 150o + n
360o) , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . . . (7.1b)

represent the point (2, 30o) as well.

If angles are in radians, the formulas that correspond to Eq. (7.1a) and (7.1b) are
p
(2, + 2n p ) , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . . . (7.2a)
6
5p ... (7.2b)
(-2, - + 2 np ) , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . . .
6

7.3.2 Elementary coordinate equations and inequalities

If r is fixed at a constant nonzero value r = a , and q is varied over any interval of length 2p

radians, the point P (a , q ) traces a circle of radius a centered at the origin.

The equation r = a is an equation (in polar coordinates) for this circle.

Fig. 7.16
If q is held fixed at a constant value q = a and r is made to take on all real values, the point
P ( r, a ) traces a line through the origin that makes an angle of a radians with the coordinate

systems initial ray. The equation q = a is an equation for this line.

Equations of the form r = a and q = a can be combined in various ways to define regions,
segments and rays in the coordinate plane.
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EXAMPLE 15 Graph the set of points whose polar coordinates satisfy the following conditions.
(a) 1 r 2 and 0 q p 2 (b) -3 r 2 and q = p 4

(c) r 0 and q = p 4 (d) 2p 3 q 3p 4 (no restriction on r )

Solution (a) The region in the first quadrant between circles having radius of 1 and 2 units.
(b) The segment of the line that makes an angle of p 4 with the +x-axis and
having lengths 2 in the first quadrant and -3 in the third quadrant.
(c) The line that makes an angle of p 4 with the +x-axis and extends from the
origin to infinity in the third quadrant.
(d) The region in the second and fourth quadrant, between the lines that make

angles of 2p 3 and 3p 4 with the +x-axis.

7.3.3 Cartesian versus polar coordinates

Fig. 7.17: Relation of Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates.

When using both polar and Cartesian coordinates in a plane, the polar origin is usually placed at
the Cartesian origin and the initial ray of the polar coordinate system is taken to be the positive x-

axis. The ray q = p 2 , r 0 , is the positive y-axis. The sets of coordinates are then related by

. (7.3a) or y
x = r cos q , y = r sin q x2 + y2 = r2 , = tan q (7.3b)
x

These equations define sin q and cos q when r is positive. They are also valid if r is negative
because cos(q + p ) = - cos q , sin(q + p ) = - sin q , so positive r values on the ray q + p
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correspond to negative r values on the ray q . If r = 0 , then x = y = 0 , and P is the origin. These
equations may be used to rewrite polar equations in Cartesian form and vice versa.

p
q - = 3 .
EXAMPLE 16 Find the Cartesian equation for the curve r cos
3

Solution Expand the cosine term and then use relations x = r cos q , y = r sin q .

p p 1 3
cos q cos + sin q sin = 3
r r cos q + r sin q = 3
3 3 2 2

1 3 //
x + y =3 x + 3y = 6
2 2

EXAMPLE 17 Replace the following polar equations by equivalent Cartesian equations, and
identify their graphs.
4
(a) r cos q = - 4 (b) r 2 = 4 r cos q (c) r =
2 cos q - sin q

Solution Use the substitutions r cos q = x, r sin q = y , x2 + y 2 = r 2 .

(a) r cos q = - 4 x = - 4 Cartesian equation

The graph is a vertical line through x = - 4 on the x-axis.//

(b) r 2 = 4 r cos q x2 + y2 = 4 x x2 + y 2 - 4 x = 0
( x - 2)2 + y 2 = 4 (completing the square) Cartesian equation
The graph is a circle of radius = 2 and Center = (2, 0)//

(c) r (2 cos q - sin q ) = 4 2r cos q - r sin q = 4 y = 2x - 4

The graph is a line with slope m = 2 , y-intercept c = - 4 //

8.1 Complex Numbers

Complex numbers are the expressions of the form a + i b , where a and b are real numbers and

i is a symbol for - 1 . An equivalent notation for complex numbers a + i b is the ordered pair
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of real numbers ( a, b) . Of the pair ( a, b) , the number a is the real part and b the imaginary
part.

Equality Two complex numbers ( a, b) and (c, d ) are equal if and

a + ib = c + i d
only if a = c and b = d .

Addition
( a + i b ) + (c + i d ) The sum of the two complex numbers ( a, b) and (c, d ) is
= (a + c) + i(b + d ) the complex number (a + c, b + d ) .

Multiplication
(a + i b)(c + i d ) The product of the two complex numbers ( a, b) and
= (a c - b d ) + i(ad + bc ) (c, d ) is the complex number (ac - bd , ad + bc ) .

c (a + i b) = a c + i (bc) The product of a real number c and the complex number

( a, b) is the complex number (a c, bc) .

The set of all complex numbers ( a, b) in which the second number is zero has all the properties

of the set of real numbers a.

The sum (a, 0) + (c, 0) = ( a + c, 0) ( c, 0) = ( a c, 0)
The product ( a, 0)

By multiplying a real number (a, 0) and the complex number (c, d ) , we get

(c, d ) = ( a c, ad ) = a(c, d ).
(a, 0)
In the complex number system, the complex number (0, 0) plays the role of zero and the

complex number (1, 0) plays the role of unity.

The complex number (0, 1) has the property that its square, (0, 1) = ( -1, 0)
(0, 1)

It is possible to write any complex number, in terms of the unity (1, 0) and the square root of
minus one (0, 1) as, (a, b) = ( a , 0) + (0, b) = a(1, 0) + b(0, 1).
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To reduce any rational combination of complex numbers c + i d (a + i b) (when

a + i b = ( a, b) (0, 0) ) to a single complex number p + i q , we carry out a division, by

replacing i 2 = -1 wherever it appears, as follows.

c + id (c + i d )(a - i b) (a c + b d ) + i(ad - bc ) (a c + b d ) (ad - bc)

= = = + i 2
a + ib ( a + i b)( a - i b) 2
a +b 2 2
a +b 2
a + b2

(a c + bd ) ( ad - bc )
The result is the complex number p + i q with p = 2 2 and q = , and
a + b a 2 + b2

a 2 + b 2 0 since a + i b = (a, b) (0, 0) .

The number a - i b that is used as multiplier to clear the i out of the denominator (to replace it
by a real number) is called the complex conjugate of a + i b and, z is used to denote the
complex conjugate of the complex number z = a + i b .

8.1.1 Argand Diagrams

The Argand diagram provides a parametric representation of z = x + i y , both as a point

P ( x, y ) and as a vector OP . In this representation, the x-axis is called the real axis and the y-

axis is the imaginary axis.

Fig 8.1:

In terms of the polar coordinates of x and y,

x = r cos q , y = r sin q , q = tan -1 ( y x)

and
z = x + i y = r (cos q + i sin q ) (8.1)
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The absolute value of a complex number z = x + i y is defined to be the length r of a vector

OP from the origin to P ( x, y ) .

r = z = x+ iy = x2 + y 2 .

If the polar coordinates r and q are always chosen so that r is nonnegative, then the polar angle
q is called the argument of z and is written as q = arg z .
Any integer multiple of 2 p may be added to q to produce another appropriate angle.

A useful formula that connects a complex number z , its conjugate z , and its absolute value z
is
2
z= z .
z

The identity ei q = cos q + i sin q leads to Argand diagrams for ei q , because

r = 1 in Eq. (8.1) z = ei q = cos q + i sin q is represented by a unit vector that

makes an angle q with the positive x-axis, as shown in Fig. 8.2.

Fig. 8.2: Argand diagram for ei q = cos q + i sin q : (a) as a vector, (b) as a point.

From Eq. (8.1) and the above identity, we get

z = r (cos q + isin q ) = r ei q (8.2)

Products
To multiply two complex numbers, we multiply their absolute values and add their angles. Let
z1 = r1 ei q1 , z2 = r2 ei q 2 . Then z1 z2 = r1 ei q1 r2 ei q 2 = r1 r2 ei (q1 + q 2 )
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z1z2 = r1 r2 = z1 z2
(8.3)
arg( z1z2 ) = q1 + q2 = arg z1 + arg z1

That is we multiply lengths and add up angles.

r2 and arg( z1z2 ) = q1 + q 2 .

Figure 8.3: When z1 and z2 are multiplied, z1 z2 = r1

A vector may be rotated in the counterclockwise direction through an angle q by simply

multiplying it by ei q . Multiplication by i rotates by 90o , by -1 rotates by 180o , by - i rotates

by 270o, etc.

EXAMPLE 1 Let z1 = 1 + i and z2 = 3 - i .

Fig. 8.4:
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We plot these complex numbers in an Argand diagram (see Fig. 8.4) from which
we read off the polar representation. If not, we may use the relationships

-1
r= x 2 + y 2 and q = tan ( y x) to find the polar coordinates r and q .

z1 = 2ei p 4 , z2 = 2e - i p 6

p p p
z1z2 = 2 2exp i - i = 2 2exp i = 2.73 + 0.73i //
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Quotients
z1 r ei q1 r
Let z1 = r1 e
i q1
, z2 = r2 e
i q2
and suppose r2 0 . Then = 1 i q = 1 ei (q1 - q2 )
z2 r2 e 2 r2

z1 r z
= 1 = 1
z2 r2 z2
z
arg 1 = q1 - q 2 = arg z1 - arg z2
z2

That is we divide lengths and subtract angles.

EXAMPLE 2 Let z1 = 1 + i and z2 = 3 - i , as in Example 1. Then

1+ i 2ei p 4 2 5p i 12 5p 5p
= -ip 6
= e = 0.707
cos + i sin = 0.183 + 0.683i //
3-i 2e 2 12 12

Powers
If n is a positive integer, we may apply the product formula (8.3) to find
z n = z
z . . . . . .
z ( n factors)

With z = r ei q , we obtain

z n = (r ei q )n = r n ei (q + q + , . . . . . + q ) = r n ei n q (8.4)

If we substitute r = 1 in Eq. (8.4), we obtain De Moivres theorem given below.

De Moivres theorem
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(cos q + i sin q ) n = cos nq + i sin nq (8.5)

EXAMPLE 3 n = 3 in Eq. (8.5) (cos q + i sin q )3 = cos 3q + i sin 3q

The left-hand side of this equation is
cos3 q + 3icos 2q sin q - 3cosq sin 2 q - i sin 3 q

The real part of this must equal cos 3q and the imaginary part must equal sin 3q .

cos 3q = cos3 q - 3cosq sin 2 q , sin 3q = 3cos 2q sin q - sin 3 q

Roots
If z = r ei q is a complex number different from zero and n is a positive integer, then there are

precisely n different complex numbers w0 , w1 , . . . . , wn -1 , that are nth roots of z. Hence all the

nth roots of z = r ei q are given by (see lesson notes for the justification)

q 2p
n
reiq = n r exp i + k ,
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . . . .
n n

EXAMPLE 4 Find the four fourth roots of 16.

Solution As the first step, plot the number 16 in an Argand diagram (Fig. 8.5) and

determine its polar representation r ei q . Here

z = - 16 = 16(cos p + i sin p ) r = + 16 , q =p

One of the fourth roots (n = 4) of 16 ei p is 2ei p 4 . We obtain others by successive

additions of 2 p 4 = p 2 to the argument of this first one. Hence

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Fig. 8.5: The four fourth roots of 16.

and the four roots are

p p 3p 3p
w0 = 2 cos + i sin = 2(1 + i) , w1 = 2 cos + i sin = 2( -1 + i) ,
4 4 4 4

5p 5p 7p 7p
w2 = 2 cos + i sin = 2(-1 - i) , w3 = 2 cos + i sin = 2(1 - i) .//
4 4
4 4

8.2 Sequences and numbers

Definition (informal) of a sequence = a collection of numbers in a particular order.
Definition (precise) of a sequence of numbers = a function whose domain is the set of positive
integers.

Eg: the sequence of: positive integers 1, 2, 3, 4, ..; even integers 2, 4, 6, 8, ., prime
numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, .. , squares 1, 4, 9, 16, .

Sequences are usually described by writing the first few terms as well as a formula for the nth
term.
Eg: the sequence 0, 1, 2, . . . . . , n - 1 , having the formula of the nth term as an = n - 1
1 1 1 1
the sequence 1, , , . . . . . , , having the formula of the nth term as an =
2 3 n n
1 2 n -1 n -1
the sequence 0, , , . . . . . , , having the formula of the nth term as an =
2 3 n n
The sequence whose nth term is an is referred to as, the sequence { an } .

In the above example, the three sequences are referred to as { n - 1} , { 1 n } , and { n - 1 n} .

As n increases,
the sequences { 1 n } and { n - 1 n } approach a unique limiting value - converge

the sequence { n - 1} does not approach a unique limiting value - diverge

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8.3 Infinite Series

Definition - a series is the expression obtained from a mathematical sequence by connecting the
terms with plus signs.
1 1 1 1 1
In the series 1 + + + + + . . . . . . . , to add the infinite number of terms, we can
2 4 8 16 32
add a finite number of terms, in order, one at a time. This process yields the related sequence of

partial sums (numbers) { sn }

1 1 1 3 7 15 31 63
1, 1 + , 1 +
+ , . . . . . . . =
1, , , , , , . . . . . . ,
2 2 4 2 4 8 16 32
which appears to converge to the limit 2 as shown below.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 lim
sn = 1 + + + + + +. . . . . . + n - 1 = 2 - n - 1 sn = 2
2 4 8 16 32 2 2 n

In the given series, it is not possible to add an infinite number of terms and the sum of any finite
number of terms is not equal to 2. It is only the sequence of partial sums sn converges to the limit 2.

From the extracted information, a general definition can be given as follows.

When a sequence of numbers { an } is given, an expression of the form

a1 + a2 + a3 + . . . . . + an + . . . . . . . (8.6)

is called an infinite series. The number an is called the nth term of the series. With an

expression as in (8.6), we associate a second sequence { sn } defined by

n
s1 = a1 , s2 = a1 + a2 , . . . . . . , sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + . . . . . + an = a
k =1
k

The second sequence { sn } is called the sequence of partial sums of the given series. If this

sequence { sn } converges to a limit L, we say that the series converges and that its sum is L. In

this case we also write

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a1 + a2 + a3 + . . . . . + an + . . . . . . = a
n =1
n = L

If the sequence of partial sum of the series does not converge, we say that the series diverges.

Some Convergent Series

One method of finding the sum of an infinite series with the repeating decimal is given below.
3 3 3 3
0.3333 . . . . = + + + +....
10 100 1000 10, 000
3 3 3 3 3
3 s2 = + 2, sn = + 2 + . . . . .+ n
s1 = 10 10 10 10 10
10

To obtain a simple expression for sn , multiply both sides of the equation for sn by 1 10 and

1 3 3 3 3
subtract this from sn . sn = 2 + 3 + . . . . . + n + n +1
10 10 10 10 10

1 3 3 3 1 1 1 lim 1.
sn - sn = - n +1 = 1 - n sn =
1- n sn
10 10 10 10 10 3 10 n 3

3 3 3 3 1
Therefore, the sum of the infinite series + + + + . . . is verified to be
10 100 1000 10, 000 3

3 1
and, this is written as 10
n =1
n
=
3
. The decimal 0.3333 . . . . is a special kind of geometric

series.

8.4 Geometric Series

A series of the form

a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + . . . . . + ar n-1 + . . . . (8.7)

is called a geometric series.

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1 1 1
The ratio r can be positive, as in 1 + + + . . . . . + n -1 . . . , or negative, as in
2 4 2

1 1 1
1- + - . . . . . + (-1) n -1 n -1 + . . . .
3 9 3

Partial Sums of a Geometric Series

The sum of the first n terms of (8.7) is (the proof is given in lesson notes).
sn = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + . . . . . + ar n-1 (8.8)

a (1 - r n )
If r 1 , then sn = .. (8.10a)
(1 - r )

If r = 1 , then sn = na .... (8.10b)

If a 0 , then as n , (8.10b) has no finite limit.

If a = 0 , then as n , (8.7) is just 0 + 0 + 0 + . . . . . , which converges to the sum zero.

A theorem that allows us to obtain the sum of a geometric series can be presented as follows (the
proof is given in lesson notes).

a
If r < 1 , the geo. series a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + . . . . . + ar n -1 + . . . . converges to .
1- r

If r 1 and a 0 , the geo. series diverges. If r 1 and a = 0 , the series converges to 0.

EXAMPLE 5 Geometric series with a = 1 9 and r = 1 3 . ( r < 1)

1 1 1 1 1 1 19 1
+ + + ..... = 1 + + 2 + . . . . . = = //
9 27 81 9 3 3 1 -1 3 6

EXAMPLE 6 Geometric series with a = 4 and r = - 1 2 . ( r < 1)

1 1 1 1 1 1 4 8
4 - 2 +1- + - . . = 4
1- + - + - . . = = //
2 4 2 4 8 16 1 - ( - 1 2) 3
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EXAMPLE 7 A ball is dropped from a meters above a flat surface. Each time the ball hits the
surface after a falling a distance h, it rebounds a distance rh, where r is a positive
number less than 1. Find the total distance the ball travels up and down.
Solution The distance is given by the series s = a + 2ar + 2ar 2 + 2ar 3 + . . . . .

(
s = a + 2ar + 2ar 2 + 2ar 3 + . . . . . = a + 2r a + ar + ar 2 + . . . . )
The sum of the geometric series contained in the bracket = a (1 - r ) (as r < 1)

2ar 1+ r
The distance is s = a + = a = 30 m // (if a = 6 m and r = 2/3)
1- r 1- r

Some convergent Series

There are other series that diverge in addition to geometric series with r 1 ,

EXAMPLE 8 The series n2 = 1 + 4 + 9 + . . . . + n 2 + . . . . diverges because the partial
n =1

sums grow beyond every number L. The number sn = 1 + 4 + 9 + . . . . + n 2 is

greater than or equal to n 2 at each stage.

n +1 2 3 4 n +1
EXAMPLE 9 The series n =
1
+ +
2 3
+ .... +
n
+ . . . . diverges because the
n =1

sequence of partial sums eventually outgrows every pre-assigned number. Each

term is greater than 1, so the sum of n terms is greater than n.

A series can diverge without having its partial sums become large. The partial sums may oscillate

between two extremes, as shown in example 10.

EXAMPLE 10 The series (-1)n+1 diverges because its partial sums alternate between 1 and 0.
n =1

s1 = (-1) 2 = 1 ,
s2 = (-1) 2 + (-1)3 = 1 - 1 = 0 ,
s3 = ( -1)2 + ( -1)3 + ( -1) 4 = 1 - 1 + 1 = 1 and so on.
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A theorem that provides a quick way to detect the divergence in Examples 8, 9 and 10 is given

below.

th
The n Term Test for Divergence

lim lim
If
n
an 0 , or if
n
an fails to exist, then an diverges.
n =1

When we apply the above theorem to Example 8, 9 and 10, we find that

lim n +1 lim n + 1
n 2
diverges, because
n
n . 2
n diverges, because
n n
1.
n =1 n =1

lim
(-1)n+1 diverges, because (-1) n+1 does not exist.
n =1 n

EXAMPLE 11 Determine whether each series given below, converges or diverges. If it

converges, find its sum.
n n

p
p n 5( -1) n
(a) 2 cos (b) tan (c) (d) n
n =1 3 n=0 4 n =1 2n + 5 n =1 4

Solution (a) cos(p 3) = 1 2 Geo. Series, a1 = 2 cos(p 3) = 1 , r = cos(p 3) = 1 2

the series converges and its sum is a1 (1 - r ) = 1 (1 - 1 2) = 2 .

(b) tan(p 4) = 1 . The nth term does not have zero as its limit,

the series diverges.

n lim n 1
(c) an = and = 0 the series diverges.
2n + 5 n 2n + 5 2

(d) Geometric series, a1 = - 5 4 and ratio r = -1 4 .

a1 -5 4
the series converges and its sum = = = -1 .
1 - r 1 + (1 4)
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A necessary condition (not sufficient) for convergence of a series can be drawn from the theorem
th
of n Term Test for Divergence and it is as given below.

If an converges, then an 0 . (a necessary but not a sufficient condition)
n =1

Some more useful theorems related to geometric series can be given as follows.

If an converges to A and bn converges to B, then

(i) The sum (an + bn ) , converges to A + B . (ii) k an converges to k A (k any number)

As consequences of the above theorem, we have, if A = an and B = bn , then the

difference (an - bn ) = A - B .

If an diverges and if c is any number different from zero, then the series of multiples

c an diverges.

4 1 1
EXAMPLE 12 2n-1 = 4 n-1 = 4 1 = 8 //
1- 2
n =1 n =1 2

3n - 2n
1 1
1
1 1 1 1
6n = 2 n
- n =
3
2n 3n = 1 - (1 2) - 1 - (1 3) = 2 //
-
n=0 n=0 n=0 n=0

8.5 Power Series

Consider the sequences and series where the nth term is a function un ( x) . For example, if

u0 ( x ) = 1 , u1 ( x ) = x , u2 ( x ) = x 2 , ....... un ( x ) = x n , . (8.13)
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Then the sequence { un ( x ) } = { xn } converges to zero if -1 < x < 1 , converges to 1 if x = 1 ,

and diverges elsewhere.

Now consider the geometric series

x
n =1
n
= 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + . . . . . + xn + . . . .

It converges to 1 (1 - x) if -1 < x < 1 and diverges otherwise.

A formal power series can be obtained from a sequence similar to (8.13)

an x n = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + . . . . . + an x n + . . . . . (8.15)
n =1

In (8.15), the an s are constants (independent of x) and x is a variable whose domain may be any
set of real numbers.

8.6 Taylor Polynomials

Consider a portion of the curve y = f ( x ) near the point A(0, f (0)) , as shown in Fig. 8.6. The

function f ( x) is approximated near x=0 by polynomials

pk ( x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + . . . . + ak x k , where the coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . . . , ak are to be

determined, whose derivatives at x = 0 match the derivatives of f.

 21

Fig. 8.6
It can be shown that (see lesson notes for the proof),
a0 = f (0) , a1 = f
(0) , a2 = f
(0) 2! , a3 = f


(0) 3! , . . . . . ak = f ( k ) (0) k ! .

Thus

f(0) f
(0) 2 f

(0) 3 f ( k ) (0) k
pk ( x) = f (0) + x + x + x + ..... + x (8.17)
1! 2! 3! k!

is the polynomial that matches f and its first k derivatives at x = 0 . It is called the kth order
Taylor polynomial generated by f at x = 0 . Such a Taylor polynomial exists for every k from 0
to n.

EXAMPLE 13 Find the Taylor polynomials pn ( x) generated by f ( x ) = e x at x = 0 .

Solution Expressed in terms of x, the given function and its derivatives are

f ( x) = e x , ( x ) = e x , . . . . f ( n ) (x) = e x ,
f

f (0) = e0 = 1, (0) = 1,
f . . . f ( n ) (0) = 1,

x2 x3 xn
pn ( x) = 1 + x + + + ..... + //
2! 3! n!
 22

Fig. 8.7:

If a function f has derivatives of all orders at x = 0 , it generates Taylor polynomials

approximating the function near x = 0 with no bound on the degree of those polynomials. All of
these polynomials are partial sums of the formal power series known as the Maclaurin series by
the function f.

The Maclaurin Series generated by f

f(0) f
(0) 2 f

(0) 3 f ( n ) (0) n .. (8.18)
f (0) + x + x + x + ..... + x + ...
1! 2! 3! n!

If, instead of approximating the values of f near zero, we are concerned with values of x near
some other point a, the approximating polynomials in powers of ( x - a ) becomes

pn ( x) = a0 + a1 ( x - a ) + a2 ( x - a )2 + . . . . . + an ( x - a ) n

Determining the coefficients a , a , a , . . . . . , a , so that the polynomial and its first n

0 1 2 n

derivatives agree with the given function and its derivatives at x = a , a series called Taylor
series is generated by f at x = a .

The Taylor Series generated by f at x = a

 23

f(a) f
( a) f ( n ) (a ) (8.19)
f (a ) + ( x - a) + ( x - a)2 + . . . . + ( x - a) n + . . .
1! 2! n!

Important things to notice

(i) Maclaurin series are Taylor series with a = 0
(ii) A function cannot generate a Taylor series expansion about x = a unless it has finite
derivatives of all orders at x = a .

EXAMPLE 17 What are the first few terms in the Taylor series generated by f ( x) = 1 x at
x = 2?

Solution We need to compute f (2), f

(2), f
(2) and f (4) (2) . Taking derivatives,
(2), f

we have
1
f ( x ) = x -1, f (2) = 2-1 = ,
2
1
( x ) = - x -2 ,
f (2) = -
f ,
22
2!
( x ) = 2 x -3 ,
f
f(2) = 3 ,
2
(3!)
( x) = - 6 x -4 ,
f

f
(2) = - 4 ,
2
(4!)
f (4) ( x) = 24 x -5 , f (4) (2) = 5
2
The first five terms of the Taylor series are
1 ( x - 2) ( x - 2)2 ( x - 2)3 ( x - 2) 4
- + - + .
2 22 23 24 25
These appear to be the terms of a geometric series with first term a = 1 2 and the

ratio r = - ( x - 2) 2 . If the rest of the series follows the same pattern, then the
series converges to
a 12 1
= = ,
1 - r 1 + ( x - 2) 2 x

x-2
Provided =1 or x-2 = 2 or 0 < x < 4.
2