University of Asia Pacific

Department of Civil Engineering

Course Title : Irrigation & Flood Control

Course No : CE 461
Credit Hours : 3.0
Course Teacher : Prof. Dr. M. R. Kabir, Head, Department of Civil Engineering
Total No of Lectures : 28

Objective of this course

This course contains fundamental information on irrigation and flood control. After completion of this course one
should be able to design an irrigation project which includes water requirements, canal design and hydraulic
structures for irrigation project. In addition one should be able to design hydraulic structures for flood protection
also.

Syllabus
Importance of irrigation, Sources and Quality of irrigation water, Soil Water Relationship, Consumptive Use and
Estimation of Irrigation, Methods of Irrigation, Water Requirements, Design of Irrigation, Canal System, Irrigation
Structures, Irrigation Pumps, Problems of Irrigation Land. Flood and its Control

Reference Books
1. Irrigation Engineering & Hydraulic Structures : S K Garg
2. Irrigation Development and Management in Bangladesh : M A Sattar
3. Irrigation Engineering : N N Basak
4. Irrigation Principles and Practices : Vaughn E. Hansen & W. Israelsen
5. Irrigation (Theory & Practice) : A M Micheal (2nd Edition)
6. Irrigation and Water Management : Dilip Kumar Majumder
7. Irrigation Engineering : S. K. Mazumder
8. Irrigation Engineering : R. K. Sharma & T. K. Sharma

Grading System
Class Assessment 30%
(Attendance: 10, Minimum 4 Class test, Home work: 20)
Mid Term Examination 20%
Final Examination 50%

Dr. M. R. Kabir
Head, Department of Civil Engineering
Pro-Vice Chancellor, University of Asia Pacific (UAP)

1
 Course Teacher: Prof. Dr. M. R. Kabir

Definition of Irrigation
METHODS OF IRRIGATION
CHAPTER 1
Irrigation may be defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land, in accordance with
the crop requirements throughout the crop period for full-fledged nourishment of the crops.

Following are the factors which govern the importance of irrigation

Insufficient rainfall
Uneven distribution of rainfall
Improvement of perennial crops
Development of agriculture in desert area

Advantages of irrigation
Increase in food production
Optimum benefits
Elimination of mixed cropping
Improvement of cash crops
Source of revenue
General prosperity
Generation of hydroelectric power
Domestic water supply
Facilities of communications
Inland navigation
Afforestation

Disadvantages of irrigation
Rising of water table: water-logging
Problem of water pollution (nitrates seepage into GW)
Formation of marshy land
Dampness in weather
Loss of valuable lands

Types of Irrigation
Surface Irrigation
Sub-surface irrigation

Surface irrigation
In the surface methods of irrigation, water is applied directly to the soil surface from a channel
located at the upper reach of the field. Water may be distributed to the crops in border strips, check basins
or furrows. Two general requirements of prime importance to obtain high efficiency in surface methods of
irrigation are: distribution systems to provide adequate control of water to the fields and proper land
preparation to permit uniform distribution of water over the field. They are also designed to minimize labor
and capital requirements. Effective management practices are dependent on the type of irrigation, and the
climate and topography of the region.

1
System of Irrigation
Surface Irrigation System

Lift irrigation Flow irrigation

By man or By mechanical
Animal power or electrical power Inundation Irrigation Perennial Irrigation

Open well Deep Direct Storage

Shallow
Tube well Irrigation Irrigation
Tube well

Subsurface irrigation
In sub-irrigation, water is applied below the ground surface by maintaining an artificial water table
at some depth, depending upon the soil texture and the depth of the plant roots. Water reaches the plant
roots through capillarity action. Water may be introduced through open ditches or underground through
pipelines such as drains or mole drains. The depths of open ditches or trenches vary from 30 cm to 100 cm
and they are spaced about 15 m to 30 m apart. The water application system consists of field supply
channels, ditches or trenches suitably spaced to cover the field adequately and drainage ditches for the
disposal of excess water.

Sub-main Pipe Perforated Pipe

Fig: Sub-surface Method

Sub-Surface Irrigation System

Natural Sub-irrigation Artificial Sub-irrigation

Methods of Irrigation
Free Flooding
Border Flooding
Check Flooding
Basin Flooding
Furrow irrigation method
Sprinkler irrigation method
Drip irrigation method

2
Free Flooding or Ordinary Flooding
o Ditches are excavated in the field
o Water is applied from field ditches without any levee to guide its flow.
o Movement of water is not restricted, it is sometimes called wild flooding
o It is suitable for close growing crops, pastures etc.
o It is practiced large where irrigation water is abundant and inexpensive.
o It involves low initial cost of land preparation, extra labour cost in the application of water.
o Application of efficiency is low.
o This method may be used on rolling land (topography irregular) where borders, checks, basins and
furrows are not feasible.

M
Outlets
A Subsidiary Ditch
I
N
S
U
P
P
L
Y
D
I
T
C
H Main Supply Ditch

Fig: Free flooding (plan view)

Border Flooding
o The farm is divided into a number of strips (width 10 ~ 20 m and length 100 ~ 400 m) separated by
low levees or borders.
o Water is turned from the supply ditch into these strips along which a flow slowly toward the lower
end, wetting the soil as it advances. When the advancing water front reaches the lower end, the
stream turned off.
o The surface is essentially level between levees and lengthwise slope is somewhat according to
natural slope of the land (0.2 ~ 0.4%)
o It is suitable to soils having moderately low to moderately high infiltration rates and to all closely
growing crops.
o Uniform distribution and high water application efficiencies are possible.
o Large streams can be used efficiently.
o It involves high initial cost.
o Ridges between borders should be sufficiently high
o The land should be perpendicular to the flow to prevent water from concentrating on either side of
the border
Gate
Ditch

100 to 400 m 10 to 20 m
Low levees
borders

Fig: Border flooding (Plan view)

3
Determination of required time to irrigate in border flooding
A relationship between the discharge through the supply ditch (Q), the average depth of water flowing
over the strip (y), the rate of infiltration of the soil (f), the area of the land irrigated (A), and the
approximate time required to cover the given area with water (t), is given by the equation:
y Q
t 2.3 log
f Q fA
Where, Q = Discharge through the supply ditch
y = Depth of water flowing over the border strip
f = Rate of infiltration of soil
A = Area of land strip to be irrigated
t = Time required to cover the given area A

y Q
Derivation of Equation: t 2.3 log
f Q fA

Supply Channel
Border or Leevee Area dA covered with
water in time dt

Border strip

Area A covered with

water in time t

Considering small area, dA of the border strip of area (A)

Depth of water, y over this area (A)
Assume that in time dt, water advances over this area (dA).
Now, the volume of water that flows to cover this area = y.dA ------------------------ (1)

During the same time dt

The volume of water that percolates into the soil over the area (A) = f.A.dt --------------- (2)
The total quantity of water supplied to the strip during time (dt) = Q.dt ------------------- (3)

From equation (1), (2) & (3)

Q .dt = y. dA + f. A. dt
y.dA
dt =
Q f .A

For getting time required to irrigate the whole land, we have to integrate the above equation and
considering y, f, and Q as constants

dt =
y.dA
Q f .A

4
After integrating the above equation, we get
y Q
t = ln + C (constant) ------------------------------------- (4)
f Q f .A
But at, t = 0, A = 0
From equation (4)
y Q
0= ln +C
f Q f .0
y Q y y
0= ln + C = ln(1) + C = 0 +C=0+C C=0
f Q f f
y Q
Finally, t= ln
f Q fA

y Q
or, t 2.3 log
f Q fA

This above equation can be further written as

t. f Q t. f
log Now, let =x
2.3. y Q fA 2.3. y
Q Q
Then, x = log 10x =
Q fA Q fA
Q.10 f.A.10 = Q
x x

Q (10x 1) = f.A.10x
Q 10 x 1
A=
f .10 x
10 x 1
Further, considering the maximum value of =1
10 x
Q
We get, Amax =
f

Problem:
Determine the time required to irrigate a strip of land of 0.04 hectares in area from a tube-well with a
discharge of 0.02 cumec. The infiltration capacity of the soil may be taken as 5 cm/h and the average depth
of flow on the field as 10 cm. Also determine the maximum area that can be irrigated from this tube well.
Solution:
Here, A = 0.04 hectares = 0.04 104 m2 = 400 m2
Q = 0.02 cumec = 0.02 m3/s = 0.02 60 60 m3/hr = 72 m3/hr
f = 5 cm/hr = 0.05 m/hr
y = 10 cm = 0.10 m
Now,
y Q
Time required for irrigating the strip of land, t 2.3 log
f Q fA
0.10 72
= 2.3 log = 0.65 hr = 39 min
0.05 72 0.05 400
Maximum area that can be irrigated is given by the equation:
Amax = 72 m2 = 1440 m2 = 1440/104 hectares = 0.144 hectares
0.05

5
Check Flooding
o Similar to Ordinary flooding
o Water is controlled by surrounding the check area with low and flat levees
o The check is filled with water at a fairly high rate and allowed to stand until the water infiltrates
o The confined plot area varies from 0.2 to 0.8 hectares
Ditch
Openings

Levees along
the contours

Connecting Levee

Fig: Check flooding (Plan view)

Adaptability:
It is suitable for low as well as high intake soils and for rice or other crops which can withstand
temporary flooding.

Advantages:
Effective leaching.
Maximum use of seasonal rainfall
High application efficiencies.

Limitations:
Soil crusting
Unsuitable for crops that cannot accommodate inundation.

Basin Flooding
o Special type of check flooding
o Adopted specially for Orchard trees
o One or more trees are generally placed in the basin
o Surface is flooded as in check method by ditch water

Subsidiary ditches

Entry of water through a bank MAIN DITCH

hole or by a hose siphon

Trees Basins

Fig: Basin Flooding (plan view)

6
Adaptability:
It is suitable for low as well as high intake soils.

Advantages:
Effective leaching
Maximum use of seasonal rainfall
High application efficiencies

Limitations:
Soil crusting
Unsuitable for crops that cannot accommodate inundation.
Application efficiency is comparatively high.

Furrow irrigation method

o Furrow are narrow field ditches, excavated between rows of plants and carry water through them
o Spacing of furrows is determined by proper spacing of the plants.
o Furrows vary from 8 to 30 cm deep and may be as much as 400 meters long
o Deep furrows are widely used for row crops.
o Small shallow furrow (called corrugations) suitable for irregular topography and close growing
crops such as meadows and small grains.
o Water diverted into the furrows by using rubber hose tubing.
o Hose prevents the necessity of breaking of the ditch bank and provides a uniform flow into the
furrow.
FURROWS
OR FIELD
DITCHES

ENTRY OF WATER THROUGH A BANK

HOLE OR BY A HOSE SYPHON

Fig: Plan view (Furrow irrigation method)

Adaptability:
It is suitable for row crops (like potatoes, groundnut, sugarcane etc.) and for medium to moderately fine
textured soil.

Advantage:
Only about one-fifth to one-half of the land surface is wetted by water. So, it results in less evaporation,
less pudding of soil.

Disadvantages:
Excessively long furrows may result in too much percolation near upper end and too little water
near the down-slope end.
It involves high initial cost and salt accumulation in the ridges.

7
Sprinkler irrigation method
o Water is applied to the soil in the form of a spray through a network of pipes and pumps.
o It is kind of an artificial rain and gives good results
o It is a costly process and not widely used in our country.
o It can be used for all types of soils and for widely different topographies and slopes.
o It fulfills the normal requirement of uniform distribution of water.

Adaptability:
This method can be used for almost all crops (except rice and jute) and on most soils.
It is best suited to sandy soils that have a high infiltration rate.
It can be applied to any topographic conditions without extensive land preparation.

Crops Sprinkling
Water

Water Supply

Fig: Plan view (sprinkler irrigation method)

Types of sprinkler systems:

Permanent system: In permanent system, pipes are permanently buried in such a way that they do
not interfere with the farming operations.
Semi-permanent system: In semi-permanent system, the main lines are buried in the ground, while
the laterals are portable.
Portable system: In the portable system, the mains as well as laterals are portable. These portable
networks can be moved from farm to farm
Advantages of sprinkler irrigation:
o Seepage losses, which occur in earthen channels of surface irrigation methods, are completely
eliminated. Moreover, only optimum quantity of water is used in this method
o Land leveling is not required and thus avoiding removal of top fertile soil, as happens in other
surface irrigation methods.
o No cultivation area is lost for making ditches results in increasing about 16 % of the cropped area
o The water is to be applied at a rate lesser than the infiltration capacity of the soil, and thus avoiding
surface run off.
o This method leaches down salts and prevents water-logging or salinity
o It is less labor oriented and hence useful where labor is costly and scarce.
o Up to 80% of applied water can be stored in the root zone of plants.
o Fertilizers can be uniformly applied, because they can mixed with irrigation water

Limitations of sprinkler irrigation:

o High winds may distort sprinkler pattern, causing non-uniform spreading of water on the crops.
o In areas of high temperature and high wind velocity, considerable evaporation losses of water my
take place.
o They are not suited to crops requiring frequent and larger depths of irrigation, such paddy.
o Initial cost of the system is very high, and the system requires a high technical skill
o A constant water supply is needed for commercial use of equipment
o Only sand and silt free water can be used, as otherwise pump impellers lifting such waters will get
damaged.
8
Drip irrigation method
o It is the latest field irrigation technique (also called trickle irrigation)
o Irrigation water is applied by using small diameter (12 to 32 mm) plastic lateral lines.
o The lateral lines contains some devices called emitters at selected spacing to deliver water to the
soil surface near the base of the plants.
o It is best suited for widely spaced plants, salt problems and for areas with water scarcity.
o In this method, water is slowly and directly applied to the root zone of the plants for minimizing
the losses by evaporation and percolation
o This method is being used for small nourishes, orchards, or gardens.

Water supply

Fig: Section view (Drip irrigation method)

Benefits:
Conventional losses such as deep percolation, runoff and soil water can be minimized by applying
a volume of water approaching the consumptive use of the plants.
Small area is wetted thereby reducing weed growth, insects and diseases etc.
Soil crusting and interference with harvesting is minimized.
Greater crop yield and better quality can be obtained.
For widely spaced like fruit trees, the system may be even more economical than sprinkler method
of irrigation.

Disadvantages:
High initial cost of the deep irrigation equipment sometimes limits its use to orchard and
vegetables in water scarcity areas.
Clogging of emitter may disrupt the irrigation system.
Plastic pipes may damaged by rodents.
Wind erosion can harm the pipes.
Like the sprinkler method, drip irrigation permits the simultaneous application of fertilizers
through the system.
When compared to the sprinkler system, the drip method operates on much lower line pressure,
thus providing a saving in energy requirements.

9
Irrigation Project Surveying
Availability of Irrigation Water
When it is found necessary to take up an irrigation project, the availability of required water
should be investigated. The following points should be considered
Whether any perennial river is available near the command area or not.
If an inundation river is available, the maximum discharge of that river is to be ascertained
from the highest flood level mark (as indicated by the villagers residing near the bank of
the river).
From various investigations (i.e. maximum discharge, rainfall etc.) it is necessary to
ascertain whether the river will be able to meet the total water requirement or not.

Selection of probable site for Barrage or Dam

When the source of water is available, the suitable site for the barrage or dam should be found out
considering the following points,
The course of the river should be straight at least for a distance of about one kilometer
both on the upstream and down-stream side of the site.
The width of the river should be minimum and the section of the river should be well-
defined.
A suitable basin should be available for the storage reservoir.
The elevation of the site should be higher than that of the culturable command area.
The storage reservoir should not submerge much valuable land.
The capacity of the reservoir should fulfill the total water requirement.

Discharge observation for the river

The gauge and discharge observation station should be established at the proposed site to collect
the following data:
The daily discharge, maximum discharge and minimum discharge of the river throughout
the year should be recorded.
Silt analysis should be carried out in rainy season (when the river carries much silt) to
determine the nature of sedimentation in river or reservoir.
Discharge observations should also be carried out for all the rivers crossing the proposed
canal. This is required for designing cross-drainage works.

Marking of GCA and Cultivable area

When it is decided to make up the project, the gross command area should be marked on the
topographic map. The culturable areas should be defined on the map to find the culturable
command area that is to be included in the project.

Marking of alignment of main canal

The alignment should be marked on the topographical map of the concerned area. While marking
the alignment the following points should be kept in mind.
The alignment of the main canal should be taken in such a way so that unnecessary cutting
and banking is avoided.
The alignment of the main canal should be such that the branch canals can be taken
suitably to cover the whole culturable area.
The alignment should cross the rivers, roads, railways lines etc. perpendicularly as much
as possible.
The alignment should not be taken through the valuable agricultural land.
The alignment should not pass through the thickly populated areas, religious places, burial
grounds, etc.

10
Preliminary location survey
The reconnaissance survey should be carried out along the alignment to record necessary data such
as obstacles, road crossings, railway crossings, river crossings, etc. This survey involves the
following procedures:
The approximate distance along the alignment should be measured by pacing and the
magnetic bearings of the traverse legs (open traverse) and it should be noted in the field
book.
The objects and the nature of the ground on both sides of the alignment should also be
noted in the field book.
The alignment may be diverted to avoid religious places, valuable structures, etc.
The alignment should be made to cross the rivers perpendicularly.
An index should be prepared for the alignment.

Final Survey:
a) Final location of Barrage or Dam: The final location of the barrage or dam site involves
the following steps:
The centre line of the barrage or dam site should be marked with pillars on both
banks of the river.
The cross-section of the barrage site should be taken very precisely.
Cross-sections should be taken at regular interval on the upstream side of the
barrage site to ascertain the storage capacity of the reservoir.
Boring test should be carried out along the centre line of the barrage site to
determine the depth and nature of foundation.

b) Route survey: A prismatic compass survey or plane table survey should be conducted
along the alignment of the main canal to prepare a route survey map of the area covering a
distance of about 30 m on both sides of the alignment.

c) Longitudinal leveling: The longitudinal leveling should be done along the alignment of
the main canal. Generally, the staff readings are taken at an interval of 20 m along the
centre line of the main canal. The magnetic bearings of the lines (traverse legs) should also
be noted in the level book. Longitudinal leveling for the branch canals should also be
done.

d) Cross-sectional leveling: The cross-sectional leveling at regular intervals along the

alignment of the main canal should be taken. The cross-sections for the branch canals also
should be taken. These cross-sections are required for the computation of volume of earth
work.

e) Data for cross drainage works: At the places of river crossings, road crossings, railway
crossings etc. additional data should be collected for designing cross-drainage works. At
the sites of river crossings the gauge and discharge observation stations should be
established.

f) Soil survey: The soil survey should be conducted along the alignment. It consists of
collecting the sample of soil by boring up to the depth until impervious layer is obtained.

g) Well observation: Well observation should be carried out along the alignment. This
operation consists of measuring the water level of the wells existing on both sides (within
50 m) of the alignment. This is done to know the nature of water table along the course of
the canal.

11
Preparation of drawings
Route survey map (to suitable scale).
Longitudinal sections for the main and branch canals with formation level (to suitable
scale).
Cross-sections of main and branch canals with formation level (to suitable scale).
Contour map along the alignment.
Design of curves with setting out table.

Office works
The sections of the canals should be designed.
The detailed estimate should be prepared to know the volume of earth work in cutting or
banking along the main canal and branch canals.
The total land width required should be marked on the route survey map.
The design of the barrage or dam, cross-drainage works and other allied structures should
be completed.
The detailed report should be prepared for the compensation. It includes the names of
owners, location, amount of properties, valuation of the land, etc.
The total cost of the project should be ascertained by considering all the aspects.

Justification of the selection of final alignment

After preliminary survey, the estimates for the tentative alignments (if taken) are prepared. Then
by comparing the total costs, working feasibility, etc. with the alignments the final alignment is
selected.

Final location survey

The final location survey of the approved alignment of the canal should be carried out for the
execution of the project works. It includes the following:
The center line of the main and branch canals should be marked with concrete pillars at
intervals of 30 m or 50 m.
The total land width required for the main and branch canals should be marked with pillars
at suitable intervals.

12
Irrigation Project Report
Introduction: The introduction of the project includes the following points:
Aim of the project
Location of the project
Total area to be covered within the project.
Total population to be benefited by the project.
Future prospect if irrigation is practiced.
Stages of future development.
Total cost of the project.

Necessity and economic justification

To justify the necessary and economical development of the area, the following points should be
clearly illustrated:
Amount of yearly rainfall.
Nature of distribution of rainfall during the crop season.
Types of major crops grown in the area.
Total water requirement of the crops.
Amount of water requirement by irrigation system.
Expected increase in yield of crops, if irrigation is practiced.
Total revenue expected.

Report on land acquisition and compensation

A detailed statement should be prepared showing the names of owners, types of properties,
quantity, amount of compensation, etc. The procedure adopted for the land acquisition should be
clearly mentioned.

Details of design and drawing of hydraulic structures

The detailed design procedure and drawing of hydraulic structures, canals and other allied
structures should be incorporated.

Detailed estimate
The detailed estimate for all the works of the project should be incorporated.

Specification
The specifications of the construction materials and different works should be clearly mentioned.

Availability of materials and laborers

The source of construction materials and places of recruitment of laborers should be mentioned.

Communication
The existing communication to the selected barrage or dam site should be pointed out. If new
communication is required for inaccessible site, the possible route should be pointed out and the
expenditure for the new route should be included in the project.

Maps
Topographical map of the area showing the canal alignment and barrage or dam site.
Route survey map.
Longitudinal sections.
Cross-sections.
Contour map of alignment.
Detailed drawing of barrage or dam, cross-drainage works, etc.

Conclusion and recommendation

After furnishing all the aspects of the project, the proposal is forwarded to the higher authority
with proper recommendation for the necessary approval.

13
 Course Teacher: Prof. Dr. M. R. Kabir

SOURCES & QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER

Sources of Irrigation Water

CHAPTER 2
Sources

Natural Artificial

Artificial
rainfall
Surface Water Precipitation Ground Water

Snow
melting

Static Flowing
Saline water
conversion

Round the year During parts of

a year

Natural Artificial
Lake Pond
Beel

Unconfined Aquifer Confined Aquifer

1
Considerations for using surface water as a source:
1. Lowest available water
2. Crop water requirement
Water needed (S1) = R1 x1
Where, R1 = Crop water requirement
x1 = Effective rainfall
3. Water quality (salinity & toxicity)
4. Water right Other users
Domestic water supply
Navigation
Fish culture
Industry
River morphology
5. Control structure
Initial cost
Operating & maintenance cost

Consideration for Ground Water:

Crop water requirement
Availability of surface water source
Position of ground water table
Water quality
Ground water recharge
Environmental impact

Conjunctive use of Surface Water & Ground Water

Use of both Surface Water (SW) & Ground Water (GW)
Such a way that Ground Water recharges & draft balances with each other.
Factors governing the percentage of sharing SW & GW
Natural recharge
Artificial recharge
Aquifer characteristics
Availability of surface water
Availability of fuel
Operation & maintenance cost for pumps
Economic consideration

Storage of Surface Water or rainfall:

Availability of space
Series of droughts can be easily overcome by GW storage
Water table control easier
Ground water is recharged

2
 Quality of irrigation water
Good quality water is essential for high production
Physical : Color, odor, silt
Chemical : Salt, alkaline
Biological : Coliform

Water quality related problems:

(1) Salinity:
Salts in soil or water reduce water availability to the crop to such an extent that yield is affected.
Salts accumulate in the root zone and the crop cannot extract sufficient water from the salty soil
solution.
The plants symptoms are
o Wilting or darker, bluish-green color & sometimes thicker leaves.
Leaching can remove the accumulated salts from the root zone.

(2) Water infiltration rate:

Relatively high sodium or low calcium content of soil or water reduce the rate of infiltration to
such an extent that sufficient water cannot be infiltrated to the crop adequately from one irrigation
to the neat.
This occurs within few centimeters of the soil surface and linked to the structural stability.
When a high sodium surface is developed it weakens the soil structure. The soil particles become
finer and clog the soil pores.

(3) Toxicity:
Certain ions (sodium, chloride or boron) from soil or water accumulate in a sensitive crop to
concentration high enough to cause crop damage and reduce yield.
Toxic ions absorbed with water in significant amounts, and transported to the leaves and they
accumulate during transportation.

(4) Miscellaneous:
Excessive nutrients reduce yield or quality.
Unsightly deposits fruit or foliage reduces marketability.
Excessive corrosion of equipment increases maintenance and repairs.
Sediments tend to fill the cannels, lands etc.
These include high nitrogen, prudence of silt, bicarbonate, iron.

Various impurities in irrigation water

Every water may not be suitable for plant life. The quality of suitable irrigation water is very much
influenced by the constituents of the soil which is to be irrigated. The various types of impurities, which
make the water unfit for irrigation, are classified as:
(1) Sediment concentration in water.
(2) Total concentration of soluble salts in water.
(3) Concentration of sodium ions to other cations.
(4) Concentration of potentially toxic elements present in water.
(5) Bicarbonate concentration as related to concentration of Ca plus Mg
(6) Bacterial concentration

The effects of these impurities are discussed below:

(1) Sediment concentration of soluble salts
The effect of sediment present in the irrigation water depends upon the type of irrigated land.
When fine sediment from water deposited on sand soils, the fertility is improved.
The sediment has been derived from the eroded areas; it may reduce the fertility or decrease
the soil permeability.
Sediment water increases the siltation and maintenance costs.
In general, ground water or surface water from reservoirs etc. does not have sufficient sediment to cause
any serious problems in irrigation.
3
(2) Total concentration of soluble salts
Salts of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium, present in the irrigation water may prove
injurious to plants. When present in excessive quantities, they reduce the osmotic activities of the plants,
and may present adequate aeration, causing injuries to plant growth. The injurious effects of salts on the
plant growth depend upon the concentration of salts left in the soil.
The effects of salts on plant growth depend largely upon the total amount of salts present in the soil
solution. The salinity concentration of the soil solution (Cs) after the consumptive water (Cu) has been
extracted from the soil, is given by
CQ
Cs = ------------------------------------- (2.1)
Q C u Peff
Where,
Q = Quantity of water applied
Cu = Consumptive use of water, i.e, the total amount of water used by the plant for its growth.
Peff = Useful rainfall
Cu Peff = Used up irrigation water
C = Concentration of salt in irrigation water
CQ = Total salt applied to soil with Q amount of irrigation water
Total salt concentration in water is expressed as:
(a) Parts per million parts of water (ppm)
(b) Milligram per liter of water (mg/l)
(c) Electrical Conductivity of water (EC)

(a) Parts per million (ppm)

The result of a chemical analysis of water are usually report in parts per million of the various
substances present in the sample. One part per million (ppm) means one part in a million parts. As
commonly measured and used, parts per million in numerically equivalent to milligrams per liter.

Amount in excess of 700 ppm Harmful to some plants

More than 2000 ppm Injuries to all crops

(b) Milligram per liter (mg/l)

(c) Electrical Conductivity (EC)

It is the reciprocal of the Electrical resistivity. Quantitively the electrical resistivity is the resistance,
in ohms, of a conductor, metallic or electrolytis, which is 1 cm long and has a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2
at 25oC. The terms Electrical Conductivity and specific electrical conductance have identical meanings.
Standard method of evaluating total salts present in irrigation water.

Electrical conductivity is expressed as the reciprocal of ohm/cm or mhos/cm.

milimhos per cm (mmhos/cm) or deci-siemens per meter (ds/m)

For convenience in units, millimhos/cm (10-3 mhos/cm) or micromhos/cm (10-6 mhos/cm) are used.

Electrical conductivity (EC) is expressed in micro mhos per centimeters ( S/cm).

SL No. Electrical Conductivity
(micro mhos/cm at 25o C)
1 Up to 250
2 250 to 750
3 750 to 2250
4 Above 2250
Type of water
Low Conductivity Water (C1)
Medium Conductivity Water (C2)
High Conductivity Water (C3)
Very High Conductivity Water (C4)

4
 The suitability of these four types of waters for irrigation supplies are discussed in Table below:
SL Type of water Use in irrigation
1 Low salinity water (C1). Can be used for irrigation for almost all crops and for almost all
Conductivity between 100 to kinds of soils. Very little salinity may develop, which may
250 micro mhos/cm at 25o C require slight leaching, but it is permissible under normal
irrigation practices except in soils of extremely low
permeabilities
2 Medium salinity water (C2). Can be used, if a moderate amount of leaching occurs. Normal
Conductivity between 250 to salt-tolerant plants can be grown without much salinity control
750 micro mhos/cm at 25o C
3 High salinity water (C3). Cannot be used on soils with restricted drainage. Special
Conductivity between 750 to precautions and measures are undertaken for salinity control
2250 micro mhos/cm at 25o C and only high-salt tolerant plants can be grown.
4 Very high salinity water (C4). Generally not suitable for irrigation
Conductivity more than 2250
micro mhos/cm at 25o C
(3) Relative proportion of sodium ions to other cations in irrigation water
Most of the soils contain Ca++ and Mg++ ions and small quantities of Na+. The percentage of the Na+ is
generally less than 5% of the total exchangeable cations. If this percentage increases to about 10% to more,
the aggregation of soil grains breaks down. The soil becomes less permeable and of poorer tilth. It starts
crusting when dry and its pH increases towards that of an alkaline soil. High sodium soils are, therefore,
plastic, sticky when wet, and are prone to form clods, and they crust on drying.
The methods for determining relative proportion of sodium ions to other cations are:
(a) Sodium absorption ratio (SAR)
(b) Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
(c) Sodium percentage (SP)
(a) Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR):
A ratio for soil extracts and irrigation water used to express the relative activity of sodium ions in
exchange reaction with soil in which the ionic concentration are expressed in milli-equivalents per liter.
SAR = Na
Ca Mg
2
[epm is obtained by dividing the concentration of salt in mg/l or ppm by its combining weight (i.e. Atomic
wt + Valence)]
SL No. SAR Type of water
1 0 to 10 Low Sodium Water (S1)
2 10 to 18 Medium Sodium Water (S2)
3 18 to 26 High Sodium Water (S3)
4 More than 26 Very High Sodium Water (S4)
The SAR value can be reduced by adding gypsum (CaSO4) to the water or to the soil.
SL Type of water Use in irrigation
1 Low Sodium Water (S1). SAR Can be used for irrigation on almost all soils and for
value lying between 0 to 10 almost all crops except those which are highly sensitive
to sodium, such as stone-fruit trees and avocados, etc.
2 Medium Sodium Water (S2). SAR Appreciably hazardous in fine textured soils, which may
value lying between 10 to 18 require gypsum, etc; but may be used on course textured
or organic soils with good permeability.
3 High Sodium Water (S3). SAR May prove harmful on almost all the soils, and do require
value lying between 18 to 26 good drainage, high leaching, gypsum addition etc. for
proper irrigation.
4 Very High Sodium Water (S4). Generally not suitable for irrigation
SAR value above 26
5
(b) Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP):
It is the degree of saturation of the soil exchange complex with sodium and may be calculated by
the following formula:
ESP = Exchangeab le Sodium (milli - equivalent /100 gm soil) 100
Cation exchange capacity (milli - equivalent /100 gm soil)
Where, ionic exchange is in milliequivalent per 100 gm soil

(c) Sodium Percentage (SP):

The moisture percentage of a saturated soil paste expressed on dry wt. basis.
Na
SP = 100
Na Ca Mg K
Where, ionic concentration is in (me/l)

(4) Concentration of potentially toxic elements

A large number of elements such as Boron, Selenium etc. may be toxic to plants.
Traces of Boron are essential to plant growth, but its concentrations above 0.3 ppm may prove
toxic to certain plants.
The concentration above 0.5 ppm is dangerous to nuts, citrus fruits and deciduous fruits.
Cotton, Cereals and certain truck crops are moderately tolerant to Boron, while Dates, Beets,
Asparagus etc. are quite tolerant.
Even for the most tolerant crops, the Boron concentration should not exceed 4 ppm.
Boron is generally present in various soaps.
The waste water containing soap, etc. should, therefore, be used with great care in irrigation.
Selenium even in low concentration, toxic, and must be avoided.

Boron concentrations of as little as 2 to 4 milligrams per liter may be harmful to crops. Some crops are
more tolerant to boron than others. Table below shows that beets have a relatively high tolerance whereas
pear, apple, and peach trees have a low tolerance.

Table: Relative tolerance of some crop to Boron

High Medium Low
Sugar beet Sunflower Pecan
Garden beet Cotton Black walnut
Alfalfa Radish Nary beam
Gladiolus Field peas Pear
Onion Barley Apple
Turnip Wheat Peach
Cabbage Corn
Lettuce Milo
Carrot Oats
Pumpkin
Sweet potatoes

(5) Bicarbonate concentration as related to concentration of calcium plus magnesium

High concentration of bi-carbonate ions may result in precipitation of calcium and magnesium bi-
carbonates from the soil-solution, increasing the relative proportion of sodium ions and causing sodium
hazards.
Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC)
o Indicate the residual carbonates in excess of the lime elements.
RSC = (CO3 + HCO3) (Ca++ + Mg++)
Where, ionic concentrations are in (me/l)

6
(6) Bacterial contamination
Bacterial contamination of irrigation water is not a serious problem, unless the crops irrigated with
highly contaminated water directly eaten, without being cooked. Cash crops like cotton, nursery stock, etc.
which are processed after harvesting, can, therefore, use contaminated waste waters, without any trouble.
Table: Quality Rating of Ground Water
EC SAR RSC
Water quality
(dS/m) (mmole/l)1/2 (me/l)
Good <2 < 10 < 2.5
Saline
(i) Marginally Saline 2 4 < 10 < 2.5
(ii) Saline 4 < 10 < 2.5
(iii) High SAR saline 4 > 10 < 2.5
Alkaline Water
(i) Marginally Alkali <4 < 10 2.5 4.0
(ii) Alkali <4 < 10 4.0
(iii) Highly Alkali Variable 10 4.0

1. Good Water, EC < 2, and SAR < 10

2. Saline Water, EC = 2, and SAR < 10
3. High SAR saline water, EC = 4, and SAR > 10
4. Alkali water, EC variable, SAR variable, RSC > 2.5

Precautions in saline water use:

Use of saline water in irrigation creates many problems. When situation demands its use, the following
points should be borne in mind:
Water should be applied in excess amount than required to meet the water deficit in the crop root
zone to leach down the surplus salts.
Excess salt should be leached down by abundant irrigation particularly before sowing.
Soil should be lighter in texture, porous and permeable so that the leaching operation is easy. Clay
soils do not allow easy leaching and are likely to become saline at a faster rate.
Irrigation should be frequently applied to avoid shortage of available water to plants and a sudden
variation in salt concentration of the salt solution.
Evaporation should be reduced as far as economically feasible. If it remains unchecked, it would
recharge the root zone soil with salts from below.
Water table should be lowered to a depth from which there is no reaching of water and salts in the
root zone. Low water table encourage a good drainage of the soil.
Land should be properly graded and leveled as greater salt accumulation occurs in higher part of
an uneven field.
Drainage of the field must be properly maintained to prevent water logging.
Soil should be maintained in good physical condition with addition of organic matter and by
proper tillage.
Liming of soil may be undertaken if sodium content of irrigation water is likely to cause injury to
soil or crops.
All corrective measures should be undertaken to keep sodium ion concentration in soil as low as
possible. Sodium ion concentration should not exceed 12 percent of the total cation exchange
capacity or the soil exchange complex.
Check method of irrigation should preferably be adopted in irrigation should be totally avoided.
A satisfactory and balanced schedule of fertilizer application to crops.
Salt tolerant crops should be grown.
The foregoing measures would make the use of saline water much safer for irrigation and ensure better
crop growth and yield.

7
Guidelines for using poor quality water:
Special consideration:
1) Use of gypsum when saline water (having SAR > 20 and/or Mg/Ca ratio > 3 and rich in silica)
induce water stagnation during rainy season and crops grown are sensitive to it.
2) Leaving the field fallow during the rainy season is helpful when SAR > 20 and water of higher
salinity and used in lower rainfall areas.
3) Additional phosphorus fertilization is beneficial especially when Cl/SO4 ratio in water is greater
than 20.
4) Canal water preferably be used growth stage including pre-sowing irrigation for conjunctive use
with saline water.
5) If saline water is to be used for seedling of crops 20% extra seed rate and quick post-sowing
irrigation (within 2 3 days) will ensure better germination
6) When ECiw < ECe (0 45 cm soil at harvest of rab crops) saline water irrigation just before the
onset of monsoon will lower soil salinity and will raise the antecedent soil moisture for greater salt
removal by rains.
7) Use organic materials in saline environment enhance yields.
8) Accumulation of B, NO3, Fe, Si, F, Se and heavy metals beyond critical limits proves toxic. Expert
advice prior to the use of such water may be obtained.
9) For soils having (i) shallow water table (within 1.5 m in kharif season) and (ii) hard sub-soil
layers, the next lower ECiw/alternative mode of irrigation (canal/saline) is applicable.

Leaching Requirement:
Leaching is the process of dissolving the soluble salts and removing the same from the desired soil
layers by the downward movement of water.
To leach out the excess salts, water is applied in a quantity more than the normal requirements of
the crops to avoid accumulation of salts.
It is done by ponding water on the soil surface by bunds or borders and allowing a downward
monument of water through the soil column
The efficiency of leaching depends on the amount of water applied, the uniformity of water
distribution and the adequacy of drainage in the field.
Fertilizers should be applied only after leaching is completed.

It may be expressed as,

LR = Dd/Diw = ECiw/ECd --------------------------------- (1)

Where,
LR = Leaching requirement, expressed as a ratio or as percent
ECiw = Electrical conductivity of irrigation water, mS/cm
ECd = Electrical conductivity of drainage water, mS/cm
Dd = Depth of drainage water, cm

The leaching requirement is the additional water required to the normal consumptive use of water
by crops. Therefore,
Diw = Dc + Dd ---------------------------------- (2)

Where,
Dc = Consumptive use of water

Using equation (3) to estimate Dd from equation (4)

Diw = Dc/(1 LR) --------------------- (3)

Again, expressing the leaching requirement in equation (2) as EC ratio of irrigation and drainage waters,
equation (3) stands as:

Diw = [ECd/(ECd ECiw)] De ----------------------- (4)

8
The ECiw can be known from chemical analysis of irrigation water and ECd is taken based on permissible
salt tolerance limits of the crop. The maximum concentration of salts considered permissible in the soil
solution is 4 mmhos/cm. The estimated leaching requirements are usually high for saline waters, because
they are based on a continuous leaching program.

Another equation for determining leaching requirements in soil

EC w
LR =
5 ECe EC w

Relation between Leaching Requirement (LR), Available Water (AW) and Evapotranspiration (ET) is
ET
AW =
1 LR

Leaching requirement of saline soil:

The depth of irrigation water per unit depth of soil, required to produce any specified increase in
salinity for any given conductivity of irrigation water can be estimated from the relationship is given
below:
Diw/Ds = ds/dw SP/100 ECe/ECiw -------------------------- (5)
Where,
Diw = Depth of irrigation water, cm
Ds = Depth of soil, cm
ds = Density of soil (bulk density), gm/cm3
dw = density of irrigation water, gm/cm3
ECe = Change in electrical conductivity of saturation extract of the soil
ECiw = Electrical conductivity of irrigation water, S/cm

Under high water table conditions, evaporation brings up the soluble salts and deposits the salts in upper
layers of soil increasing the salinity. The change in salinity of the soil may be determined by the following
equation:
ECe = Dg/DsECg/SPdw/ds100 -------------------------- (6)

Where,
Dg = Depth of ground water evaporated, cm
ECg = Electrical conductivity of ground water, mS/cm

Equation (6) is derived from the relationship expressed in equation (5)

Leaching Method
Leaching of soil is done by ponding water on the soil surface by bunds or borders and allowing a
downward movement of water through the soil column.
Rectangular checks and level borders are employed when the soil is level.
Contour checks can be used when the land slope is more.
Sprinkler irrigation is usefully employed to leach out salts especially when the soils are cracked
and very permeable.
Intermittent ponding of water is superior to continuous ponding of water for effective leaching.
The efficiency of leaching depends on the amount of water applied, the uniformity of water
distribution and the adequacy of drainage in the field.
The sensitive crops or the crops with low salt tolerance have higher leaching requirement and
require frequent leaching during a growing season. Leaching of salts once or twice in a growing
season is enough for salt tolerant crops. It is usually needed to apply little more water than actually
required by crops in areas where salinity is a problem. Occasional analysis of soil is required
where irrigation water contains salts.

9
In areas where leaching is practiced for growing crops, fertilizers should be applied only after leaching is
completed and in little higher amounts to make up the loss of nutrients during leaching of salts. The
nitrogenous fertilizers are highly soluble and are prone to leaching.

In areas where salinity is a problem and leaching of salt is essential for crop growing, the drainage of land
should be good. Usually, a high water table and the soil salinity occur simultaneously.

Planning of irrigation development should also consider the development of drainage in particular region.
If the ground water is of good quality, the water the high water table can be pumped out and used for
irrigation in the area or in the nearby areas.

The following relationships are often used to express the salt concentration of irrigation water:
Salt concentration, mg/l or ppm = 640EC, mmhos/cm
Total cation concentration, me/l = 10EC, mmhos/cm
When EC is measured up to the range of 5 mmhos/cm at 25o C
Osmotic pressure, atmospheres = 0.36EC mmhos/cm
Parts per million (ppm)/equivalent weight = me/l
[me/l to ppm = sum of the product of the milliequivalent of each ion its equivalent weight]

Equivalent weight = Atomic weight/valency

Worked Out Problems:

Problem 1
a) What is the classification of irrigation water having the following characteristics: Concentration of
Na, Ca and Mg are 22, 3 and 1.5 milli-equivalents per liter respectively, and the electrical
conductivity is 200 mhos/cm at 25o C?
b) What problems might arise in using this water on fine textured soils?
c) What remedies do you suggest to overcome this trouble?
Solution:

(a) SAR = Na = 22 = 14.67

Ca Mg 3 1 .5
2 2

If SAR value is between 10 to 18, then it is classified as Medium Sodium Water and is represented by S2
(See table)
If the value of Electrical Conductivity is between 100 to 250 micro mhos per cm at 25o C, the water is
called of Low Conductivity (C1) (See table)
Hence, the given water is classified as C1-S2 water (ans)

(b) In fine-textured soils, the medium sodium (S2) water may create the following problems:
(i) Soil becomes less permeable.
(ii) It starts crusting when dry.
(iii) It becomes plastic and sticky when wet.
(iv) Its pH increases towards that of alkaline soil.

(c) Gypsum (CaSO4) addition, either to soil or to water is suggested to overcome sodium hazards posed by
the given water.

10
Problem 2
Express 8300 ppm of sodium salt concentration in mmhos/cm, mhos/cm and mhos/cm
Solution:
We know, Salt concentration in ppm or mg/l of water = 640 EC in mmhos/cm
EC = ppm salt concentration/640 = 8300/640 = 12.97 mmhos/cm
= 12.97 1000 = 12970 mhos/cm
= 12.97/1000 = 0.012 mhos/cm
Problem 3
Express 2300 ppm sodium chloride salt concentration in me/l of water.
Solution:
We know,
Salt concentration in me/l = salt concentration in ppm/Equivalent weight -------------- (1)
Equivalent weight of NaCl = 23 + 35.45 = 58.45
From equation (1)
Salt concentration = 2300/58.45 = 39.35 me/l

Problem 4
Work out the equivalence of 2.6 mhos/cm Electrical Conductivity in osmotic pressure in atmospheres.
Solution:
We know, Osmotic Pressure (atm) = 0.36Electrical Conductivity, mmhos/cm
= 0.362.6 = 0.936 atmospheres
Problem 5
A sample of water from a well showed that it has an electrical conductivity of 1 mmhos/cm and a density
of 1 gm/cm3. A field with a bulk density of soil of 1.48 gm/cm3 and saturation point of 36 percent will be
irrigated. Work out the depth of irrigation that may turn the 30 cm depth of soil saline ignoring the
precipitation and leaching of salts that may occur.
Solution: Where,
Diw/Ds = ds/dw SP/100 ECe/ECiw Ds = 30 cm
Diw = Ds (ds SP ECe/dw100ECiw) ds = 1.48 gm/cm3
= 30[1.48364/(11001)] dw = 1.0 gm/cm3
= 63.94 cm SP = 36 %
ECe = 4 mmhos/cm
ECiw = 1 mmhos/cm
Problem 6
Find out the leaching requirement of a soil when the Electrical Conductivity of the saturated extract of the
soil is 9 mmhos/cm that caused 15 % reduction in yield of field pea. The EC of irrigation water is 1.2
mmhos/cm.
Solution:
LR (%) = ECiw/ECd 100
But, ECd = 2 ECe = 29 = 18 mmhos/cm
LR = 1.2/18100 = 6.7 %
This means that to maintain the soil salinity within the permissible limit, 7 % more irrigation water over
the N.I.R is needed.

11
Practice Problems
1. A 5 gm soil sample on chemical analysis shows that it has 2.5 milliequivalents of exchangeable
cations and 1.25 milliequivalents of exchangeable sodium ions. Determine the cation exchange
capacity in me/100 gm soil and the exchangeable sodium in percent.

2. A 5 gm soil sample on reaction with 100 ml gypsum solution having a concentration of 32 me/l
calcium showed that the filtrate contained 30.5 me/l of calcium and magnesium. Determine the
gypsum requirement of the soil per hectare.

3. Estimate the possible change in soil salinity owing to evaporation of 9 cm ground water having an
electrical conductivity of 10 mmhos/cm over a period of 3 months. The 30 cm depth of soil has a
mean bulk density of 1.45 gm/cm3 and saturation point of 40 %. The density of water assumed as 1
gm/cm3. It is considered that the 30 cm depth of soil will be affected by the rise in salt
concentration.

4. Calculate the irrigation requirement of a wheat crop when the leaching requirement of the wheat
soil is 15 percent and the soil water has been depleted to 50 percent. The available water holding
capacity of the root zone is 12 cm.

12
 Course Teacher: Prof. Dr. M. R. Kabir

CONSUMPTIVE USE & ESTIMATION OF IRRIGATION

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS

1. Definition of Consumptive Use:

CHAPTER 3
Consumptive use (CU), or Evapotranspiration (ET), is the sum of two terms:

(a) Transpiration:
Water entering plant roots and used to build plant tissue or being passed through leaves of the plant
into the atmosphere

(b) Evaporation:
Water evaporating from adjacent soil, water surfaces, and surfaces of leaves of the plant or intercepted
precipitation

2. Factors affecting CU or ET:

It consists of:
(a) Evaporation affected by:
The degree of saturation of soil surface
Temperature of air and soil
Humidity
Wind velocity
Extent of vegetative cover etc.

(b) Transpiration affected by:

Climate factors:
Temperature
Humidity
Wind speed
Duration & intensity of light
Atmospheric vapor pressure
Soil factors:
Texture
Structure
Moisture content
Hydraulic conductivity

Plant factors:
Efficiency of root systems in moisture absorption
The leaf are
Leaf arrangement and structure
Stomatal behavior

3. Direct Measurement of ET/CU:

(a) Tank or Lysimeter experiments:

Lysimeter experiments involve the growing of crops in large containers (lysimeters) and
measuring their water and grains.

Limitations:
Reproduction of physical conditions such as temperature, water table, soil texture, density etc.
Three types of lysimeters:

1
(i) Non-weighing constant water table type:
ET ET ET

RUN-OFF

A B C

PERCOLATION PERCOLATION

Fig: Non weighing constant water table type lysimeter

Constant water level is maintained by applying water
Effective rainfall (Re) and irrigation (I) are measured by rain-gauges and calibrated container
The overflow (R) and deep percolation (Dr), if any, are measured.
ET = I + Re R Dr
Re, R, Dr, may be zero depending on site condition
This method is applicable where high water table in soil exists

(ii) Non-weighing percolation type:

Consumptive Use (CU) is computed by adding measured quantities of irrigation water, the
effective rainfall received during the season and the contribution of moisture from the soil.

PUMP TUBE AIR VENT

NATURAL SOIL
FILLED SOIL
93 cm

BRONZE WIRE GRID ON

TRIPOD SUPPORTING SOIL
10 cm
2 cm
0.5 cm

56 cm

SHALLOW SLOPING
PERCOLATE STORAGE CONCRETE FLOOR
SPACE

Fig: Non weighing percolation type lysimeter

2
 n
M bi M ei
ET = I + Re Dr + Ai Di
i 1 100

Where, ET = Evapotranspiration
I = Total irrigation water applied (mm)
Re = Effective rainfall (mm)
Mbi = Moisture content at the beginning of the season in the ith layer of the soil
Mei = Moisture content at the end of the season in the ith layer of the soil
Ai = Apparent specific gravity of the ith layer of soil
Di = Depth of the ith layer of the soil with root zone (mm)
n = No. of soil layers in the root zone

Applicable for areas having high precipitation

Special arrangements are made to drain and measure the water percolating through
the soil mass

(iii) Weighing type:

ACTIVE DUMMY
STANDPIPE STANDPIPE

WOODEN
BLOCK

PILLOWS

Fig: Non weighing percolation type lysimeter

ET is determined by taking the weight of the tank and making adjustment for any rain
Provides the most accurate data for short time periods

(b) Soil Moisture Depletion Studies:

ET

R RO

SW
Root zone

Dr

Fig: Soil moisture depletion study facility

The soil is sampled 2 to 4 days after irrigation and again 7 to 15 days later or just before the
next irrigation
Only those sampling periods are considered in which rainfall is light. This is done to minimize
drainage and percolation errors

3
 The depth to ground water should be such that it will not influence the soil moisture fluctuation
within the root zone.
It cannot be applied where water table is high

ET = I + R Ro Dr + SW

n
M 1i M 2i
Where, SW = Ai Di
i 1 100

M1i = moisture content at the time of 1st sampling in the ith layer
M2i = moisture content at the time of 2nd sampling in the ith layer

4. Estimation of ET using Empirical Equations:

(a) Blaney-Criddle Formula:

It is used extensively.
It gives good estimates of seasonal water needs under arid condition as was developed initially.
Limitation: not suitable for a period shorter than 1 month.

Cu = (k.p)/40 [1.8t + 32]

Cu = Monthly consumptive use in cm.
k = Crop factor, determined by experiments
t = Mean monthly temperature in oC
p = Monthly percent of annual day light hours that occur during the period
If (p/40)[1.8t + 32] is represented by f, we get
Cu = k. f

[k values are to be read from Table 7.5 (Israelsen]

Problem-1
Wheat has to be grown at a certain place, the useful climatological conditions of which are tabulated
below. Determine the evapo-transpiration and consumptive irrigation requirement of wheat crop. Also
determine the field irrigation requirement if the water application efficiency is 80%. Use Blaney-Criddle
equation and a crop factor is 0.8.
Month Monthly temperature (oC) Monthly percent of day time Useful rainfall in cm
averaged over the last 5 hour of the year computed averaged over the last
years from the Sun-shine 5 years
November 18.0 7.20 1.7
December 15.0 7.15 1.42
January 13.5 7.30 3.01
February 14.5 7.10 2.75

Solution:
Blaney Criddle Equation is
Cu = k P [1.8 t + 32]
40
= k. f

4
 t (oC) p (hour) Re (cm) f = P/40(1.8t + 32) (cm)
Month
November 18.0 7.20 1.7 11.6

December 15.0 7.15 1.42 10.5

January 13.5 7.30 3.01 10.3

February 14.5 7.10 2.75 10.3

= 8.38 = 42.7

Cu = k. f = 0.8 42.7 = 34.16 cm

Hence, Consumptive use, Cu = 34.16 cm

Consumptive irrigation requirement, C.I.R = Cu Re = 34.16 8.38 = 25.78 cm

Field irrigation requirement, F.I.R = C.I.R/ a = 25.78/0.8 = 32.225 cm

Problem-2:
Determine the volume of water required to be diverted from the head works to irrigate area of 5000 ha
using the data given in the table below. Assume 80 % as the effective precipitation to take care of the
consumptive use of the crop. Also assume 50 % efficiency of water application in the field and 75 % as the
conveyance efficiency of canal.
% hours of Rainfall Consumptive coefficient
Month Temperature (oF)
sunshine (mm) or Crop factor (k)
June 70.8 9.90 75 0.80
July 74.4 10.20 108 0.85
August 72.8 9.60 130 0.85
September 71.6 8.40 115 0.85
October 69.3 7.86 105 0.65
November 55.2 7.25 25 0.65
December 47.1 6.42 0 0.60
January 48.8 8.62 0 0.60
February 53.9 9.95 0 0.65
March 60.0 8.84 0 0.70
April 62.5 8.86 0 0.70
May 67.4 9.84 0 0.75

5
Solution:
% hours Rainfall Crop k. p
Month Temp (oF) Cu = kf = .t
of (cm) factor 40
sunshine (k) (cm)
{(5) (3) (2)}/40
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
June 70.8 9.90 7.5 0.80 14.02
July 74.4 10.20 10.8 0.85 16.13
August 72.8 9.60 13.0 0.85 14.85
September 71.6 8.40 11.5 0.85 12.78
October 69.3 7.86 10.5 0.65 8.85
November 55.2 7.25 2.5 0.65 6.50
December 47.1 6.42 0 0.60 4.54
January 48.8 8.62 0 0.60 6.31
February 53.9 9.95 0 0.65 8.71
March 60.0 8.84 0 0.70 9.28
April 62.5 8.86 0 0.70 9.68
May 67.4 9.84 0 0.75 12.44
55.8 124.09 cm

Total consumptive use = 124.09 cm

Useful rainfall = 80 % of total precipitation (given)
= (0.80 55.8) cm = 44.64 cm

Net irrigation requirement, N.I.R = Cu Re = 124.09 44.64 = 79.45 cm

Field irrigation requirement, F.I.R = N.I.R/a = 79.45/50% = 79.45/0.5 = 158.9 cm

c = conveyance efficiency = 75 % = 0.75

Gross irrigation requirement, G.I.R = F.I.R/c = 158.9/0.75 = 211.87 cm

Volume of water requirement for 5000 hectares area = 211.87 m (5000104 m2)
100
= 105.93 106 m3

6
(b) Hargreaves class A pan evaporation method:
The quantity of water (Ep) evaporated from the standard class A evaporation pan is measured.
The pan is 1.2 m in diameter, 25 cm deep, and bottom is raised 15 cm above the ground surface.
The depth of water is maintained such that the water surface is at least 5 cm, and never more than
7.5 cm, below the top of the pan.

Water level in pan

50

255

GL 150

1210 Dia.
Wooden
support (SQ)
Fig: Class A evaporation pan

Evapotranspiration is related to pan evaporation by a constant k, called consumptive use co-

efficient.
Pan evaporation E p
=k
Evapotrans piration E t or C u
Et or Cu = k Ep
Consumptive use co-efficient, k varies with crop type; crop growth etc. values of k are found from
Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Hargreasives Average Values of Consumptive Use Coefficient k (Et = k Ep)

% of Consumptive use coefficient (k) to be multiplied by class A Pan Evaporation (Ep), i.e. Et =
crop k Ep
growing Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E Group F Group G Rice
season
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
0 0.20 0.15 0.12 0.08 0.90 0.60 0.50 0.80
5 0.20 0.15 0.12 0.08 0.90 0.60 0.55 0.90
10 0.36 0.27 0.22 0.15 0.90 0.60 0.60 0.95
15 0.50 0.38 0.30 0.19 0.90 0.60 0.65 1.00
20 0.64 0.48 0.38 0.27 0.90 0.60 0.70 1.05
25 0.75 0.56 0.45 0.33 0.90 0.60 0.75 1.10
30 0.84 0.63 0.50 0.40 0.90 0.60 0.80 1.14
35 0.92 0.69 0.55 0.46 0.90 0.60 0.85 1.17
40 0.97 0.73 0.58 0.52 0.90 0.60 0.90 1.21
45 0.99 0.74 0.60 0.58 0.90 0.60 0.95 1.25
50 1.00 0.75 0.60 0.65 0.90 0.60 1.00 1.30
55 1.00 0.75 0.60 0.71 0.90 0.60 1.00 1.30
60 0.99 0.74 0.60 0.77 0.90 0.60 1.00 1.30
65 0.96 0.72 0.58 0.82 0.90 0.60 0.95 1.25
70 0.91 0.68 0.55 0.88 0.90 0.60 0.90 1.20
75 0.85 0.64 0.51 0.90 0.90 0.60 0.85 1.15
80 0.75 0.56 0.45 0.90 0.90 0.60 0.80 1.10
85 0.60 0.45 0.36 0.80 0.90 0.60 0.75 1.00
90 0.46 0.35 0.28 0.70 0.90 0.60 0.70 0.90
95 0.28 0.21 0.17 0.60 0.90 0.60 0.55 0.80
100 0.20 0.20 0.17 0.60 0.90 0.60 0.50 0.20

7
(c) FAO Penman-Monteith equation:

900
0.408 Rn G u2 es ea
T 273
ETo =
1 0.34 u 2

Where,
ETo = Reference crop (green grass) evapotranspiration (mm/day)
= Slope of saturation vapor pressure vs temperature curve at mean air temperature, kPa per oC
(Fig 7.4 in book by Micheal)

Rn = Net radiation, MJ/m2 per day, can be calculated from actual sunshine hour and other weather data
G = Soil heat flux, MJ/m2 per day
= Psychometric constant, the ratio of specific heat of air to the latent heat of evaporation of water, kPa
per oC
T = Mean air temperature, oC
u2 = Wind speed at 2 m height (m/s)
es = Saturation vapor pressure of the evaporating surface at mean air temperature, kPa
ea = Actual vapor pressure, kPa

For monthly value, G = 0.14 (Ti Ti-1)

Where, Ti = Mean air temperature for the month (oC)

Ti-1 = Mean air temperature for the previous month (oC)

G = 0 for 10 days or short period

e o Tmax e o Tmin
es =
2
o 17.27 T
e (T) = 0.611exp kpa
T 237.3
RH mean
ea = es
100
Where, RHmean = Mean relative humidity

ET of a specific crop,
ETcrop = Kc ETo

Where, Kc = Crop co-efficient

The crop co-efficient is basically the ratio of the crop ET to reference ET and represents the integral effects
of four primary characteristics:
Crop height
Albedo
Canopy resistance
Evaporation from soil
The Kc value of a crop varies with growth stages of crops

FAO developed software, CROPWAT

Input data: Latitude, altitude, temperature, relative humidity, daily sunshine, wind speed
Sample output:

8
5. Effective Rainfall (Re):
Precipitation falling during the growing period of a crop that is available to meet the evapotranspiration
needs of the crop is called effective rainfall.
It is that part of rainfall which is available to meet ET needs of the crop
Re = R Rr Dr
Where, R = Precipitation
Rr = Surface runoff
Dr = Deep percolation
Factors affecting Re:
Rainfall characteristics (intensity, frequency and duration)
Land slope
Soil characteristics
Ground water level
Crop characteristics (ET rate, root depth, stage of growth, ground cover)
Land management practices (bunding, terracing, mulching reduce runoff and increase Re)
Carryover of soil moisture (from previous season)
Surface and sub-surface in and out flows
Deep percolation etc.
Generally a percentage of total rainfall is taken as effective rainfall
6. Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR):
NIR = ETc Re Ge SW
Where, ETc = Consumptive use by crop
Re = Effective rainfall
Ge = Ground water contribution
SW = Stored soil-moisture
In irrigation planning and design, Ge and SW are ignored to be on safe side
7. Consumptive Irrigation Requirement (CIR):
Irrigation water required in order to meet the evapo-transpiration needs of the crop during its full
growth.
CIR = (Cu) - (Re)
8. Field Irrigation Requirement (FIR):
It is the amount of water required to be applied to the field
FIR = NIR + water application losses
= NIR/Ea
Where, Ea = Water application efficiency
9. Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR):
It is the amount of water required at the head of a canal
GIR = FIR + conveyance loss
= FIR/Ec
Where, Ec = Conveyance efficiency
10. Irrigation Efficiencies:
Efficiency of water-conveyance (c): It is the ratio of the water delivered into the fields from the
outlet point of the channel, to the water pumped into the channel at the starting point.
Efficiency of water application (a): It is the ratio of the quantity of water stored into the root
zone of the crops to the quantity of water actually delivered into the field.
Efficiency of water-storage (s): It is the ratio of the water stored in the root zone during
irrigation to the water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation.
Efficiency of water use (u): It is the ratio of the water beneficially used including leaching water,
to the quantity of water delivered.
Uniformity coefficient or water distribution efficiency(d): The effectiveness of irrigation may
also be measured by its water distribution efficiency, which is defined below:
d = (1-d/D)
Where, d = Water distribution efficiency
D = Mean depth of water stored during irrigation
d = Average of the absolute values of deviations from the mean.

9
Problem-3
The depths of penetrations along the length of a border strip at points 30 meters apart were measured.
Their values are 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.6 and 1.5 meters. Compute the distribution efficiency.
Solution:
Mean depth, D = (2.0 + 1.9 + 1.8 + 1.6 + 1.5)/5 = 1.76 m
Values of deviations from the mean are (2.0 1.76), (1.9 1.76), (1.8 1.76), (1.6 1.76), (1.5 1.76)
= 0.24, 0.14, 0.04, 0.16, 0.26
The absolute values of these deviations from the mean are 0.24, 0.14, 0.04, 0.16, and 0.26
The average of these absolute values of deviations from the mean,
d = (0.24 + 0.14 + 0.04 + 0.16 + 0.26)/5 = 0.168 m
d 0.168
The water distribution efficiency, d = 1 = 1 = 0.905 100 = 90.5%
D 1.76

Problem-4
One cumec of water is pumped into a farm distribution system, 0.8 cumec is delivered to a turn-out, 0.9
kilometer from the well. Compute the conveyance efficiency.
Solution:
By definition,
c = Output/input 100 = 0.8/1.0 100 = 80 %

Problem-5
10 cumec of water is delivered to a 32 hectare field, for 4 hours. Soil probing after the irrigation indicates
that 0.3 meter of water has been stored in the root zone. Compute the water application efficiency.
Solution:
Volume of water supplied by 10 cumec of water applied for 4 hours = (1046060) m3
= 144000 m3
= 14.4 104 m3
= 14.4 m 104 m2
= 14.4 hectare-meter
Input = 14.4 hectare-meter
Output = 32 hectares land is storing water upto 0.3 m depth
Output = 32 0.3 hectare-meter = 9.6 hectare-meter
Water application efficiency (a) = Output/input 100 = (9.6/14.4) 100 = 66.67 %

Problem-6
A stream of 130 liters per second was diverted from a canal and 100 liters per second were delivered to the
field. An area of 1.6 hectares was irrigated in 8 hours. The effective depth of root zone was 1.7 m. The
runoff loss in the field was 420 m3. The depth of water penetration varied linearly from 1.7 m at the head
end of the field to 1.1 m at the tail end. Available moisture holding capacity of the soil is 20 cm per meter
depth of soil. It is required to determine the (a) water conveyance efficiency, (b) water application
efficiency, (c) water storage efficiency and (d) water distribution efficiency. Irrigation was started at a
moisture extraction level of 50% of the available moisture.
Solution:
Water delivered to the fields
(a) Water conveyance efficiency (c) = 100
Water supplied into the canal at the head
100
= 100 = 77%
130
Water stored in the root zone during irrigation
(b) Water application efficiency (a) = 100
Water delivered to the field

Water supplied to field during 8 hours @ 100 liters per second = 100 86060 liters
= 2.88 106 liters
= 2.88 106/103 m3
= 2880 m3
10
 Runoff loss in the field = 420 m3
The water stored in the root zone = 2880 420 m3 = 2460 m3
2460
Water application efficiency (a) = 100 = 85.4%
2880
Water stored in the root zone during irrigation
(c) Water storage efficiency (s) = 100
Water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation
Moisture holding capacity of soil = 20 cm per m length 1.7 m height of root zone = 34 cm
50
Moisture already available in root zone at the time of start of irrigation = 34 = 17 cm
100
Additional water required in root zone = 34 17 = 17 cm
17
Amount of water required in root zone = Depth Plot area = (1.6104) m3 = 2720 m3
100
But actual water stored in root zone = 2460 m3
2460
Water storage efficiency (s) = 100 = 90% (say)
2720

d
(d) Water distribution efficiency, d = 1
D
Mean depth of water stored in the root zone, D = (1.7 + 1.1)/2 = 1.4 m
1.7 1.4 1.1 1.4 0.3 0.3
Average of the absolute values of deviations from the mean, d = = = 0.3 m
2 2
d 0.30
Water distribution efficiency, d = 1 = 1 = 0.786 100 = 78.6%
D 1.4
11. Irrigation Scheduling:
Irrigation schedule is a decision making process involving:
When to irrigate?
How much water to apply each time?
How to apply (method of irrigation)?
Available Water (AW):
The water contained in the soil between FC and PWP is known as the available water.
Total Available Water (TAW):
The amount of water which will be available for plants in root zone is known as Total Available
Water (TAW). It is the difference in volumetric moisture content at FC and that at PWP,
multiplied by root zone depth.
Management Allowable Depletion (MAD):
MAD is the degree, to which water in the soil is allowed to be depleted by management decision
and expressed as,
MAD = f TAW
Where, f = Allowable depletion (%)
Reference crop Evapotranspiration (ETo):
The rate of evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of 8 15 cm tall, green grass cover of
uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water is known
as reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo)
Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc):
The depth of water need to meet the water loss through evapotranspiration of a disease free
crop, growing in large fields under non-restricting soil conditions including water and fertility and
achieving full production potential under the given growing environment.
Crop Co-efficient (kc):
The ratio of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) to the reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is called
Crop co-efficient (kc).
kc = ETc/ETo
11
Water Requirements of Crops
Arid Region and Semi Arid Region
Water requirements of a crop mean the total quantity and the way in which a crop requires water
from the time it is sown to the time it is harvested.
Water requirements depend on: water table, crop, ground slope, intensity of irrigation, method of
application of water, place, climate, type of soil, method of cultivation and useful rainfall.

Crop Period or Base Period

The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its harvesting is called
the crop period.
The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of its sowing to its last watering before
harvesting is called the base period.

Duty and Delta of a Crop

Delta: The total quantity of water required by the crop for its full growth may be expressed in hectare-
meter or simply as depth to which water would stand on the irrigated area if the total quantity supplied
were to stand above the surface without percolation or evaporation. This total depth of water is called delta
().

Problem 7:
If rice requires about 10 cm depth of water at an average interval of about 10 days, and the crop period for
rice is 120 days, find out the delta for rice.
Solution:
No. of watering required = 120/10 = 12
Total depth of water required in 120 days = 10 12 = 120 cm
for rice = 120 cm
Problem 8:
If wheat requires about 7.5 cm of water after every 28 days, and the base period for wheat is 140 days,
find out the value of delta for wheat.
Solution:
No. of watering required = 140/28 = 5
Total depth of water required in 140 days = 7.5 5 = 37.5 cm
for wheat = 37.5 cm
Duty: It may be defined as the number of hectares of land irrigated for full growth of a given crop by
supply of 1 m3/s of water continuously during the entire base of that crop.
Simply we can say that, the area (in hectares) of land can be irrigated for a crop period, B (in days) using
one cubic meter of water.
Factors on which duty depends
o Type of crop
o Climate and season
o Useful rainfall
o Type of soil
o Efficiency of cultivation method

Importance of Duty
It helps us in designing an efficient canal irrigation system. Knowing the total available water at the
head of a main canal, and the overall duty for all the crops required to be irrigated in different seasons of
the year, the area which can be irrigated can be worked out.
Inversely, if we know the crops area required to be irrigated and their duties, we can work out the
discharge required for designing the channel.

Measures for improving duty of water

The duty of canal water can certainly be improved by effecting economy in the use of water by
resorting to the following precautions and practices:

12
Precautions in field preparation and sowing:
o Land to be used for cultivation should, as far as possible, be leveled
o The fields should be properly ploughed to the required depth
o Improved modern cultivation methods may preferably be adopted
o Porous soils should be treated before sowing crops to reduce seepage of water
o Manure fertilizers should be added to increase water holding capacity of the soil
Precautions in handling irrigation supplies:
o The source of irrigation water should be situated within the prescribed limits
o Canals carrying irrigation supplies should be lined to reduce seepage and evaporation
o Water courses may preferably be lined to reduce on field requirement of water
o Irrigation supplies should be economically used by proper control on its distribution
o Free flooding of fields should be avoided and furrow irrigation method may preferably be adopted,
if surface irrigation is resorted to.
o Sub surface irrigation and Drip irrigation may be preferred to ordinary surface irrigation.
Relation between Duty and Delta
Let,
There be a crop of base period B days and
1 m3/s of water is applied to this crop on the field for B days.
Now, the volume of water applied to this crop during B days, V = (1 60 60 24 B) m3
= 86,400 B m3
This quantity of water (V) matures D hectares of land or 104 D m2 of area
The depth of water applied on this land
86,400B 8.64B
= Volume = = meters
Area 10 4 D D

By definition, this total depth of water is called delta ()

8.64B
= meters
D
864B
= cm
D
Where, is in cm
B is in days
D is duty in hectares/cumec
Problem 9:
Find the delta for a crop when its duty is 864 hectares/cumec on the field, the base period of this crop is
120 days.
Solution: In this question, B = 120 days and D = 864 hectares/ cumec
= 864B/D = 864 120/864 = 120 cm

Crop Season
From the agricultural point of view, the year can be divided into two principal cropping seasons:

Rabi Starts from 1st October and ends on 31st March

Kharif crops are also called summer crops
Example: Rabi crops are rice, bajra, jowar, maize, cotton, tobacco, groundnut etc
Kharif Starts from 1st April and ends on 30th September
Rabi crops are winter crops
Example: Kharif crops are wheat, barley, gram, linseed, mustard, potatoes etc

Cash Crop
A cash crop may be defined as a crop which has to be en-cashed in the market for processing as it
cannot be consumed directly by the cultivators. All non food crops are thus included in cash crops.
Examples: Jute, Tea, Cotton, Tobacco etc.
13
Optimum Utilization of Irrigation Water
In an identical situation, yield is going to vary with the application of different quantities of water.
The yield increases with water, reaches maximum value and then falls down. The quantity of water at
which the yield is maximum, is called the optimum water depth.
Optimum utilization of irrigation generally means,
getting maximum yield with any amount of water.
The supplies of water to the various crops should be
adjusted in such a fashion, as to get optimum benefit
ratio, not only for the efficient use of available water
Yield

and maximum yield, but also to prevent water-logging

of the land in question. To achieve economy in the
use of water, it is necessary that the farmers be made
acquainted with the fact only a certain fixed amount
Optimum water depth
of water gives best results.

Water Depth

Estimating depth and frequency of irrigation on the basis of soil moisture regime concept
Water or soil moisture is consumed by plants through their roots. It, therefore, becomes necessary that
sufficient moisture remains available in the soil from the surface to the root zone depth.

FIELD CAPACITY M.C.

OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT

AVAILABLE MOISTURE
MOISTIRE CONTENT OR CAPILLARY WATER
CONTENT
(M.C) FIELD CAPACITY Wilting point m.c.

NON AVAILABLE MOISTURE

CONTENT OR
HYDROSCOPIC WATER

TIME

The irrigation water should be supplied as soon as the moisture falls up to this optimum level (fixing
irrigation frequency) and its quantity should be just sufficient to bring the moisture content up to its field
capacity, making allowance for application losses (thus fixing water depth)

READILY
AVAILABLE
MOISTURE AVAILABLE
MOISTIRE MOISTURE
CONTENT
OF SOIL
FIELD CAPACITY

OPTIMUM MOISTURE
CONTENT

TIME

Water will be utilized by the plants after the fresh irrigation dose is given, and soil moisture will start
falling. It will again be recouped by a fresh dose of irrigation, as soon as the soil moisture reaches the
optimum level, as shown below.
14
Permanent wilting point
It is that water content at which plant can no longer extract sufficient water for its growth, and wilts up.
It is the point at which permanent wilting of plants take place.
Available moisture
It may be defined as the difference in water content of the soil between field capacity and permanent
wilting point.

Readily available moisture

It is that portion of the available moisture which is most easily extracted by the plants, and is
approximately 75 to 80 % of the available moisture.

Field Capacity:
Immediately after a rain or irrigation water application, when all the gravity water drained down to the
water table, a certain amount of water is retained on the surfaces of soil grains by molecular attraction and
by loose chemical bonds (i.e. adsorption). This water cannot be easily drained under the action of gravity,
and is called the field capacity. The field capacity is thus the water content of a soil after free drainage has
taken place for a sufficient period. This period of free gravity drainage is generally taken as 2 to 5 days.
The field capacity water further consists of two parts. One part is that which is attached to the soil
molecules by surface tension against gravitation forces, and can be extracted by plants by capillarity. This
water is called capillary water. The other part is that which is attached to the soil molecules by loose
chemicals bonds. This water which cannot be removed by capillarity is not available to the plants, and is
called the hygroscopic water.

Derivation
The field capacity water (i.e. the quantity of water which any soil can retain indefinitely against
gravity) is expressed as the ratio of the weight of water contained in the soil to the weight of the dry soil
retaining that water: i.e.
Wt. of water retained in a certain vol. of soil
Field Capacity = 100 ------------------- (1)
Wt. of the same volume of dry soil

If we consider 1 m2 area of soil and d meter depth of root zone,

The volume of soil = d1 = d m3

If the dry unit wt. of soil = d kN/m3

Wt. of d m3 of soil = d d kN

If F is the field capacity,

Wt. of water retained in unit area of soil
F=
d d
Wt. of water retained in unit area of soil = (d d F) kN/m2
Volume of water stored in unit area of soil w = (d d F) kN/m2
d d F
Volume of water stored in unit area of soil = meter
w

d d F
Total water storage capacity of soil in (m depth of water) = meter
w

Hence, the depth of water stored in the root zone in filling the soil up to field capacity
d d F
= meters
w

15
Problem-10
After how many days will you supply water to soil in order to ensure sufficient irrigation of the given
crop, if,
Field capacity of the soil = 28%
Permanent wilting point = 13%
Dry density of soil = 1.3 gm/cc
Effective depth of root zone = 70 cm
Daily consumptive use of water for the given crop = 12 mm.

Solution:
We know, by definition of available moisture, that
Available moisture = Field Capacity Permanent wilting point
= 28 13
= 15 %
Let us assume that the readily available moisture or the optimum soil moisture level is 80 % of
available moisture
i.e. Readily available moisture = 0.80 15 % = 12 %
Optimum moisture = 28 12 = 16 %
It means that the moisture will be filled by irrigation between 16 % and 28 %.
d d
Depth of water stored in root zone between these two limits = [FC OMC] ----------- (i)
w

d d g
Now, =
w w g
= d

= 1 .3 [ w = 1 gm/cc]
1
= 1.3 gm/cc
d
From equation (i) Depth of water = d [FC OMC]
w
= 1.3 0.7 [0.28 0.16]
= 0.1092 m = 10.92 cm

Hence, water available for evapo-transpiration = 10.92 cm

1.2 cm of water is utilized by the plant in 1 day

10.92 cm of water will be utilized by the plant in = 110.92/1.2 days = 9.1 days 9 days
Hence, after 9 days, water should be supplied to the given crop

Problem-11
Wheat is to be grown in a field having a field capacity equal to 27% and the permanent wilding point is
13%. Find the storage capacity in 80 cm depth of the soil, if the dry unit weight of the soil is 14.72 kN/m2.
If irrigation water is to be supplied when the average soil moisture falls to 18 %, find the water depth
required to be supplied to the field if the field application efficiency is 80 %. What is the amount of water
needed at the canal outlet if the water lost in the water-courses and the field channels is 15 % of the outlet
discharge?
Solution:
d d
Maximum storage capacity or available moisture = [FC OMC]
w

= 14.72 0.8 [0.27 0.13] [ w = 9.81 kN/m3]

9.81
= 0.168 m = 16.8 cm
16
Since the moisture is allowed to vary between 27 % and 18 %, the deficiency created in this fall
= 14.72 0.8 [0.27 0.18]
9.81
= 0.108 m = 10.8 cm
Hence, 10.8 cm depth of water is the net irrigation requirement.
Quantity of water requirement to be supplied to the field (F.I.R) = NIR/a
F.I.R = N.I.R/a =10.8/0.80 = 13.5 cm (ans)
Quantity of water needed at the canal outlet = F.I.R/a =13.5/0.85 = 15.55 cm (ans)

Practice Problems:
Problem 1
A reservoir with a storage capacity of 300 million cubic meters is able to irrigate 40,000 hectares with 2
fillings each year. The crop season is 120 days. What is the duty?
Problem 2
A channel is to be designed for irrigating 5000 hectares in Kharif crop and 4000 hectares in Rabi crop.
The water requirement for Kharif and Rabi are 60 cm and 20 cm, respectively. The base period for Kharif
is 3 weeks and for Rabi is 4 weeks. Determine the discharge of the channel for which it is to be designed.
Problem 3
The left branch canal carrying a discharge of 20 m3/s has culturable commanded area of 20,000 hectares.
The intensity of Rabi crop is 80 % and the base period is 120 days. The right branch canal carrying
discharge of 8 m3/s has culturable commanded area of 12,000 hectares, intensity of irrigation of Rabi crop
is 50 % and the base period is 120 days. Compare the efficiencies of the two canal systems.
Problem 4
A loam soil has field capacity of 22 % and wilting coefficient of 10 %. The dry unit weight of soil is 1.5
gm/cc. If the root zone depth is 70 cm, determine the storage capacity of the soil. Irrigation water is applied
when moisture content falls to 14 %. If the water application efficiency is 75 %, determine the water depth
required to be applied in the field.
Problem 5
Compute the depth and frequency of irrigation required for a certain crop with data given below:
Root zone depth 100 cm
Field capacity 22 %
Wilting Point 12 %
Specific gravity of soil 1.5
Consumptive use 25 mm/day
Efficiency of irrigation 50 %

Assume 5% depletion on available moisture before application of irrigation water at field capacity.
Problem 6
Uniformly distributed soil sample was collected from a field 2 days after irrigation when the soil
moisture was near FC.
Inside dimensions of core sampler: 7.5 cm diameter and 15 cm depth
Weight:
Cylinder + moist soil = 2.76 kg
Cylinder + oven dry soil = 2.61 kg
Core sampling cylinder alone = 1.56 kg
Calculate available moisture holding capacity of soil

17
Problem 7
The following data were obtained in determining soil moisture content at successive depths in root
zone prior to irrigation:
Depth of sampling (cm) Weight of moist sample (gm) Oven dry weight of sample (gm)
0 25 134.00 126.82
25 50 136.28 127.95
50 75 122.95 115.32
75 100 110.92 102.64
The bulk density of soil in root zone = 1.50 gm/cc
Available moisture holding capacity of soil = 17.8 gm/m depth of soil
Calculate:
(i) The moisture contents at different depths in root zone
(ii) Moisture available in root zone just after irrigation
(iii) Net depth of water to be applied to bring the moisture content to FC
(iv) GIR at an estimated Field Irrigation Efficiency of 70%
Problem 8:
A sandy load soil holds water at 140 mm/m depth between FC and PWP
Root depth of the crop = 30 cm
Allowable depletion of water = 35%
Daily water use by the crop = 5 mm/day
The area to be irrigated = 60 hectares
Water can diverted @ 28 LPS
Surface irrigation application efficiency + 40%
Assume no rainfall and ground water contribution
Calculate:
Allowable depletion depth between irrigations
Frequency of irrigation
Net application depth of water
Volume of water required
Time to irrigation 4 hectares plot

Problem 9:
The depth of penetration along the length of a border strip at points 30 m apart were probed. The
observed values are 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.6 and 1.5 m. Compute water distribution efficiency

Problem 10:
A stream of 130 lps was diverted from a canal and 100 lps was delivered to field. An area of 1.6
hectares was irrigated in 8 hours.
Effective depth of root zone = 1.7 m
Runoff loss in the field = 420 m3
Depth of water penetration varied linearly from 1.7 m at the head end of the field to 1.1 m at the
tail end of the field
Available moisture holding capacity of soil = 20 cm/m depth of soil
Compute:
Conveyance efficiency, application efficiency, storage efficiency, distribution efficiency,
Irrigation was started at a moisture extraction level of 50% of available moisture

18
 Course Teacher: Prof. Dr. M. R. Kabir

1. Introduction
SOIL WATER RELATIONSHIP
CHAPTER 4
Irrigation may be defined as the application of water to soil for the purpose of supplying moisture
essential for plant growth.
Root zone (depth of soil penetrated by roots) soil provides the storage reservoir which needs to be
periodically recharged.

Fig: Schematic diagram of the sub-processes linked to field irrigation system

2. Volume of mass relationships of soil constituents:

Ma = 0 AIR Va
Vv
Mw WATER Vw

V
M NET
Ms SOIL Vs
SOLIDS

Fig: Schematic diagram of the soil as a three-phase system

Notation:
Ma = Mass of air Va = Volume of air
Mw = Mass of water Vw = Volume of water
Ms = Mass of solid Vs = Volume of solid

1
(a) Particle density, s = Mass of dry soil/Volume of solid = Ms/Vs
(b) Bulk density, b = Mass of dry soil/Bulk volume of soil = Ms/(Va + Vw + Vs)
(c) Apparent specific gravity, As = Bulk density of soil/ Water density = b/ w
The term bulk density and apparent specific gravity are often used synonymously
(d) Real specific gravity, Rs = Particle density/Water density = s/ w
(e) Porosity, n = Volume of void/Bulk volume of soil = (Va + Vw)/(Va + Vw + Vs)
(f) Void ratio, e = Volume of voil/ Volume of solid = (Va + Vw)/Vs
Some relationships exist:
b = s(1 n/100)
b= b(1 + e)
(g) Degree of saturation, s = Volume of water/ Total pore volume = Vw/(Va + Vw)

3. Soil Classification:
The most commonly used classification proposed by the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA):
Fraction Particle diameter (mm)
Gravel >2
Sand 0.05 2
Silt 0.002 0.02
Clay < 0.002

4. Soil physical properties influencing irrigation:

Infiltration capacity of soil
Water holding capacity of soil
Soil texture
Soil structure
Capillary conductivity
Soil profile conditions
Depth to water table etc.
---- are the most important soil properties influencing irrigation

Soil Texture:
o The relative proportion of sand, silt and clay determines the soil texture. Texture can be determined
from grain-size distribution using textural classification chart.
o The geometry of voids created in the soil matrix is dependent on the textural classification of soil.
The soil texture, therefore, influences considerably the other phases (water and air) contained in the
spaces of soil matrix.
o Sandy soils are loose and non-cohesive and have a low water holding capacity. Such soils form
relatively simple capillary systems, which ensure good drainage and aeration.
o The clay particles are usually aggregated together into complex granules. Because of their plate-like
shape, clay particles have a much greater surface area than cubes or spheres of similar volume.
Their extensive surface enables clay particles to hold more water and minerals than sandy soils.

Soil Structure:
The arrangement of individual soil particles with respect to each other is called soil structure
The size of aggregates is a valuable criterion of soil structure. Sand-sized aggregates are more
favorable for plant growth than very small and very large ones. For instance, a soil made up
exclusively of silt-size aggregates cannot be drained by gravity, since the pores are too small.
Large pores induce aeration and infiltration, medium-sized pores facilitate capillary conductivity,
and small pores induce greater water holding capacity.
Rounded edges of the aggregates result in better pore distribution than angular ones. Regarding the
size of aggregates, sand-size and gravel-size are preferred. A massive compact soil restricts
aeration and root spread.
For optimum crop growth, soil structure should be such that the infiltration capacity is large, the
percolation capacity is medium and aeration is sufficient, without being excessive.

2
5. Classes and availability of soil water:
a) Gravitational water: Water moves freely in response to gravity.
b) Capillary water: Water held by surface tension in the pore spaces.
c) Hygroscopic water: Water held tightly to the surface of the grains by adsorption.

Field Capacity (FC):

The water content of the soil when gravitational water has been removed
It represents the upper limit of available soil water range
It is determined two days after an irrigation or thorough wetting. Limitations are: restricting layers, high
water table, surface evaporation, consumptive use by crops
Water content corresponding to a soil-moisture of 1/10 atm for sandy soil to 1/3 atm for silty or clay soil
Permanent Wilting Point (PWP):
The moisture content at which plants permanently wilt
Wilting depends on the rate of water use, depth of root zone and water holding capacity of soil
It is the lower end of available moisture range
Water content corresponding to soil-moisture tension of 15 atm
As an approximation, PWP can be estimated from:
FC
PWP =
2 to 2.4

Fig: Classes and soil-water availability to plants and drainage characteristics

Available Water (AW):

The difference of water content of the soil between field capacity and permanent wilting point
It represents the moisture which can be stored in the soil for subsequent use by plants
The moisture near the wilting point is not readily available to the plant. The portion of the
available moisture which is most easily extracted by plants is termed as readily available moisture.
Irrigation water should be supplied as soon as the moisture falls upto optimum level. The optimum
level represents the maximum deficiency upto which the soil moisture may be allowed without any
fall in crop yields.
The amount of irrigation should be just enough to bring the moisture content upto its field capacity
making allowance for application losses

3
6. Soil moisture content:
Mass of water Mw
a) Moisture content by mass: m = =
Mass of dry soil Ms
Volume of water V
b) Moisture content by volume: v = = w
Bulk volum e of soil Vb
v is more useful, since it represents the equivalent depth of water per unit depth of soil
dw
v=
Ds
dw = v Ds ---------------------------------- (i)
Mw
Vw w b
Again, v= = = m = m As
Vb M s w

v= m As ------------------------------- (ii)

Putting the value of v in equation (i)

dw = m As Ds

7. Soil moisture tension:

In saturated soils, water is held in the soil matrix under negative pressure due to attraction of the soil
matrix for water
Instead of referring to this negative pressure the water is said to be subjected to a tension exerted by the
soil matrix
The tension with which the water is held in unsaturated soil is termed as soil-moisture tension, soil-
moisture suction. It is usually expressed in atmospheres, the average air pressure at sea level. Other
pressure units like cm of water or cm or mm of mercury are also often used.
(1 atmosphere = 1023 cm of water = 76 cm Hg)

Fig: Typical curves of soil moisture variation with tension

4
8. Soil moisture characteristics:
Moisture extraction curves, also called moisture characteristics curves, which are plots of moisture
content versus moisture tension, show the amount of moisture a given soil holds at various tensions.
Field Capacity
100
Available moisture, percent 90

80

70

60
50 percent level

Permanent wilting point

50
Clay
40

30 Loam
20 Sand 15 percent level
10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Soil moisture tension, atmospheres

Fig: Typical moisture characteristics curves

A knowledge of the amount of water held by the soil at various tensions is required in order to
understand the amount of water that is available to plants, the water that can be taken up by the soil

9. Soil moisture stress:

In many irrigation soils, the soil solution contains an appreciable amount salts. The osmotic pressure
developed by the soil solution retards the uptake of water by plants.
Plant growth is a function of the soil moisture stress which is the sum of the soil moisture tension and
osmotic pressure of soil solution.
For successful crop production in soils having appreciable salts, the osmotic pressure of the soil
solution must be maintained as low as possible by controlled leaching and the soil moisture tension is the
root zone is maintained in a range that will provide adequate moisture to the crop.

10. Measurement of soil moisture:

Objective or importance:
To determine the time and amount of irrigation
To estimate evapotranpiration/use rate

Methods:
(a) Appearance and feel method:
Using the soil auger, soil samples throughout the root zone are collected.
By looking and feeling the sample, soil moisture deficiency is determined using guideline
Not precise and it requires experience and judgment
Simple, quick and it requires no equipment except soil auger
In many applications, greater accuracy is not needed, nor is it justified economically.

(b) Gravimetric method:

This method is used for primary measurement
It involves weighting a sample of moist soil, drying to a constant weight at a temperature of
105o 110oC, and re-weighting. Usually 24 hours are required for drying.
Most accurate and direct method
Destructive, labor intensive and time consuming; several samples are required to obtain a
satisfactory representative indication of moisture content.

5
(c) Electro-resistance blocks:
The porous blocks (gypsum) are calibrated against a range of moisture. The blocks containing
desired electrical elements are placed in the field of at required depth.
As the moisture content of the blocks changes, the electrical resistance also changes
The gypsum blocks are soluble and deteriorate in one to three seasons of use.
Normally there is considerable variation between blocks and considerable changes occur in the
calibration during the season

(d) Tensiometer:
A porous ceramic cup filled with water is attached to a vacuum gauge or mercury manometer.
A hole is bored or dug to a desired depth; a handful of loose soil is placed into the hole, and the
cup pushed firmly into the soil. The water inside the cup comes into hydraulic contact through the
pores in the cup. When initially placed in the soil, water contained in the tensiometer is generally
at atmospheric pressure. Soil water, being generally at sub-atmospheric pressure, exercises a
suction which draws out a certain amount of water within the tensiometer, thus causing a drop in
its hydrostatic pressure. This pressure is indicated by the manometer or vacuum gauge.
Tensiometer is effective upto a tension of 0.8 bar. At this pressure air enters the closed system
through the pores of the cup and makes the unit inoperative.
Tensiometer readings are useful in deciding when to irrigate, but they do not indicate how much
water should be applied. A special moisture-characteristic curve for the particular soil is needed to
convert moisture tension measurements into available moisture percentage.
Tensiometers are less well suited to use in fine-textured soils in which only a small part of the
available moisture is held at a tension of less than 1 atmosphere.
Since the unit operates satisfactorily only upto tensions of 0.8 atm, they are most useful in sandy
soil, where this represents a major portion of the available water.
Because of its narrow range of application the tensiometer is used for moist and resistance blocks
for dryer soil conditions. Sometimes a combination of tensiometer and resistance blocks is used.

Fig: The essential parts of a tensiometer

6
(e) Neutron method:
A hole is dug with an auger, and a metal tube is driven into the hole to retain the soil. The neutron
source and counting device are lowered to the desired depth.
Fast neutrons emitted from the source and slowed down by water in the surrounding soil. The
resulting slow neutrons which reach the counting tube are recorded. Fast neutrons are not
registered by the counter.
The greater the water content of the soil, the greater is the number of slow neutrons reaching the
counting tube.
There exists a good correlation between moisture content and the number of slowed down neutron
reaching the counter.
Rs
v = (a + b)
R st
Where, a and b are calibration coefficients
Rs = Count rate in the soil
Rst = Standard count rate

It measures v directly
It is expensive, can not be used to measure near the surface because of boundary effect and possible
radiation hazard, and needs calibration

7
11. Flow of water through soil:
Energy in fluid is in two forms:
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy consisting of
a) Energy resulting from pressure difference
b) Energy resulting from elevation difference

Widely used Bernoullis Energy Equation, showing energy per unit mass of fluid:
H = z + P/ + V2/2g
Since the velocity through soil is very small, the term V2/2g can be ignored. Thus,
H = z + P/ is called the piezometric head or hydraulic head
Flow of water in soil occurs in the direction of decreasing piezometric head.
Pressure head is due to adsorptive and capillary forces in unsaturated soil; elevation head due to
gravitational potential.
Darcys law relates velocity to head loss:
V = k (hL/L)
Where,
V = Flow velocity
k = Co-efficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity
hL/L = Hydraulic gradient or slope of H.G.L
The hydraulic head h can be measured by piezometer in saturated soil and by tensiometer in unsaturated
soil.
The quantity of flow,
Q = AV
= A k (hL/L)
Where, A = Gross area at right angles to flow direction
Flow of unconfined ground water:

Fig: Flow of unconfined ground water

8
Flow of confined ground water:

hL ha hd 16 7 14 3
= =
L L 16 2
= 6/14 = 0.43

For unsaturated soil, the hydraulic

conductivity decreases many folds as the
moisture content decreases. Moreover, it is
difficult to measure h because tensiometer
becomes inoperative when the tension
exceeds 0.8 atm. Furthermore, flow occurs
in both liquid and vapor phases.

Fig: Flow of confined ground water

12. Infiltration/intake characteristics of soil:

Infiltration is the time rate of entry of water into soil. Whenever the soil surface configuration
influences the rate of entry, the term intake is used.
It has great practical importance: design and operation of water application system, intake rate of fine-
textured soil is very low.
Factors influencing infiltration are:
Initial moisture content
Condition of soil surface
Hydraulic conductivity of soil profile
Depth of water on the surface
Viscosity/temperature of water
Soil texture
The intake rate plotted against time on a logarithmic scale gives a straight line.
I = a Tn
Where,
I = Intake rate
a = Constant (ordinate at T = 1)
n = slope of the line
When the observation of intake extends over long periods, a better representation of the data can be
obtained by: I = b + aTn
Since, n is negative, I decreases with an increase in T. I approaches a constant value b as time increases.
This value is called final intake rate.
h
I = k
s
Initially I is high because of large difference in tension in addition to gravity, after several hours
difference in tension becomes zero and hydraulic gradient equals to unity and I approaches to Ks.

9
Measuring Intake rate:
25 cm diameter cylinder is driven upto 15 cm below soil surface
Water is applied at surface. The radial flow at bottom of cylinder causes great change in intake rate.
Two concentric cylinders having same water level are used to create buffer ponds
Depth of water for inner cylinder is recorded with time

Table: Tabulation of intake Data Obtained from Test Cylinder

Cylinder No. 3
Time (hr) Intake (mm)
Watch Difference Cumulative Depth Difference Cumulative
4:15 260
1 11
4:16 1 249 11
2 7
4:18 3 242 18
4 8
4:22 7 234 26
Refill 8 271 11
4:30 18 15 260 14 37
4:48 33 248 61
Refill 270
14 8
5:02 27 47 252 14 59
5:29 31 74 248 10 73
6:00 105 238 83
Refill 280
29 11
6:29 134 269 94
28 9
5:57 26 162 260 7 103
7:23 20 188 253 5 110
7:43 208 248 115

Intake rate, I = aTn

Accumulated intake,
D = IdT
a
= Tn+1
n 1

= CTN

Average Infiltration rate,

D
Iavg = = CTN1
T

Instantaneous Infiltration rate,

dD
Iinst = = CNTN1
dT

10
 Fig: Typical intake curves

The slope of the line on log-log plot,

N = 0.44

Hence, D = 11T0.44

Iavg = CT
= (1160)T(0.441)
= 660T0.56

Iinst = CN TN1
= (1160) 0.44T(0.441)
= 290T0.56

11
At T = 1 min, D = 11 mm, so
D = CTN
11 = C(1)N
C = 11

12
 Course Teacher: Prof. Dr. M. R. Kabir

ECONOMICAL & PHYSICAL JUSTIFICATION FOR CANAL

Advantages of Lining
CHAPTER 5
o Seepage Control
o Prevention of Water-Logging
o Increase in Channel Capacity
o Increase in Commanded Area
o Reduction in Maintenance Costs
o Elimination of Flood Dangers

Selection of suitable type of lining

o Low cost
o Impermeability
o Hydraulic efficiency (i.e. reduction in rugosity coefficient)
o Durability
o Resistance to erosion
o Repairability
o Structural stability

Financial Justification and Economics of Canal Lining

(i) Annual benefits:

(a) Saved seepage water by lining:
Let, the rate of water is sold to the cultivators = Tk. R1/cumec
If m cumecs of water is saved by lining the canal annually, then the money saved by lining = Tk. m R1
(b) Saving in maintenance cost:
Let, the average cost of annual upkeep of unlined channel = Tk. R2
If p is the percentage fraction of the saving achieved in maintenance cost by lining the canal, then the
amount saved = pR2 Tk.
The total annual benefits = mR1 + p R2

(ii) Annual costs:

Let, the capital expenditure required on lining is C Tk. & the lining has a life of Y years
Annual depreciation charges = C/Y Tk.
Interest of the capital C = C(r/100) [ r = percent of the rate of annual interest]
Average annual interest = C/2(r/100) Tk. [ Since the capital value of the asset decreases
from C to zero in Y years]
The total annual costs of lining = C/Y + C/2(r/100)

Annual Benefits
Benefit cost ratio = = mR1 pR2
Annual Costs C C r
Y 2 100
If p is taken as 0.4, then
Benefit cost ratio = mR1 0.4 R2
C C r
Y 2 100

1
Problem:
An unlined canal giving a seepage loss of 3.3 cumec per million square meters of wetted area is proposed
to be lined with 10 cm thick cement concrete lining, which costs Tk. 180 per 10 square meters. Given the
following data, work out the economics of lining and benefit cost ratio.
Annual revenue per cumec of water from all crops Tk. 3.5 lakhs
Discharge in the channel 83.5 cumecs
Area of the channel 40.8 m2
Wetted perimeter of the channel 18.8 m
Wetted perimeter of the lining 18.5 m
Annual maintenance cost of unlined channel per 10 square meter Tk. 1.0

Solution:
Let us consider 1 km reach of canal. Therefore, the wetted surface per km = 18.81000 = 18,800 m2
(i) Annual Benefits
(a) Seepage loss
Seepage loss in unlined canal @ 3.3 cumec per million sq. m = (3.3/106)18,800 cumec/km
= 62,040106 cumec/km
Assume, seepage loss in lined channel at 0.01 cumec per million square meter of wetted perimeter
Seepage loss in unlined canal = (0.01/106)18,800 = 188106 cumecs/km
Net saving = (62,040106 188106) cumec/km = 0.06185 cumec/km
Annual revenue saved per km of channel = (0.061853.5) lakhs = 0.21648 lakhs = 21,648 Tk.
(b) Saving in maintenance
Annual maintenance cost of unlined channel for 10 square meter = Tk.1
Total wetted perimeter per 1 km length = 18,800 m2
Annual maintenance charge for unlined channel per km = Tk.1,880
Assume that 40% of this is saved in lined channel
Annual saving in maintenance charges = Tk. (0.41880) = Tk.752
Total annual benefits per km = Tk. (21,648 + 752) = Tk.22,400
(ii) Annual Costs
Area of lining per km of channel = 18.51000 = 18500 m2
Cost of lining per km of channel @ Tk. 180 per 10 m2 = (18500180/10) Tk. = 333000 Tk.
Assume, life of lining as 40 years
Depreciation cost per year = Tk. (3,33,000/40) = Tk. 8325
Assume 5% rate of interest
Average annual interest = C/2 (r/100) = 3,33,000/2(5/100) = Tk. 8325
Total annual cost = Tk (8325 + 8325) = Tk. 16,650
Benefit cost ratio = Annual benefits/Annual costs = 22,400/16,650 = 1.35
Benefit cost ratio is more than unity, and hence, the lining is justified.

2
Causes of failure of weir or barrage on permeable foundation:
1. Failure due to Subsurface Flow
(a) Failure by Piping or undermining
The water from the upstream side continuously percolates through the bottom of the foundation and
emerges at the downstream end of the weir or barrage floor. The force of percolating water removes the
soil particles by scouring at the point of emergence. As the process of removal of soil particles goes on
continuously, a depression is formed which extends backwards towards the upstream through the bottom
of the foundation. A hollow pipe like formation thus develops under the foundation due to which the weir
or barrage may fail by subsiding. This phenomenon is known as failure by piping or undermining.

(b) Failure by Direct uplift

The percolating water exerts an upward pressure on the foundation of the weir or barrage. If this
uplift pressure is not counterbalanced by the self weight of the structure, it may fail by rapture.

2. Failure by Surface Flow

(a) By hydraulic jump
When the water flows with a very high velocity over the crest of the weir or over the gates of the
barrage, then hydraulic jump develops. This hydraulic jump causes a suction pressure or negative pressure
on the downstream side which acts in the direction uplift pressure. If the thickness of the impervious floor
is sufficient, then the structure fails by rapture.

(b) By scouring
During floods, the gates of the barrage are kept open and the water flows with high velocity. The
water may also flow with very high velocity over the crest of the weir. Both the cases can result in
scouring effect on the downstream and on the upstream side of the structure. Due to scouring of the soil on
both sides of the structure, its stability gets endangered by shearing.

Blighs Creep Theory for Seepage Flow

According to Blighs Theory, the percolating water follows the outline of the base of the foundation of
the hydraulic structure. In other words, water creeps along the bottom contour of the structure. The length
of the path thus traversed by water is called the length of the creep. Further, it is assumed in this theory,
that the loss of head is proportional to the length of the creep. If HL is the total head loss between the
upstream and the downstream, and L is the length of creep, then the loss of head per unit of creep length
(i.e. HL/L) is called the hydraulic gradient. Further, Bligh makes no distinction between horizontal and
vertical creep.

Consider a section a shown in Fig above. Let HL be the difference of water levels between upstream and
downstream ends. Water will seep along the bottom contour as shown by arrows. It starts percolating at A
and emerges at B. The total length of creep is given by
L = d1 + d1 + L1 + d2 + d2 + L2 + d3 + d3
= (L1+ L2) + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)
= b + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)
3
 HL
Head loss per unit length or hydraulic gradient = = HL
b 2 d1 d 2 d 3 L

Head losses equal to H L 2d1 , H L 2d 2 , H L 2d 3 ; will occur respectively, in the planes of three
L L L
vertical cut offs. The hydraulic gradient line (H.G. Line) can then be drawn as shown in figure above.

(i) Safety against piping or undermining:

According to Bligh, the safety against piping can be ensured by providing sufficient creep length, given
by L = C.HL, where C is the Blighs Coefficient for the soil. Different values of C for different types of
soils are tabulated in Table 1 below:
SL Type of Soil Value of Safe Hydraulic gradient
No. C should be less than
1 Fine micaceous sand 15 1/15
2 Coarse grained sand 12 1/12
3 Sand mixed with boulder and gravel, and for loam soil 5 to 9 1/5 to 1/9
4 Light sand and mud 8 1/8
Note: The hydraulic gradient i.e. HL/L is then equal to 1/C. Hence, it may be stated that the hydraulic
gradient must be kept under a safe limit in order to ensure safety against piping.

(ii) Safety against uplift pressure:

The ordinates of the H.G line above the bottom of the floor represent the residual uplift water head at each
point. Say for example, if at any point, the ordinate of H.G line above the bottom of the floor is 1 m, then 1
m head of water will act as uplift at that point. If h meters is this ordinate, then water pressure equal to h
meters will act at this point, and has to be counterbalanced by the weight of the floor of thickness say t.
Uplift pressure = w h [where w is the unit weight of water]
Downward pressure = (w G).t [Where G is the specific gravity of the floor material]
For equilibrium,
w h = w G. t
h = G t
Subtracting t on both sides, we get
(h t) = (Gt t) = t (G 1)
'
t= h t = h
G 1 G 1
Where, h t = h = Ordinate of the H.G line above the top of the floor
G 1 = Submerged specific gravity of the floor material

Lanes Weighted Creep Theory

Bligh, in his theory, had calculated the length of the creep, by simply adding the horizontal creep length
and the vertical creep length, thereby making no distinction between the two creeps. However, Lane, on
the basis of his analysis carried out on about 200 dams all over the world, stipulated that the horizontal
creep is less effective in reducing uplift (or in causing loss of head) than the vertical creep. He, therefore,
suggested a weightage factor of 1/3 for the horizontal creep, as against 1.0 for the vertical creep.
Thus in Fig1, the total Lanes creep length (Ll) is given by
Ll = (d1 + d1) + (1/3) L1 + (d2 + d2) + (1/3) L2 + (d3 + d3)
= (1/3) (L1 + L2) + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)
= (1/3) b + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)
To ensure safety against piping, according to this theory, the creep length Ll must no be less than C1HL,
where HL is the head causing flow, and C1 is Lanes creep coefficient given in table 2

4
 Table 2: Values of Lanes Safe Hydraulic Gradient for different types of Soils

SL Type of Soil Value of Lanes Safe Lanes Hydraulic gradient

No. Coefficient C1 should be less than
1 Very fine sand or silt 8.5 1/8.5
2 Fine sand 7.0 1/7
3 Coarse sand 5.0 1/5
4 Gravel and sand 3.5 to 3.0 1/3.5 to 1/3
5 Boulders, gravels and sand 2.5 to 3.0 1/2.5 to 1/3
6 Clayey soils 3.0 to 1.6 1/3 to 1/1.6

Khoslas Theory and Concept of Flow Nets

Many of the important hydraulic structures, such as weirs and barrage, were designed on the basis of
Blighs theory between the periods 1910 to 1925. In 1926 27, the upper Chenab canal siphons, designed
on Blighs theory, started posing undermining troubles. Investigations started, which ultimately lead to
Khoslas theory. The main principles of this theory are summarized below:
(a) The seepage water does not creep along the bottom contour of pucca flood as started by Bligh, but
on the other hand, this water moves along a set of stream-lines. This steady seepage in a vertical
plane for a homogeneous soil can be expressed by Laplacian equation:
d2 d2
+
dx 2 dz 2
Where, = Flow potential = Kh; K = the co-efficient of permeability of soil as defined by
Darcys law, and h is the residual head at any point within the soil.
The above equation represents two sets of curves intersecting each other orthogonally. The resultant
flow diagram showing both of the curves is called a Flow Net.

Stream Lines: The streamlines represent the paths along which the water flows through the sub-soil.
Every particle entering the soil at a given point upstream of the work, will trace out its own path and will
represent a streamline. The first streamline follows the bottom contour of the works and is the same as
Blighs path of creep. The remaining streamlines follows smooth curves transiting slowly from the outline
of the foundation to a semi-ellipse, as shown below.

Equipotential Lines: (1) Treating the downstream bed as datum and assuming no water on the
downstream side, it can be easily started that every streamline possesses a head equal to h1 while entering
the soil; and when it emerges at the down-stream end into the atmosphere, its head is zero. Thus, the head
h1 is entirely lost during the passage of water along the streamlines.
Further, at every intermediate point in its path, there is certain residual head (h) still to be dissipated
in the remaining length to be traversed to the downstream end. This fact is applicable to every streamline,
and hence, there will be points on different streamlines having the same value of residual head h. If such
points are joined together, the curve obtained is called an equipotential line.

5
 Every water particle on line AB is having a residual head h = h1, and on CD is having a residual head
h = 0, and hence, AB and CD are equipotential lines.
Since an equipotential line represent the joining of points of equal residual head, hence if piezometers
were installed on an equipotential line, the water will rise in all of them up to the same level as shown in
figure below.

(b) The seepage water exerts a force at each point in the direction of flow and tangential to the
streamlines as shown in figure above. This force (F) has an upward component from the point
where the streamlines turns upward. For soil grains to remain stable, the upward component of this
force should be counterbalanced by the submerged weight of the soil grain. This force has the
maximum disturbing tendency at the exit end, because the direction of this force at the exit point is
vertically upward, and hence full force acts as its upward component. For the soil grain to remain
stable, the submerged weight of soil grain should be more than this upward disturbing force. The
disturbing force at any point is proportional to the gradient of pressure of water at that point (i.e.
dp/dt). This gradient of pressure of water at the exit end is called the exit gradient. In order that the
soil particles at exit remain stable, the upward pressure at exit should be safe. In other words, the
exit gradient should be safe.

Critical Exit Gradient

This exit gradient is said to be critical, when the upward disturbing force on the grain is just equal to the
submerged weight of the grain at the exit. When a factor of safety equal to 4 to 5 is used, the exit gradient
can then be taken as safe. In other words, an exit gradient equal to to 1/5 of the critical exit gradient is
ensured, so as to keep the structure safe against piping.
The submerged weight (Ws) of a unit volume of soil is given as:
w (1 n) (Ss 1)
Where, w = unit weight of water.
Ss = Specific gravity of soil particles
n = Porosity of the soil material

For critical conditions to occur at the exit point

F = Ws
Where F is the upward disturbing force on the grain
Force F = pressure gradient at that point = dp/dl = w dh/dl

6
Khoslas Method of independent variables for determination of pressures and exit gradient for
seepage below a weir or a barrage
In order to know as to how the seepage below the foundation of a hydraulic structure is taking place,
it is necessary to plot the flow net. In other words, we must solve the Laplacian equations. This can be
accomplished either by mathematical solution of the Laplacian equations, or by Electrical analogy method,
or by graphical sketching by adjusting the streamlines and equipotential lines with respect to the boundary
conditions. These are complicated methods and are time consuming. Therefore, for designing hydraulic
structures such as weirs or barrage or pervious foundations, Khosla has evolved a simple, quick and an
accurate approach, called Method of Independent Variables.

In this method, a complex profile like that of a weir is broken into a number of simple profiles; each
of which can be solved mathematically. Mathematical solutions of flownets for these simple standard
profiles have been presented in the form of equations given in Figure (11.5) and curves given in Plate
(11.1), which can be used for determining the percentage pressures at the various key points. The simple
profiles which hare most useful are:
(i) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line on the u/s end and d/s end.
(ii) A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but without any vertical cut-offs.
(iii) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line at some intermediate point.

The key points are the junctions of the floor and the pole lines on either side, and the bottom point of
the pile line, and the bottom corners in the case of a depressed floor. The percentage pressures at these key
points for the simple forms into which the complex profile has been broken is valid for the complex profile
itself, if corrected for
(a) Correction for the Mutual interference of Piles
(b) Correction for the thickness of floor
(c) Correction for the slope of the floor

(a) Correction for the Mutual interference of Piles:

The correction C to be applied as percentage of head due to this effect, is given by
D d D
C = 19 '
b b
Where,
b = The distance between two pile lines.
D = The depth of the pile line, the influence of which has to be determined on the neighboring pile of
depth
d. D is to be measured below the level at which interference is desired.
d = The depth of the pile on which the effect is considered
b = Total floor length
The correction is positive for the points in the rear of back water, and subtractive for the points
forward in the direction of flow. This equation does not apply to the effect of an outer pile on an
intermediate pile, if the intermediate pile is equal to or smaller than the outer pile and is at a distance less
than twice the length of the outer pile.

7
 Suppose in the above figure, we are considering the influence of the pile no (2) on pile no (1) for
correcting the pressure at C1. Since the point C1 is in the rear, this correction shall be positive. While the
correction to be applied to E2 due to pile no (1) shall be negative, since the point E2 is in the forward
direction of flow. Similarly, the correction at C2 due to pile no (3) is positive and the correction at E2 due to
pile no (2) is negative.
(b) Correction for the thickness of floor:
In the standard form profiles, the floor is assumed to have
negligible thickness. Hence, the percentage pressures
calculated by Khoslas equations or graphs shall pertain to the
top levels of the floor. While the actual junction points E and
C are at the bottom of the floor. Hence, the pressures at the
actual points are calculated by assuming a straight line
pressure variation.
Since the corrected pressure at E1 should be less than the calculated pressure at E1, the correction to be
applied for the joint E1 shall be negative. Similarly, the pressure calculated C1 is less than the corrected
pressure at C1, and hence, the correction to be applied at point C1 is positive.

(c) Correction for the slope of the floor

A correction is applied for a slopping floor, and is taken as positive for the downward slopes, and
negative for the upward slopes following the direction of flow. Values of correction of standard slopes
such as 1 : 1, 2 : 1, 3 : 1, etc. are tabulated in Table 7.4
Slope (H : V) Correction Factor
1:1 11.2
2:1 6.5
3:1 4.5
4:1 3.3
5:1 2.8
6:1 2.5
7:1 2.3
8:1 2.0

The correction factor given above is to be multiplied by the horizontal length of the slope and divided by
the distance between the two pile lines between which the sloping floor is located. This correction is
applicable only to the key points of the pile line fixed at the start or the end of the slope.
Exit gradient (GE)
It has been determined that for a standard form consisting of a floor length (b) with a vertical cutoff of
depth (d), the exit gradient at its downstream end is given by
H 1
GE =
d
2
1 1
Where, =
2
= b/d
H = Maximum Seepage Head

Type of Soil Safe exit gradient

Shingle 1/4 to 1/5 (0.25 to 0.20)
Coarse Sand 1/5 to 1/6 (0.20 to 0.17)
Fine Sand 1/6 to 1/7 (0.17 to 0.14)

8
Problem-2
Determine the percentage pressures at various key points in figure below. Also determine the exit gradient
and plot the hydraulic gradient line for pond level on upstream and no flow on downstream

Solution:
(1) For upstream Pile Line No. 1
Total length of the floor, b = 57.0 m
Depth of u/s pile line, d = 154 148 = 6 m
= b/d = 57/6 = 9.5
1/ = 1/9.5 = 0.105
From curve plate 11.1 (a)
C1 = 100 29 = 71 %
D1 = 100 20 = 80 %
These values of C1 must be corrected for three corrections as below:

Corrections for C1
(a) Correction at C1 for Mutual Interference of Piles (C1) is affected by intermediate pile No.2
D d D
Correction = 19 ' Where, D = Depth of pile No.2 = 153 148 = 5 m
b b
d = Depth of pile No. 1 = 153 148 = 5 m
5 5 5 b = Distance between two piles = 15.8 m
= 19
15.8 57
b = Total floor length = 57 m
= 1.88 %

Since the point C1 is in the rear in the direction of flow, the correction is (+) ve.
Correction due to pile interference on C1 = 1.88 % (+ ve)

9
10
 (b) Correction at C1 due to thickness of floor: 154

Pressure calculated from curve is at C1 , (Fig. 7.1) but we C1 1.0 m
want the pressure at C1. Pressure at C1 shall be more than C1 153
at C1 as the direction of flow is from C1 to C1 as shown;
and hence, the correction will be + ve and
FLOW
80% 71%
= (154 153)
154 148
= (9/6)1
= 1.5% (+ ve) D1, 148
Fig: 5.1

(c) Correction due to slope at C1 is nil, as this point is neither situated at the start nor at the end of a slope
Corrected (C1) = 71 % + 1.88 % + 1.5 %
= 74.38 % (ans)
And (D1) = 80 %

(2) For intermediate Pile Line No. 2

d = 154 148 = 6 m
b = 57 m
= b/d = 57/6 = 9.5
Using curves of plate 11.1 (b), we have b1 in this case
b1 = 0.6 + 15.8 = 16.4
b = 57 m
b1/b = 16.4/57 = 0.298 (for C2)
1 b1/b = 1 0.298 = 0.702
E2 = 100 30 = 70 % (Where 30 % is C for a base ratio of 0.702 and = 9.5)
C2 = 56 % (For a base ratio 0.298 and = 9.5)
D2 = 100 37 = 63 % (Where 37 % is D for a base ratio of 0.702 and = 9.5)

Corrections for E2
(a) Correction at E2 for sheet pile lines. Pile No. (1) will affect the pressure at E2 and since E2 is in the
forward direction of flow, this correction shall be ve. The amount of this correction is given as:
D d D
Correction = 19 ' Where, D = Depth of pile No.1, the effect of
b b
which is considered = 153 148 = 5 m
5 5 5 d = Depth of pile No. 2, the effect on
= 19 which is considered = 153 148 = 5 m
15.7 57 b = Distance between two piles = 15.8 m
= 1.88 % ( ve) b = Total floor length = 57 m

(b) Correction at E2 due to floor thickness

Obs E 2 - Obs D2
= Thickness of floor
Distance between E 2 D 2 E2 C2
70% 63% E2 C2
= 1.0 = (7/6)1.0 = 1.17 %
154 148
Since the pressure observed is at E2and not at E2, (Fig. 7.2) and
by looking at the direction of flow, it can be stated easily that
pressure at E2 shall be less than that at E2, hence, this correction
is negative, Fig: 5.2

Correction at E2 due to floor thickness = 1.17 % (- ve)

11
(c) Correction at E2 due to slope is nil, as the point E2 is neither situated at the start of a slope nor at the end
of a shape
Hence, corrected percentage pressure at E2 = Corrected E2 = (70 1.88 1.17) % = 66.95 %
Corrections for C2
(a) Correction at C2 due to pile interference. Pressure at C2 is affected by pile No.(3) and since the point
C2 is in the back water in the direction of flow, this correction is (+) ve. The amount of this correction is
given as:
D d D Where, D = Depth of pile No.3, the effect of
Correction = 19 '
b b which is considered below the level at which
interference is desired = 153 141.7 = 11.3 m
11 11 5 d = Depth of pile No. 2, the effect on
= 19 which is considered = 153 148= 5 m
40 57
b = Distance between two piles (2 &3) = 40 m
= 2.89 % (+ ve) b = Total floor length = 57 m

(b) Correction at C2 due to floor thickness. From Fig. 11.10, it can be easily stated that the pressure at C2
shall be more than at C2, and since the observed pressure is at C2, this correction shall be + ve and its
amount is the same as was calculated for the point E2 = 1.17 %
Hence, correction at C2 due to floor thickness = 1.17 % (+ ve)
(c) Correction at C2 due to slope. Since the point C2 is situated at the start of a slope of 3:1, i.e. an up slope
in the direction of flow; the correction is negative
Correction factor for 3:1 slope from table 11.4 = 4.5
Horizontal length of the slope = 3 m
Distance between two pile lines between which the sloping floor is located = 40 m
Actual correction = 4.5 (3/40) = 0.34 % (- ve)
Hence, corrected C2 = (56 + 2.89 + 1.17 0.34) % = 59.72 %

(3) Downstream Pile Line No. 3

d = 152 141.7 = 10.3 m
b = 57 m
1/ = 10.3/57 = 0.181
From curves of Plate 11.1 (a), we get
D3 = 26 %
E3 = 38 %

Corrections for E3
(a) Correction due to piles. The point E3 is affected by pile No. 2, and since E3 is in the forward direction
of flow from pile No. 3, this correction is negative and its amount is given by
D d D Where, D = Depth of pile No.2, the effect of
Correction = 19 '
b b which is considered = 150.7 148 = 2.7 m
d = Depth of pile No. 3, the effect on
2.7 9 2.7 which is considered = 150 141.7 = 9 m
= 19
40 57 b = Distance between two piles = 40 m
= 1.02 % ( ve) b = Total floor length = 57 m
(b) Correction due to floor thickness
From Fig. 7.3, it can be stated easily that the pressure at E3 E 3
shall be less than at E3, and hence the pressure observed form E3
curves is at E3; this correction shall be ve and its amount
38% 32%
= 1.3 = (16/10.3)1.3
152 141.7
= 0.76 % ( ve)

Fig:5.3

12
(c) Correction due to slope at E3 is nil, as the point E3 is neither situated at the start nor at the end of any
slope
Hence, corrected E3 = (38 1.02 0.76) % = 36.22 %

The corrected pressures at various key points are tabulated below in Table below

Upstream Pile No. 1 Intermediate Pile No.2 Downstream Pile No. 3

E1 = 100 % E2 = 66.95 % E3 = 36.22 %
D1 = 80 % D2 = 63 % D3 = 26 %
C1 = 74.38 % C2 = 59.72 % C3 = 0 %

Exit gradient
Let the water be headed up to pond level, i.e. on RL 158 m on the upstream side with no flow
downstream
The maximum seepage head, H = 158 152 = 6 m
The depth of d/s cur-off, d = 152 141.7 = 10.3 m
Total floor length, b = 57 m
= b/d = 57/10.3 = 5.53

1
For a value of = 5.53, from curves of Plate 11.2 is equal to 0.18.

H 1 6
Hence, GE = = 0.18 = 0.105
d 10.3

Hence, the exit gradient shall be equal to 0.105, i.e. 1 in 9.53, which is very much safe.

1
= 0.18

13
Practice Problems:
1. An unlined canal giving a seepage loss of 3.3 m3/s per million sq.m of wetted area is proposed to
be lined with 10 cm thick cement concrete lining which cost Tk.18/sq.m. Given the following data
work out the economics of lining and benefit cost ratio.
Annual revenue per cumec of water Tk. 3.5 lacs
Discharge in the canal 83.5 m3/s
Area of the canal 40.8 m2
Wetted perimeter of the canal 18.8 m
Wetted perimeter of the lining 18.5 m
Annual maintenance cost of unlined canal Tk. 0.1/sq.m
Assume any suitable data if required
2. A canal of length 5 km and of discharge capacity 3.5 m3/s is proposed to be lined with boulder
lining. The total cost of lining is estimated as 4 lakhs. The life of lining is considered as 60 years.
Justify the lining in the canal from the following data:
Rate of interest 8%
Seepage loss 2%
Revenue for irrigation water Tk. 75 per hec-m
Maintenance cost per km for lined canal Tk. 1000
Maintenance cost per km for unlined canal Tk. 2500
Base period of crop 120 days
Additional benefit/km Tk. 1000

3. Use Khoslas curves to calculate the percentage uplift pressure at various key points for a barrage
foundation profile shown in figure below applying necessary corrections. Assume the thickness of
the floor is 0.8 m. Also find exit gradient considering upstream pond level at 103 m.
100 m

1:4 98 m
E1 C1
E2 C2 E3 C3

D1 (94 m)

D2 (92 m) D3 (92 m)

30 m 90 m

4. Use Khoslas curves to calculate the percentage uplift pressure at points C1, E2, C2, D3 and E3 for a
barrage foundation profile shown in figure below applying necessary corrections. Also determine
the exit gradient. [Assume: floor thickness = 1 m]

160 m Slope (H : V) Correction Factor

6:1 2.5
152 m
E1 C1 149 m
E2 C2 E3 C3

D1 142 m
D2 139 m D3 139 m

20 m 18 m 22 m

14
5. Using Khoslas curves, determine the following for the apron shown below:
[Assume: floor thickness = 1 m]
160 m 160 m

152 m 152 m
E2 C2 E1 C1 E2 C2

D2 145 m D1 145 m D2 145 m

20 m 32 m 40 m 12 m

Fig. (i) Fig. (ii)

(i) Find pressure at critical points with (ii) Find pressure at C1 and E2 with interference
thickness correction correction

157 m Correction factor for slope,

160 m 3:1 = 4.5
3:1 E3 C3
152 m
E2 C2

D2 145 m D3 145 m

32 m 32 m 20 m

Fig. (iii)
(iii) Find pressure at point C2 with slope correction
6. Using Khoslas curves, determine the following for the apron shown below: (Spring-2006)
(i) Uplift pressure at points E,D, C, E1 and D1
(ii) Exit gradient
Neglect the effect of floor thickness.

6m

Impervious Floor

E
C E1

6m 8 cm

D
D1
6m
20 m

15
7. Using Khoslas curves, determine the following for the apron shown below:
(i) Uplift pressure at points C, E1 and D1
(ii) Exit gradient
Assume floor thickness = 1 m

6m

Impervious Floor

E C E1

6m
10 m

D1
25 m
6m

8. Using the Khoslas curves, determine the following for the apron shown below:
(iii) If percentage of pressure at C2 is 56%, what will be the percentage of pressure at this point
after corrections due to pile interference and slope
(iv) Find exit gradient where, corrections factor for slope, 3:1 = 4.5,
Assume floor thickness = 1 m
158 m

155 m

3:1

154 m
C2
152 m
3m

40 m
147 m
141.7 m

57 m

16
 Course Teacher: Prof. Dr. M. R. Kabir

SYSTEM OF IRRIGATION CANAL

Alluvial Soil and Non-Alluvial Soil

CHAPTER 6
The soil which is formed by transportation and deposition of silt through the agency of water, over a
course of time, is called the alluvial soil.
The canals when excavated through such soils are called alluvial canals. Canal irrigation (direct
irrigation using a weir or a barrage) is generally preferred in such areas, as compared to the storage
irrigation (i.e. by using a dam).
Alluvial soil is fertile, as it can absorb a fair percentage of rainfall and retain it in the substratum,
making it highly productive, as water, remains available within the root zone of crops.
Mountainous regions may go on disintegrating over a period of time, resulting in the formation of a
rocky plain area, called non-alluvial area.
It has an uneven topography, and hard foundations are generally available. The rivers, passing
through such areas, have no tendency to shift their courses, and they do not pose much problems for
designing irrigation structures on them. Canals, passing through such areas are called non-alluvial
Canals.
Alignment of Canals
(i) Watershed Canal or Ridge Canal:
(ii) Contour Canal
(iii) Side-slope Canal
Watershed canal or ridge canal:
The dividing ridge line between the catchment areas of two streams (drains) is called the watershed
or ridge canal.
Thus between two major streams, there is the main watershed (ridge line), which divides the
drainage area of the two streams, as shown in figure below. Similarly, between a main stream and
any of its tributary, there are subsidiary watersheds (ridge lines), dividing the drainage between the
two streams on either side.
The canal which is aligned along any natural watershed (ridge line) is called a watershed canal, or
a ridge canal. Aligning a canal (main canal or branch canal or distributary) on the ridge ensures
gravity irrigation on both sides of the canal.
Since the drainage flows away from the ridge, no drainage can cross a canal aligned on the ridge.
Thus, a canal aligned on the watershed saves the cost of construction of cross-drainage works.

Fig: Alignment of a ridge or watershed canal

(Head reach of a main canal in plains)

1
Contour Canals
Watershed canal along the ridge line are, however, not found economical in hill areas, since the
conditions in hills are vastly different compared to those of plains. In hills, the river flows in the valley well
below the watershed. Infact, the ridge line (watershed) may be hundred of meters above the river. It
therefore becomes virtually impossible to take the canal on top of such a higher ridge line. In such
conditions, contour canals (figure below) are usually constructed.
o Contour channels follow a contour, except for giving the required longitudinal slope to the
canal.
o Since the river slope is much steeper than the canal bed slope, the canal encompasses more
and more area between itself and the river.
o A contour canal irrigates only on one side because the area on the other side is higher, as
can be seen in figure below.

Fig: Alignment of a Contour canal

(Head reach of main canal in hills)
Side-slope canal:
A side slope canal is that which is aligned at right angles to the contours; i.e. along the side slopes, as
shown in figure below. Since such a canal runs parallel to the natural drainage flow, it usually does not
intercept drainage channels, thus avoiding the construction of cross-drainage structures.
o It is a canal which is aligned roughly at right angle to contours of the country but not on watershed
or valley. The canal thus runs roughly parallel to the natural drainage of the country and as such
cross drainage works are avoided. The side slope channel has the advantage of not intercepting cross
drainage works but its course must follow the shortest route the nearest valley and such channel
shall be along a line of steepest possible slope except in very flat areas.

SIDE SLOPE
CHANNEL

1000
950 900

GROUND
CONTOURS
Fig: Alignment of a side slope canal

2
Distribution system for canal irrigation
It has emphasized earlier that the direct irrigation scheme using a weir or a barrage, as well as the storage
irrigation scheme using a dam or a reservoir, require a network of irrigation canals of different sizes and
capacities. The entire network of irrigation channels is called the Canal System.
The canal system Consists:
Main canal
Branch canals
Distributaries
Minors
Watercourses
In case of direct irrigation scheme, a weir or a barrage is constructed across the river, and water is headed
up on the upstream side. The arrangement is known as Head works or diversion head works. Water is
diverted into the main canal by means of a diversion weir. A head regulator is provided at the head of the
main canal, so as to regulate the flow of water into the main canal.

BARRAGE OR
SILT EXCLUDER WEIR

RIVER

CANAL HEAD
REGULATOR SEDIMENT ESCAPE
CHANNEL

MAIN CANAL
BRANCH CANAL Q > 30 m3/s

MINOR
Q < 2.5 m3/s
DISTRIBUTARY
Q < 30 m3/s
OUTLET WATER COURSE
(Field Channel)

FIELD

Fig: Layout of an irrigation canal network

3
Definition of Important Terms
Gross Command Area (GCA)
The whole area enclosed between an imaginary boundary lines which can be included in an irrigation
project for supplying water to agricultural land by the net work of canals is known as GCA. It includes both
the culturable and unculturable areas.

Uncultivable Area
The area where the agriculture cannot be done and crops cannot be grown marshy lands, barren lands,
ponds, forest, villages etc. are considered as uncultivable area.

Cultivable Area
The area where agriculture can be done satisfactorily

Cultivable Command Area (CCA)

The total area within an irrigation project where the cultivation can be done and crops can be grown

Intensity of Irrigation
Ratio of cultivated land for a particular crop to the total culturable command area
Cultivated Land
Intensity of irrigation, II =
CCA
Losses of water in canal
During the passage of water from the main canal to the outlet at the head of the watercourse, water may
be lost either by evaporation from the surface or by seepage through the peripheries of the channels. These
losses are sometimes very high, of the order of 25 to 50 % of the water diverted into the main canal.
Evaporation and seepage losses are discussed below:
Evaporation: The water lost by evaporation is generally very small, as compared to the water lost
by seepage in certain channels. Evaporation losses are generally of the order of 2 to 3 percent of the
total losses.
Seepage: There may be two different conditions of seepage, i.e. (i) Percolation, (ii) Absorption
o Percolation: In percolation, there exists a zone of continuous saturation from the canal to
the water-table and a direct flow is established. Almost all the water lost from the canal
joins the ground water reservoir.
o Absorption: In absorption, a small saturated soil zone exists round the canal section, is
surrounded by zone of decreasing saturation. A certain zone just above the water-table is
saturated by capillarity. Thus, there exists an unsaturated soil zone between the two
saturated zones, as shown below.

Time Factor:
The ratio of the number of days the canal has actually been kept open to the number of days the canal
was designed to remain open during the base period is known as time factor.
For example, a canal was designed to be kept open for 12 days, but it was practically kept open for 10
days for supplying water to the culturable area. Then the time factor is 10/12.
No. of days the canal practically kept open
Time factor = = Actual discharge
No. of days the canal was designed to keep open Designed discharge

Capacity Factor:
Generally, a canal is designed for a maximum discharge capacity. But, actually it is not required that the
canal runs to that maximum capacity all the time of the base period. So, the ratio of the average discharge to
the maximum discharge (designed discharge) is known as capacity factor.
For example, a canal was designed for the maximum discharge of 50 cumec, but the average discharge is
40 cumec.
Capacity factor = 40/50 = 0.8

4
Problem-1
The gross commanded area for a distributary is 6000 hectares, 80 % of which is culturable irrigable. The
intensity of irrigation for Rabi season is 50 % and that for Kharif season is 25 %. If the average duty at the
head of the distributary is 2000 hectares/cumec for Rabi season and 900 hectares/cumec for Kharif season,
find out the discharge required at the head of the distributary from average demand considerations.
Solution:
G.C.A = 6000 hectares
C.C.A = 80 % of 6000 = (80/100) 6000 = 4800 hectares

Area to be irrigated in Rabi season = C.C.A Intensity of irrigation

= 4800 (50/100) = 2400 hectares

Area to be irrigated in Kharif season = 4800 (25/100) = 1200 hectares

2400
Water required at the head of the distributary to irrigate Rabi area = cumec = 1.20 cumec
2000
1200
Water required at the head of the distributary to irrigate Kharif area = cumec = 1.33 cumec
900

The required discharge is maximum of the two, i.e. 1.33 cumec (Ans)

Hence, the distributary should be designed for 1.33 cumec discharge at its head from average demand
considerations. The head regulator should be sufficient to carry 1.33 cumec and in Rabi season, only 1.20
cumec will be released.

Problem-2
The culturable commanded area of a watercourse is 1200 hectares. Intensities of sugarcane and wheat crops
are 20% and 40% respectively. The duties for the crops at the head of the watercourse are 730
hectares/cumec and 1800 hectares/cumec respectively. Find (a) the discharge required at the head of the
watercourse (b) determine the design discharge oat the outlet, assuming a time factor equal to 0.8.
Solution:
C.C.A = 1200 hectares
Intensity of irrigation for sugarcane = 20 %
Area to be irrigated under sugarcane = 1200 (20/100) = 240 hectares

Intensity of irrigation for wheat = 40 %

Area to be irrigated under wheat = 1200 (40/100) = 480 hectares

Again,
Duty for sugarcane = 730 hectares/cumec
Duty for wheat = 1800 hectares/cumec

Discharge required for sugarcane = Area/Duty = (240/730) cumec = 0.329 cumec

Discharge required for wheat = Area/Duty = (480/1800) cumec = 0.271 cumec

Now, sugarcane requires water for all the 12 months and wheat requires water for only Rabi season.
Hence, the water requirement at the head of the watercourse at any time of the year will be the summation of
the two, i.e. equal to 0.329 + 0.271 = 0.6 cumec
(a) Hence, the discharge required at the head of the watercourse is 0.6 cumec (ans)
Note: The discharge during Rabi season will be 0.6 cumec and for the rest of the year, it will be 0.329
cumec

(b) Time factor = 0.8; since the channel runs for fewer days than the crop days, therefore, the actual
design discharge at the outlet = (0.6/0.8) = 0.75 cumec (ans)

5
Problem-3
The culturable commanded area for a distributary is 15,000 hectares. The intensity of irrigation for Rabi
(wheat) is 40 % and for Kharif (rice) is 15 %. If the total water requirements of the two crops are 37.5 cm
and 120 cm and their periods of growth are 160 days and 140 days respectively; determine the outlet
discharge from average demand considerations.
Solution:
C.C.A = 15,000 hectares
Intensity of irrigation for Rabi (wheat) = 40 %
Intensity of irrigation for Kharif (rice) = 15 %

Rabi (wheat) area = 15,000 0.40 = 6000 hectares

Kharif (rice) area = 15,000 0.15 = 2250 hectares

For wheat,
= 37.5 cm
B = 160 days
Average duty for wheat, D = 864160/37.5 = 3686 hectares/cumec

For rice,
= 120 cm
B = 140 days
Average duty for rice, D = 864140/120 = 1008 hectares/cumec

Outlet discharge required for wheat = Area/Duty = 6000/3686 = 1.63 cumec

Outlet discharge required for rice = 2250/1008 = 2.23 cumec

The required design discharge at outlet (from average demand considerations) is maximum of the two
values, i.e. 2.23 cumec (ans)

6
Cross-section of an irrigation Canal:
A typical and most desired section of a canal is shown below. This section is partly in cutting and partly
in filling and aims in balancing the quantity of earth work in excavation with that in filling
Bank
FSL Free board
Filling
Berm NSL

Cutting

Bed
Fig: Typical cross-section of an irrigation canal
Note: Sometimes, when the natural surface level (NSL) is above the top of the bank, the entire canal section
will have to be in cutting, and it shall be called canal in cutting. Similarly, when the NSL is lower than the
bed level of the canal, the entire canal section will have to be built in filling, and it is called canal in filling
or canal in banking.
Components of cross-section:
Side slopes
Berms
Freeboard
Banks
Service roads
Back Berm or Counter Berms
Spoil Banks
Borrow Pits
Side Slopes
The side slopes should be such that they are stable, depending upon the type of the soil. A comparatively
steeper slope can be provided in cutting rather than in filling, as the soil in the former case shall be more
stable.

In cutting -------------- 1H: 1V to 1.5 H: 1V

In filling --------------- 1.5 H: 1V to 2H: 1V

Berms
Berm is the horizontal distance left at ground level between the toe of the bank and the top edge of
cutting.

7
 The berm is provided in such a way that the bed line and the bank line remain parallel. If s1: 1 is the slope
in cutting and s2:1 in filling, then the initial berm width = (s1 s2) d1.
Purposes of Berms:
o They help the channel to attain regime conditions.
o They give additional strength to the banks and provide protection against erosion and breaches.
o They protect the banks from erosion due to wave action.
o They provide a scope for future widening of the canal.

Freeboard
The margin between FSL and bank level is known as freeboard. The amount of freeboard depends upon
the size of the channel. The generally provided values of freeboard are given in the table in the next page.
Discharge (m3/s) Extent of freeboard (m)
1 to 5 0.50
5 to 10 0.60
10 to 30 0.75
30 to 150 0.90

Banks
The primary purpose of banks in to remain water. The can be used as means of communication and as
inspection paths. They should be wide enough, so that a minimum cover of 0.50 m is available above the
saturation line.

Service Roads
Service roads are provided on canals for inspection purposes, and may simultaneously serve as the means
of communication in remote areas. They are provided 0.4 m to 1.0 m above FSL, depending upon the size of
the channel.

Dowla: As a measure of safety in driving, dowlas 0.3 m high and 0.3 to 0.6 m wide at top, with side slopes
of 1.5: 1 to 2:1, are provided along the banks. They also help in preventing slope erosion due to rains etc.
Back berms or counter berms
Even after providing sufficient section for bank embankment, the saturation gradient line may cut the
downstream end of the bank. In such a case, the saturation line can be kept covered at least by 0.5 m with the
help of counter berms as shown in figure below.

8
 The straight saturation gradient line may be drawn with the following slopes:
Type of soil Slope (H:V)
Clay 1 in 4
Clayey Loam 1 in 6
Loam 1 in 8
Loamy sand 1 in 10
Sand 1 in 15
Spoil banks
When the earthwork in excavation exceeds earthworks in filling, even after providing maximum width of
bank embankments, the extra earth has to be disposed of economically. To dispose of this earth by
mechanical transport, etc. may become very costly, and an economical mode of its disposal may be found in
the form of collecting this soil on the edge of the bank embankment itself.

Borrow pits
When earthwork in filling exceeds the earthwork in excavation, the earth has to be brought from
somewhere. The pits, which are dug for bringing earth, are known as borrow pits.
If such pits are excavated outside the channel, they are known as external borrow pits, and if they are
excavated somewhere within the channel, they are known as internal borrow pits. It is a very costly affair to
bring soil from distances. Even in the nearby areas, these pits may cause mosquito nuisance due to collection
of rain water in these pits, and hence, external borrow pits are not preferred.

BORROW PIT
L

Depth 1 m
Should be more than 5 m
for small channels & 10 m L/2
for large channels
b B/2
B L

(a) Cross-section (b) Plan

Design Requirements:
o The borrow pits should start from a point at a distance more than 5 m from the toe for small
channels, and 10 m for large channels.
o The width of these pits b, should be less than half the width of the canal B, and should be dug in the
entire.
o The depth of these pits should be equal to or less than 1 m.
o Longitudinally, these pits should not run continuous, but a minimum space of L/2 should be left
between two consecutive pits, (where L is the length of one pits).

9
Problem- 4
Calculate the balancing depth for a channel section having a bed width equal to 18 m and side slopes of 1:1
in cutting and 2:1 in filling. The bank embankments are kept 3.0 m higher than the ground level (berm level)
and crest width of banks is kept as 2.0 m

Solution: The channel section is shown below. Let d be the balancing depth, i.e. the depth for which
excavation and filling becomes equal.

3m 2:1 3m

d 1:1
6m 2m 6m 6m 2m 6m

18 m

Area of cutting = (18 + d) d m2

Area of filling = 2(2+14)/23 = 48 m2
Equating cutting and filling, we get
(18 + d) d = 48
d2 + 18d 48 = 0 d = 2.35 m (neglecting ve sign)
Balancing depth = 2.35 m

Practice Problems
1. An area of 300 hectares is to be irrigated from a minor channel with one outlet; C.C.A is 80% of
total area. The intensity of irrigation is 50% for Rabi and 30% for Kharif crop. Taking loss in
conveyance system as 5% of outlet discharge, determine the design discharge of the channel. Take
outlet discharge factor for Rabi season as 1500 ha/m3/sec and for Kharif season 1000 ha/m3/sec.

2. Find out the capacity of a reservoir from the following data. The culturable command area is 80,000
hectares.

Crop Base in days Duty in hectares/cumec Irrigation Intensity (%)

Rice 120 1800 25
Wheat 120 2000 30
Sugarcane 320 2500 20

Assume the canal and reservoir losses as 5% and 10% respectively

3. Determine the head discharge of a canal from the following data: The value of time factor may be
assumed as 0.75.
Crop Base Period in days Area in hectare Duty in hectares/cumec
Rice 120 4000 1500
Wheat 120 3500 2000
Sugarcane 310 3000 1200

4. A Persian wheel discharges at the rate of 11,000 liters per hour and works for eight hours each day.
Estimate the area commanded by the water lift if the average depth of irrigation is 8 cm and
irrigation interval is 15 days.

10
 Course Teacher: Prof. Dr. M. R. Kabir
CHAPTER 7
THEORIES OF SEEPAGE AND DESIGN OF WEIRS AND BARRAGES
Causes of failure of weir or barrage on permeable foundation:
1. FAILURE DUE TO SUBSURFACE FLOW
(a) Failure by Piping or undermining
The water from the upstream side continuously percolates through the bottom of the foundation and
emerges at the downstream end of the weir or barrage floor. The force of percolating water removes the
soil particles by scouring at the point of emergence. As the process of removal of soil particles goes on
continuously, a depression is formed which extends backwards towards the upstream through the bottom
of the foundation. A hollow pipe like formation thus develops under the foundation due to which the weir
or barrage may fail by subsiding. This phenomenon is known as failure by piping or undermining.

(b) Failure by Direct uplift

The percolating water exerts an upward pressure on the foundation of the weir or barrage. If this
uplift pressure is not counterbalanced by the self weight of the structure, it may fail by rapture.

2. FAILURE BY SURFACE FLOW

(a) By hydraulic jump
When the water flows with a very high velocity over the crest of the weir or over the gates of the
barrage, then hydraulic jump develops. This hydraulic jump causes a suction pressure or negative pressure
on the downstream side which acts in the direction uplift pressure. If the thickness of the impervious floor
is sufficient, then the structure fails by rapture.

(b) By scouring
During floods, the gates of the barrage are kept open and the water flows with high velocity. The
water may also flow with very high velocity over the crest of the weir. Both the cases can result in
scouring effect on the downstream and on the upstream side of the structure. Due to scouring of the soil on
both sides of the structure, its stability gets endangered by shearing.

BLIGHS CREEP THEORY FOR SEEPAGE FLOW

According to Blighs Theory, the percolating water follows the outline of the base of the foundation of
the hydraulic structure. In other words, water creeps along the bottom contour of the structure. The length
of the path thus traversed by water is called the length of the creep. Further, it is assumed in this theory,
that the loss of head is proportional to the length of the creep. If HL is the total head loss between the
upstream and the downstream, and L is the length of creep, then the loss of head per unit of creep length
(i.e. HL/L) is called the hydraulic gradient. Further, Bligh makes no distinction between horizontal and
vertical creep.

1
 Consider a section a shown in Fig above. Let HL be the difference of water levels between upstream and
downstream ends. Water will seep along the bottom contour as shown by arrows. It starts percolating at A
and emerges at B. The total length of creep is given by
L = d1 + d1 + L1 + d2 + d2 + L2 + d3 + d3
= (L1+ L2) + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)
= b + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)

HL HL
Head loss per unit length or hydraulic gradient = =
b 2d1 d 2 d 3 L

Head losses equal to L 2d1 , H L 2d 2 , H L 2d 3 ; will occur respectively, in the planes of three
H
L L L
vertical cut offs. The hydraulic gradient line (H.G. Line) can then be drawn as shown in figure above.

(I) SAFETY AGAINST PIPING OR UNDERMINING:

According to Bligh, the safety against piping can be ensured by providing sufficient creep length, given
by L = C.HL, where C is the Blighs Coefficient for the soil. Different values of C for different types of
soils are tabulated in Table 1 below:
SL Type of Soil Value of Safe Hydraulic gradient
No. C should be less than
1 Fine micaceous sand 15 1/15
2 Coarse grained sand 12 1/12
3 Sand mixed with boulder and gravel, and for loam soil 5 to 9 1/5 to 1/9
4 Light sand and mud 8 1/8
Note: The hydraulic gradient i.e. HL/L is then equal to 1/C. Hence, it may be stated that the hydraulic
gradient must be kept under a safe limit in order to ensure safety against piping.

(II) SAFETY AGAINST UPLIFT PRESSURE:

The ordinates of the H.G line above the bottom of the floor represent the residual uplift water head at each
point. Say for example, if at any point, the ordinate of H.G line above the bottom of the floor is 1 m, then 1
m head of water will act as uplift at that point. If h meters is this ordinate, then water pressure equal to h
meters will act at this point, and has to be counterbalanced by the weight of the floor of thickness say t.
Uplift pressure = w h [where w is the unit weight of water]
Downward pressure = (w G).t [Where G is the specific gravity of the floor material]
For equilibrium,
w h = w G. t
h = G t
Subtracting t on both sides, we get
(h t) = (Gt t) = t (G 1)
'
t = h t =
h
G 1 G 1

Where, h t = h = Ordinate of the H.G line above the top of the floor
G 1 = Submerged specific gravity of the floor material

LANES WEIGHTED CREEP THEORY

Bligh, in his theory, had calculated the length of the creep, by simply adding the horizontal creep length
and the vertical creep length, thereby making no distinction between the two creeps. However, Lane, on
the basis of his analysis carried out on about 200 dams all over the world, stipulated that the horizontal
creep is less effective in reducing uplift (or in causing loss of head) than the vertical creep. He, therefore,
suggested a weightage factor of 1/3 for the horizontal creep, as against 1.0 for the vertical creep.
Thus in Fig1, the total Lanes creep length (Ll) is given by
Ll = (d1 + d1) + (1/3) L1 + (d2 + d2) + (1/3) L2 + (d3 + d3)
= (1/3) (L1 + L2) + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)
= (1/3) b + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)
To ensure safety against piping, according to this theory, the creep length Ll must no be less than C1HL,
where HL is the head causing flow, and C1 is Lanes creep coefficient given in table 2
2
 Table 2: Values of Lanes Safe Hydraulic Gradient for different types of Soils

SL Type of Soil Value of Lanes Safe Lanes Hydraulic gradient

No. Coefficient C1 should be less than
1 Very fine sand or silt 8.5 1/8.5
2 Fine sand 7.0 1/7
3 Coarse sand 5.0 1/5
4 Gravel and sand 3.5 to 3.0 1/3.5 to 1/3
5 Boulders, gravels and sand 2.5 to 3.0 1/2.5 to 1/3
6 Clayey soils 3.0 to 1.6 1/3 to 1/1.6

KHOSLAS THEORY AND CONCEPT OF FLOW NETS

Many of the important hydraulic structures, such as weirs and barrage, were designed on the basis of
Blighs theory between the periods 1910 to 1925. In 1926 27, the upper Chenab canal siphons, designed
on Blighs theory, started posing undermining troubles. Investigations started, which ultimately lead to
Khoslas theory. The main principles of this theory are summarized below:
(a) The seepage water does not creep along the bottom contour of pucca flood as started by Bligh, but
on the other hand, this water moves along a set of stream-lines. This steady seepage in a vertical
plane for a homogeneous soil can be expressed by Laplacian equation:
d 2 d 2
+
dx 2 dz 2
Where, = Flow potential = Kh; K = the co-efficient of permeability of soil as defined by
Darcys law, and h is the residual head at any point within the soil.
The above equation represents two sets of curves intersecting each other orthogonally. The resultant
flow diagram showing both of the curves is called a Flow Net.

Stream Lines: The streamlines represent the paths along which the water flows through the sub-soil.
Every particle entering the soil at a given point upstream of the work, will trace out its own path and will
represent a streamline. The first streamline follows the bottom contour of the works and is the same as
Blighs path of creep. The remaining streamlines follows smooth curves transiting slowly from the outline
of the foundation to a semi-ellipse, as shown below.

Equipotential Lines: (1) Treating the downstream bed as datum and assuming no water on the
downstream side, it can be easily started that every streamline possesses a head equal to h1 while entering
the soil; and when it emerges at the down-stream end into the atmosphere, its head is zero. Thus, the head
h1 is entirely lost during the passage of water along the streamlines.
Further, at every intermediate point in its path, there is certain residual head (h) still to be dissipated
in the remaining length to be traversed to the downstream end. This fact is applicable to every streamline,
and hence, there will be points on different streamlines having the same value of residual head h. If such
points are joined together, the curve obtained is called an equipotential line.
3
 Every water particle on line AB is having a residual head h = h1, and on CD is having a residual head h
= 0, and hence, AB and CD are equipotential lines.
Since an equipotential line represent the joining of points of equal residual head, hence if piezometers
were installed on an equipotential line, the water will rise in all of them up to the same level as shown in
figure below.

(b) The seepage water exerts a force at each point in the direction of flow and tangential to the
streamlines as shown in figure above. This force (F) has an upward component from the point
where the streamlines turns upward. For soil grains to remain stable, the upward component of this
force should be counterbalanced by the submerged weight of the soil grain. This force has the
maximum disturbing tendency at the exit end, because the direction of this force at the exit point is
vertically upward, and hence full force acts as its upward component. For the soil grain to remain
stable, the submerged weight of soil grain should be more than this upward disturbing force. The
disturbing force at any point is proportional to the gradient of pressure of water at that point (i.e.
dp/dt). This gradient of pressure of water at the exit end is called the exit gradient. In order that the
soil particles at exit remain stable, the upward pressure at exit should be safe. In other words, the
exit gradient should be safe.

CRITICAL EXIT GRADIENT

This exit gradient is said to be critical, when the upward disturbing force on the grain is just equal to the
submerged weight of the grain at the exit. When a factor of safety equal to 4 to 5 is used, the exit gradient
can then be taken as safe. In other words, an exit gradient equal to to 1/5 of the critical exit gradient is
ensured, so as to keep the structure safe against piping.
The submerged weight (Ws) of a unit volume of soil is given as:
w (1 n) (Ss 1)
Where, w = unit weight of water.
Ss = Specific gravity of soil particles
n = Porosity of the soil material

For critical conditions to occur at the exit point

F = Ws
Where F is the upward disturbing force on the grain
Force F = pressure gradient at that point = dp/dl = w dh/dl

4
KHOSLAS METHOD OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES FOR DETERMINATION OF PRESSURES AND EXIT
GRADIENT FOR SEEPAGE BELOW A WEIR OR A BARRAGE
In order to know as to how the seepage below the foundation of a hydraulic structure is taking place,
it is necessary to plot the flownet. In other words, we must solve the Laplacian equations. This can be
accomplished either by mathematical solution of the Laplacian equations, or by Electrical analogy method,
or by graphical sketching by adjusting the streamlines and equipotential lines with respect to the boundary
conditions. These are complicated methods and are time consuming. Therefore, for designing hydraulic
structures such as weirs or barrage or pervious foundations, Khosla has evolved a simple, quick and an
accurate approach, called Method of Independent Variables.

In this method, a complex profile like that of a weir is broken into a number of simple profiles; each
of which can be solved mathematically. Mathematical solutions of flownets for these simple standard
profiles have been presented in the form of equations given in Figure (11.5) and curves given in Plate
(11.1), which can be used for determining the percentage pressures at the various key points. The simple
profiles which hare most useful are:
(i) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line on the u/s end and d/s end.
(ii) A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but without any vertical cut-offs.
(iii) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line at some intermediate point.

The key points are the junctions of the floor and the pole lines on either side, and the bottom point of
the pile line, and the bottom corners in the case of a depressed floor. The percentage pressures at these key
points for the simple forms into which the complex profile has been broken is valid for the complex profile
itself, if corrected for
(a) Correction for the Mutual interference of Piles
(b) Correction for the thickness of floor
(c) Correction for the slope of the floor

(a) Correction for the Mutual interference of Piles:

The correction C to be applied as percentage of head due to this effect, is given by
D d D
C = 19 '
b b
Where,
b = The distance between two pile lines.
D = The depth of the pile line, the influence of which has to be determined on the neighboring pile of
depth
d. D is to be measured below the level at which interference is desired.
d = The depth of the pile on which the effect is considered
b = Total floor length
The correction is positive for the points in the rear of back water, and subtractive for the points
forward in the direction of flow. This equation does not apply to the effect of an outer pile on an
intermediate pile, if the intermediate pile is equal to or smaller than the outer pile and is at a distance less
than twice the length of the outer pile.

5
 Suppose in the above figure, we are considering the influence of the pile no (2) on pile no (1) for
correcting the pressure at C1. Since the point C1 is in the rear, this correction shall be positive. While the
correction to be applied to E2 due to pile no (1) shall be negative, since the point E2 is in the forward
direction of flow. Similarly, the correction at C2 due to pile no (3) is positive and the correction at E2 due to
pile no (2) is negative.
(b) Correction for the thickness of floor:
In the standard form profiles, the floor is assumed to have
negligible thickness. Hence, the percentage pressures
calculated by Khoslas equations or graphs shall pertain to the
top levels of the floor. While the actual junction points E and
C are at the bottom of the floor. Hence, the pressures at the
actual points are calculated by assuming a straight line
pressure variation.

Since the corrected pressure at E1 should be less than the calculated pressure at E1, the correction to be
applied for the joint E1 shall be negative. Similarly, the pressure calculated C1 is less than the corrected
pressure at C1, and hence, the correction to be applied at point C1 is positive.
(c) Correction for the slope of the floor
A correction is applied for a slopping floor, and is taken as positive for the downward slopes, and
negative for the upward slopes following the direction of flow. Values of correction of standard slopes
such as 1 : 1, 2 : 1, 3 : 1, etc. are tabulated in Table 7.4
Slope (H : V) Correction Factor
1:1 11.2
2:1 6.5
3:1 4.5
4:1 3.3
5:1 2.8
6:1 2.5
7:1 2.3
8:1 2.0

The correction factor given above is to be multiplied by the horizontal length of the slope and divided by
the distance between the two pile lines between which the sloping floor is located. This correction is
applicable only to the key points of the pile line fixed at the start or the end of the slope.

Exit gradient (GE)

It has been determined that for a standard form consisting of a floor length (b) with a vertical cutoff of
depth (d), the exit gradient at its downstream end is given by
H 1
GE =
d
1 1 2
Where, =
2
= b/d
H = Maximum Seepage Head

6
 Type of Soil Safe exit gradient
Shingle 1/4 to 1/5 (0.25 to 0.20)
Coarse Sand 1/5 to 1/6 (0.20 to 0.17)
Fine Sand 1/6 to 1/7 (0.17 to 0.14)

Problem-1
Determine the percentage pressures at various key points in figure below. Also determine the exit gradient
and plot the hydraulic gradient line for pond level on upstream and no flow on downstream

Solution:
(1) For upstream Pile Line No. 1
Total length of the floor, b = 57.0 m
Depth of u/s pile line, d = 154 148 = 6 m
= b/d = 57/6 = 9.5
1/ = 1/9.5 = 0.105
From curve plate 11.1 (a)
C1 = 100 29 = 71 %
D1 = 100 20 = 80 %
These values of C1 must be corrected for three corrections as below:

Corrections for C1
(a) Correction at C1 for Mutual Interference of Piles (C1) is affected by intermediate pile No.2
D d D
Correction = 19 ' Where, D = Depth of pile No.2 = 153 148 = 5 m
b b
d = Depth of pile No. 1 = 153 148 = 5 m
5 5 5
= 19 b = Distance between two piles = 15.8 m
15.8 57
b = Total floor length = 57 m
= 1.88 %

Since the point C1 is in the rear in the direction of flow, the correction is (+) ve.
Correction due to pile interference on C1 = 1.88 % (+ ve)

7
8
 (b) Correction at C1 due to thickness of floor: 154


Pressure calculated from curve is at C1 , (Fig. 7.1) but we C1 1.0 m
want the pressure at C1. Pressure at C1 shall be more than C1 153
at C1 as the direction of flow is from C1 to C1 as shown;
and hence, the correction will be + ve and
FLOW
=
80% 71% (154 153)
154 148
= (9/6)1
= 1.5% (+ ve) D1, 148
Fig: 7.1

(c) Correction due to slope at C1 is nil, as this point is neither situated at the start nor at the end of a slope
Corrected (C1) = 71 % + 1.88 % + 1.5 %
= 74.38 % (ans)
And (D1) = 80 %

(2) For intermediate Pile Line No. 2

d = 154 148 = 6 m
b = 57 m
= b/d = 57/6 = 9.5
Using curves of plate 11.1 (b), we have b1 in this case
b1 = 0.6 + 15.8 = 16.4
b = 57 m
b1/b = 16.4/57 = 0.298 (for C2)
1 b1/b = 1 0.298 = 0.702
E2 = 100 30 = 70 % (Where 30 % is C for a base ratio of 0.702 and = 9.5)
C2 = 56 % (For a base ratio 0.298 and = 9.5)
D2 = 100 37 = 63 % (Where 37 % is D for a base ratio of 0.702 and = 9.5)

Corrections for E2
(a) Correction at E2 for sheet pile lines. Pile No. (1) will affect the pressure at E2 and since E2 is in the
forward direction of flow, this correction shall be ve. The amount of this correction is given as:
D d D
Correction = 19 ' Where, D = Depth of pile No.1, the effect of
b b
which is considered = 153 148 = 5 m
d = Depth of pile No. 2, the effect on
5 55
= 19 which is considered = 153 148 = 5 m
15.7 57 b = Distance between two piles = 15.8 m
= 1.88 % ( ve) b = Total floor length = 57 m

(b) Correction at E2 due to floor thickness

Obs E 2 - Obs D2
= Thickness of floor
Distance between E 2 D 2 E2 C2
70% 63% E2 C2
= 1.0 = (7/6)1.0 = 1.17 %
154 148
Since the pressure observed is at E2and not at E2, (Fig. 7.2) and
by looking at the direction of flow, it can be stated easily that
pressure at E2 shall be less than that at E2, hence, this correction
is negative, Fig: 7.2

Correction at E2 due to floor thickness = 1.17 % (- ve)

9
(c) Correction at E2 due to slope is nil, as the point E2 is neither situated at the start of a slope nor at the end
of a shape
Hence, corrected percentage pressure at E2 = Corrected E2 = (70 1.88 1.17) % = 66.95 %
Corrections for C2
(a) Correction at C2 due to pile interference. Pressure at C2 is affected by pile No.(3) and since the point
C2 is in the back water in the direction of flow, this correction is (+) ve. The amount of this correction is
given as:
D d D
Correction = 19 '
Where, D = Depth of pile No.3, the effect of
which is considered below the level at which
b b
interference is desired = 153 141.7 = 11.3 m
11 11 5 d = Depth of pile No. 2, the effect on
= 19 which is considered = 153 148= 5 m
40 57
b = Distance between two piles (2 &3) = 40 m
= 2.89 % (+ ve) b = Total floor length = 57 m

(b) Correction at C2 due to floor thickness. From Fig. 11.10, it can be easily stated that the pressure at C2
shall be more than at C2, and since the observed pressure is at C2, this correction shall be + ve and its
amount is the same as was calculated for the point E2 = 1.17 %
Hence, correction at C2 due to floor thickness = 1.17 % (+ ve)
(c) Correction at C2 due to slope. Since the point C2 is situated at the start of a slope of 3:1, i.e. an up slope
in the direction of flow; the correction is negative
Correction factor for 3:1 slope from table 11.4 = 4.5
Horizontal length of the slope = 3 m
Distance between two pile lines between which the sloping floor is located = 40 m
Actual correction = 4.5 (3/40) = 0.34 % (- ve)
Hence, corrected C2 = (56 + 2.89 + 1.17 0.34) % = 59.72 %

(3) Downstream Pile Line No. 3

d = 152 141.7 = 10.3 m
b = 57 m
1/ = 10.3/57 = 0.181
From curves of Plate 11.1 (a), we get
D3 = 26 %
E3 = 38 %

Corrections for E3
(a) Correction due to piles. The point E3 is affected by pile No. 2, and since E3 is in the forward direction
of flow from pile No. 3, this correction is negative and its amount is given by
D d D
Correction = 19 '
Where, D = Depth of pile No.2, the effect of
b b which is considered = 150.7 148 = 2.7 m
d = Depth of pile No. 3, the effect on
2.7 9 2.7 which is considered = 150 141.7 = 9 m
= 19
40 57 b = Distance between two piles = 40 m
= 1.02 % ( ve) b = Total floor length = 57 m
(b) Correction due to floor thickness
From Fig. 7.3, it can be stated easily that the pressure at E3 E3
shall be less than at E3, and hence the pressure observed form E3
curves is at E3; this correction shall be ve and its amount
=
38% 32% 1.3 = (16/10.3)1.3
152 141.7
= 0.76 % ( ve)

10 Fig: 7.3
(c) Correction due to slope at E3 is nil, as the point E3 is neither situated at the start nor at the end of any
slope
Hence, corrected E3 = (38 1.02 0.76) % = 36.22 %

The corrected pressures at various key points are tabulated below in Table below

Upstream Pile No. 1 Intermediate Pile No.2 Downstream Pile No. 3

E1 = 100 % E2 = 66.95 % E3 = 36.22 %
D1 = 80 % D2 = 63 % D3 = 26 %
C1 = 74.38 % C2 = 59.72 % C3 = 0 %

Exit gradient
Let the water be headed up to pond level, i.e. on RL 158 m on the upstream side with no flow
downstream
The maximum seepage head, H = 158 152 = 6 m
The depth of d/s cur-off, d = 152 141.7 = 10.3 m
Total floor length, b = 57 m
= b/d = 57/10.3 = 5.53

1
For a value of = 5.53, from curves of Plate 11.2 is equal to 0.18.

H 1 6
Hence, GE = = 0.18 = 0.105
d 10.3

Hence, the exit gradient shall be equal to 0.105, i.e. 1 in 9.53, which is very much safe.

1
= 0.18

11
Practice Problems:
1. Use Khoslas curves to calculate the percentage uplift pressure at various key points for a barrage
foundation profile shown in figure below applying necessary corrections. Assume the thickness of the floor
is 0.8 m. Also find exit gradient considering upstream pond level at 103 m. (Spring-2005)

100 m

1:4 98 m
E1 C1
E2 C2 E3 C3

D1 (94 m)

D2 (92 m) D3 (92 m)

30 m 90 m

2. Using Khoslas curves, determine the following for the apron shown below:
[Assume: floor thickness = 1 m]

160 m 160 m

152 m 152 m
E2 C2 E1 C1 E2 C2

D2 145 m D1 145 m D2 145 m

20 m 32 m 40 m 12 m

Fig. (i) Fig. (ii)

(i) Find pressure at critical points with (ii) Find pressure at C1 and E2 with interference
thickness correction correction

Correction factor for slope,

160 m
3:1 = 4.5
157 m
3:1 E3 C3
152 m
E2 C2

D2 145 m D3 145 m

32 m 32 m 20 m

Fig. (iii)

(iii) Find pressure at point C2 with slope correction

12
3. Using Khoslas curves, determine the following for the apron shown below: (Spring-2006)
(i) Uplift pressure at points E,D, C, E1 and D1
(ii) Exit gradient
Neglect the effect of floor thickness.

6m

Impervious Floor

E
C E1

6m 8 cm

D
D1
6m
20 m

4. Using Khoslas curves, determine the following for the apron shown below:
(i) Uplift pressure at points C, E1 and D1
(ii) Exit gradient
Assume floor thickness = 1 m

6m

Impervious Floor

E C E1

6m
10 m

D1
25 m
6m

13
5. Using the Khoslas curves, determine the following for the apron shown below:
(iii) If percentage of pressure at C2 is 56%, what will be the percentage of pressure at this point
after corrections due to pile interference and slope
(iv) Find exit gradient where, corrections factor for slope, 3:1 = 4.5,
Assume floor thickness = 1 m
158 m

155 m

3:1

154 m
C2
152 m
3m

40 m
147 m
141.7 m

57 m

14
Problem 2
In the previous problem-1, the uncorrected percent residual pressures at C1, D1, E2, D2, C2, D3 and D3, were
all computed with the use of Khoslas charts. It is now desired to compare these pressures analytically by
using the respective formulas, if the charts are not available.
Solution:
(1) For upstream Pile Line No. 1
Total length of the floor, b = 57.0 m
Depth of u/s pile line, d = 154 148 = 6 m
= b/d = 57/6 = 9.5

Now,
1 2 Where,
E = cos 1
=
1 1 2 1 1 (9.5)
=
2

2 2
1 5.28 2
= cos 1 = 5.28
5.28
= 0.287 = 28.7 %
Where,
Similarly, 1 2 1 1 5.28 1
D = cos 1 = cos
E1 = 100 D = 100 19.9 = 80.1 % 5.28
= 0.199 = 19.9 %

(2) For upstream Pile Line No. 2

15
16
 Course Teacher: Prof. Dr. M. R. Kabir

Diversion Head Works

IRRIGAITON STRUCTURES 1
CHAPTER 8
The works, which are constructed at the head of the canal, in order to divert the river water towards the
canal, so as to ensure a regulated continuous supply of silt-free water with a certain minimum head into the
canal, are known as diversion heads works.

Objective of Diversion Head Works

To rise the water level at the head of the canal.
To form a storage by constructing dykes (embankments) on both the banks of the river so that
water is available throughout the year
To control the entry of silt into the canal and to control the deposition of silt at the head of the
canal
To control the fluctuation of water level in the river during different seasons
Selection of Site for Diversion Head Works
At the site, the river should be straight and narrow
The river banks should be well defined.
The valuable land should not be submerged when the weir or barrage is constructed.
The elevation of the site should be much higher than the area to be irrigated.
The site should be easily accessible by roads or railways.
The materials of construction should be available in vicinity of the site.
The site should not be far away from the command area of the project, to avoid transmission
loss.
Weir and Barrage
It is a barrier constructed across the river to raise the water level on the upstream side of the
obstruction in order to feed the main canal.
The ponding of water can be achieved either only by a raised crest across the river or by a raised
crest supplemented by gates or shutters, working over the crest.

CREST
CREST LEVEL = POND LEVEL POND LEVEL SHUTTER
PONDING BY CREST LEVEL
CREST SHUTTER P2

P1 = P TOTAL
TOTAL PONDING PONDING BY
P2 = 0 P1 PONDING (P)
BY RAISED CREST RAISED CREST
WEIR WITHOUT
SHUTTERS
P1 >>>> P2
(a) Fig: Weir without shutters (b) Fig: Weir with shutters

GATE POND LEVEL

POND LEVEL

PONDING BY GATE P2 TOTAL PONDING

CREST LEVEL BY GATE

PONDING BY P1 = 0
P1 P2 = P
CREST
P1 <<<< P2 (BARRAGE)

(c) Fig: Barrage with a small raised crest (d) Fig: Barrage without any raised crest

1
Weir
If the major part or the entire ponding of water is achieved by a raised crest and a smaller part or nil
part of it is achieved by the shutters, then this barrier is known as a weir.

Fig: A typical cross-section of a modern concrete weir

Gravity and Non-gravity weirs:

When the weight of the weir (i.e. its body and floor) balances the uplift pressure caused by the head of
the water seeping below the weir, it is called a gravity weir.
On the other hand, if the weir floor is designed continuous with the divide piers as reinforced structure,
such that the weight of concrete slab together with the weight of divide piers keep the structure safe against
the uplift then the structure may be called as a non-gravity weir.
o In the latter case, RCC is to be used in place of brick piers
o Considerable savings may be obtained, as the weight of the floor can be much less than what is
required in gravity weir.

Types of weirs
(a) Masonry weirs with vertical drop
(b) Rock-fill weirs with sloping aprons
(c) Concrete weirs with sloping glacis

Masonry weirs with vertical drop

Masonry weir wall is constructed over the impervious floor. Cut-off walls are provided at both ends
of the floor. Sheet piles are provided below the cut off walls. The crest shutters are provided to raise the
water level, if required. The shutters are dropped down during flood. The masonry weir wall may be
vertical on both face or sloping on both face or vertical on downstream face and sloping in upstream face.

2
Rock-fill weirs with sloping aprons
It consists of masonry breast wall which is provided with adjustable crest shutter. The upstream
rock-fill portion is constructed with boulders forming a slope of 1 in 4. The boulders are grouted with
cement mortar. The downstream sloping apron consists of core walls. The intermediate spaces between the
core walls are filled up with boulders maintaining a slope of 1 in 20. The boulders are grouted properly
with cement mortar.

Concrete weir
Now-a-days, the weir is constructed with reinforced cement concrete. The impervious floor and the
weir are made monolithic. The cut off walls are provided at the upstream and downstream end of the floor
and at the toe of the weir. Sheet piles are provided below the cut-off walls. The crest shutters are also
provided which hare dropped down during the flood.

Barrage
If most of the ponding is done by gates and a smaller or nil part of it is done by the raised crest, then
the barrier is known as a barrage or a river regulator.

Fig: A typical cross-section of a barrage

3
Afflux:
o The rise in the highest flood level (HFL) upstream of the weir due to construction of the weir
across the river is called.
o In case of weir, the afflux caused during high floods is quite high. But in case of a barrage, the
gates can be opened during high floods and the afflux will be nil or minimum.

Choice between a weir and a barrage

The choice between a weir and a barrage is largely governed by cost and convenience in working.
o A shuttered weir will be relatively cheaper but will lack the effective control possible in the
case of a barrage.
o A barrage type construction can be easily supplemented with a roadway across the river at a
small additional cost. Barrages are almost invariably constructed now-a-days on all important
rivers.

Difference between Barrage and Weir

SL Barrage Weir
(a) Low set crest High set crest
(b) Ponding is done by means of gates Ponding is done against the raised crest or
partly against crest and partly by shutters
(c) Gated over entire length Shutters in part length
(d) Gates are of greater height Shutters are of smaller height, 2 m
(e) Gates are raised clear off the high floods to pass floods Shutters are dropped to pass floods
(f) Perfect control on river flow No control of river in low floods
(g) Gates convenient to operate Operation of shutters is slow, involve labour
and time
(h) High floods can be passed with minimum afflux Excessive afflux in high floods
(i) Less silting upstream due to low set crest Raised crest causes silting upstream
(j) Longer construction period Shorter construction period
(k) Silt removal is done through under sluices No means for silt disposal
(l) Road and/or rail bridge can be constructed at low cost Not possible to provide road-rail bridge
(m) Costly structure Relatively cheaper structure

Layout of a Diversion Head Works and its components

A typical layout of a canal head-works is shown in figure below. Such a head-works consists of:
Weir proper
Under-sluices
Divide wall
River Training works
Fish Ladder
Canal Head Regulator
River Training Works e.g. Guide bank, Marginal bunds, spur and groyne etc.
Shutters and Gates
Silt Regulation Works

4
 Marginal bund
joined to high
contours
Guide bank

RIVER FLOW

Under sluice portion of

weir (crest level lower
than that of weir)
Canal head regulator
with gated openings Divide wall
called Head Sluices
Normal weir portion i.e
weir proper or main weir

Weir divided into

bays with piers
Fish ladder

Length divided into ways by

piers. Each way is provided
with a gate so as to act as an
opening of controlled height
Fig: Typical layout of diversion head-works

Weir Proper:
It is a barrier constructed across the river. It aims to raise the water level in order to feed the canal.

Under-sluices:
The under sluices are the openings provided at the base of the weir or barrage. These openings are
provided with adjustable gates. Normally, the gates are kept closed. The crest of the under-under sluice
portion of the weir is kept at a lower level (1 1.5 m) than the crest of the normal portion of the weir. The
suspended silt goes on depositing in front of the canal head regulator. When the silt deposition becomes
appreciable the gates are opened and the deposited silt is loosened with an agitator mounting on a boat.
The muddy water flows towards the downstream through the scouring sluices. The gates are then closed.
But, at the period of flood, the gates are kept opened.
The main functions of under-sluices are:
o To maintain a well defined deep channel approaching the canal head regulator.
o To ensure easy diversion of water into the canal through the canal head regulator even during low
flow.
o To control the entry of silt into the canal
o To help scouring and of the silt deposited over the under-sluice floor and removing towards the
downstream side.
o To help passing the low floods without dropping the shutters of the weir.
The divide wall:
The divide wall is a masonry or concrete wall constructed at right angle to the axis of the weir.
The divide wall extends on the upstream side beyond the beginning of the canal head regulator;
and on the downstream side, it extends upto the end of the loose protection of the under-sluices.
The divide wall is a long wall constructed at right angles in the weir or barrage, it may be
constructed with stone masonry or cement concrete. On the upstream side, the wall is extended
just to cover the canal head regulator and on the downstream side, it is extended up to the
launching apron.
5
 The main functions of the divide walls:
o It separates the under-sluices with lower crest level from the weir proper with higher crest
level.
o It helps in providing a comparatively less turbulent pocket near the canal head regulator,
resulting in deposition of silt in this pocket and, thus, to help in the entry of silt-free water
into the canal.
o It helps to keep cross-current, if any, away from the weir.

Fish Ladder
It is device by which the flow energy can be dissipated in such a manner as to provide smooth
flow at sufficiently low velocity, not exceeding 3 to 3.5 m/s.
A narrow opening including suitable baffles or staggering devices in it is provided adjacent to
the divide wall.
The fish ladder is provided just by the side of the divide wall for the free movement of fishes.
Rivers are important source of fishes.
There are various types of fish in the river. The nature of the fish varies from type to type. But
in general, the tendency of fish is to move from upstream to downstream in winters and from
downstream to upstream in monsoons. This movement is essential for their survival. Due to
construction of weir or barrage, this movement gets obstructed, and is detrimental to the fishes.
In the fish ladder, the fable walls are constructed in a zigzag manner so that the velocity of flow
within the ladder does not exceed 3 m/sec
The width, length and height of the fish ladder depend on the nature of the river and the type of
the weir or barrage.

..

Canal Head Regulator or Head sluices

A structure which is constructed at the head of the canal to regulate flow of water is known as canal
head regulator. It consists of a number of piers which divide the total width of the canal into a number of
spans which are known as bays. The piers consist of number tiers on which the adjustable gates are placed.
The gates are operated form the top by suitable mechanical device. A platform is provided on the top of the
piers for the facility of operating the gates. Again some piers are constructed on the down stream side of
the canal head to support the roadway.
Functions of Canal Head Regulator:
o It regulates the supply of water entering the canal
o It controls the entry of silt in the canal
o It prevents the river-floods from entering the canal

6
The water from the under-sluice pocket is made to enter the regulator bays, so as to pass the full supply
discharge into the canal. The maximum height of these gated openings, called head sluices will be equal to
the difference of Pond Level and Crest Level of the regulator.
The entry of silt into the canal is controlled by keeping the crest of the head regulator by about 1.2
to 1.5 meters higher than the crest of the under-sluices.
If a silt-excluder is provided, the regulator crest is further raised by about 0.6 to 0.7 meter.
Silt gets deposited in the pocket, and only the clear water enters the regulator bays.
The deposited silt can be easily scoured out periodically, and removed through the under-sluice
openings.

Fig: A typical section through a Canal Head Regulator (CHR)

River Training Works

River training works are required near the weir site in order to ensure a smooth and an axial flow of
water, and thus, to prevent the river from outflanking the works due to a change in its course.
The river training works required on a canal headwork are:
(a) Guide banks
(b) Marginal bunds
(c) Spurs or groynes

7
(a) Guide Bank
When a barrage is constructed across a river which flows through the alluvial soil, the guide banks must
be constructed on both the approaches to protect the structure from erosion.
Guide bank serves the following purposes:
It protects the barrage from the effect of scouring and erosion.
It provides a straight approach towards the barrage.
It controls the tendency of changing the course of the river.
It controls the velocity of flow near the structure.

(b) Marginal Bunds

The marginal bunds are earthen embankments which are constructed parallel to the river bank on one or
both the banks according to the condition. The top width is generally 3 m to 4 m. The side slope on the
river side is generally 1.5: 1 and that on the country side is 2:1.
The marginal bunds serve the following purposes:
It prevents the flood water or storage water from entering the surrounding area which may be
submerged or may be water logged.
It retains the flood water or storage water within a specified section.
It protects the towns and villages from devastation during the heavy flood.
It protects valuable agricultural lands.

(c) Spurs or groynes

(i) Spurs
These are temporary structures permeable in nature provided on the curve of a river to protect the river
bank from erosion. These are projected from the river bank towards the bed making angles 60 o to 75o with
the bank of the river. The length of the spurs depends on the width of the river and the sharpness of the
curve. The function of the spurs is to break the velocity of flow and to form a water pocket on the upstream
side where the sediments get deposited. Thus the reclamation of land on the river bank can be achieved.
The spurs may be of the following types:
(a) Bamboo Spur
(b) Timber Spur
(c) Boulder Spur
(a) Bamboo Spur: In this type of spur, a box like compartment is prepared by driving bamboo piles at
15 cm centre to centre. The piles are secured by bamboo bracings. The hollow space is filled up
with sand bags. It is permeable in nature and water can seep through its body. This type of spur is
suitable for small rivers. This is purely temporary and requires repair work every year. The length of
bamboo piles depends on bed condition.

8
 (b) Timber Spur: In this type, a box like compartment is prepared by driving timber piles at 15 cm to
30 cm centre to centre. The piles are secured by wooden bracings. The hollow space is filled up by
boulders. This spur is permeable but stable. This is recommended for bi rivers with high velocity of
flow. The length of the timber piles depend on bed condition.

(c) Boulder Spur: In this type of spur, boulders are enclosed in G.I wire net in circular shape. The
boulder should be heavy, varying from 30 kg to 50 kg and the wire net should be made of 4 mm
diameter G.I wires. It is laid from the river bank towards the bed making an angle of 60 o-75o with
the bank. This type of spur is recommended for the rivers where velocity of flow is very high.

(ii) Groynes
The function of groynes is similar to that of spur. But these are impervious permanent structures
constructed on the curve of a river to protect the river bank from erosion. They extend from the bank
towards the bed by making an angle of 60o to 75o with the bank. The angle may be towards the upstream or
downstream. Sometimes, it is made perpendicular to the river bank. These are constructed with rubble
masonry in trapezoidal section and the surface is finished with stone pitching or concrete blocks.
o The stone pitching or the concrete blocks are set with rich cement mortar.
o The length of the groyne depends on the width and nature of the river.
o The top width varies from 3 m to 4 m. The side slope may be 1: 1 or 2:1.
o The groynes are provided in series throughout the affected length of the river bank.
o The spacing between the adjacent groynes is generally kept as 2L, where L is the length of the
groyne.
o These are recommended for the river where the permanent solution of erosion control is extremely
necessary.

9
The groynes may be designated as follows:
(a) Attracting Groyne: The groyne which is constructed obliquely to the bank by making an angle of
60 to 75o towards the downstream is known as attracting groyne, here the flow of water is attracted
towards the bank, and the velocity of flow is reduced to such a extent that it can not cause any
erosion to the bank. However, a bank protected of stone pitching is provided for safety.

(b) Repelling Groyne: A groyne which is aligned towards upstream at an angle of 60o to 75o with the
river bank is known as repelling groyne. A still water pocket is formed on the upstream where
silting takes place. Here, the bank protection is not necessary, because the flow of water does not
touch the bank and there is no effect of erosion on the bank. But still boulder pitching should be
provided for safety.

(c) Deflecting Groyne: The groyne which is constructed perpendicular to the river bank is known as
deflecting groyne. Here the flow of water is deflected from bank by the perpendicular obstruction
i.e. groyne. The flow of water follows an undulating path just outside the head of the groyne. An
eddy current is formed on the upstream side of the groyne. This eddy current will not affect the
river bank. But the bank protection is provided for safety.

10
Modification of Groyne:
(a) Denehys Groyne or T-Headed Groyne: After long investigation in different sites, Denehy
developed a groyne in the shape of a T. The length of the head is kept as , where L is the length of
groyne. A still water pocket is formed on the upstream side where silting takes place. It is
constructed with rubble masonry in trapezoidal section. The upstream face is finished with concrete
blocks with cement mortar.

(b) Hockey Head Groyne: Another development is hockey head groyne. Here, the head of the groyne
is curved towards the downstream in the shape of a hockey stick. It behaves like an attracting
groyne. But it allows the water to flow smoothly over the head of the groyne. It is also constructed
with rubble masonry in trapezoidal section. Here, the bank protection by stone pitching is
necessary.

Comparison between spur and groyne

Spur Groyne
(1) It is a temporary structure. It is a permanent structure.
(2) It is permeable. It is impermeable.
(3) It is constructed with bamboo pile, timber pile, It is constructed with rubble masonry with
sand bag, boulders etc. cement mortar.
(4) It requires repair works. It does not require any repair work.
(5) It is recommended for small rivers. It is recommended for large rivers.
(6) It is useful for low or medium velocity of flow It is suitable for high velocity of flow.

Shutters and Gates:

Functions of shutters and gates are:
o They maintain pond level.
o They raise water level during low flow.

Pond Level
The water level required in the under-sluice pocket upstream of the Canal Head Regulator, so as to feed
the canal with its full supply, is known as Pond Level.
The FSL of the canal at the head depends upon the level of the irrigated areas and the slope of the canal.
Pond Level = Canal FSL + 1.0 to 1.2 m

11
 Silt Regulation works
The entry of silt into a canal, which takes off from a head works, can be reduced by constructed certain
special works, called silt control works.
These works may be classified into the following two types:
(a) Silt Excluders
(b) Silt Ejectors
(a) Silt Excluders
Silt excluders are those works which are constructed on the bed of the river, upstream of the head
regulator. The clearer water enters the head regulator and silted water enters the silt excluder. In this type
of works, the silt is, therefore,, removed from the water before in enters the canal.

12
(b) Silt Ejectors
Silt ejectors, also called silt extractors, are those devices which extract the silt from the canal water after
the silted water has traveled a certain distance in the off-take canal. These works are, therefore, constructed
on the bed of the canal, and little distance downstream from the head regulator.

13
 Course Teacher: Prof. Dr. M. R. Kabir

IRRIGATION STRUCTURES 2

What is cross drainage works?

CHAPTER 9
In an irrigation project, when the network of main canals, branch canals, distributaries, etc. are
provided, then these canals may have to cross the natural drainages like rivers, streams, nallahs, etc at
different points within the command area of the project. The crossing of the canals with such obstacle
cannot be avoided. So, suitable structures must be constructed at the crossing point for the easy flow of
water of the canal and drainage in the respective directions. These structures are known as cross-drainage
works.
Necessity of Cross-drainage works:
o The water-shed canals do not cross natural drainages. But in actual orientation of the canal
network, this ideal condition may not be available and the obstacles like natural drainages may be
present across the canal. So, the cross drainage works must be provided for running the irrigation
system.
o At the crossing point, the water of the canal and the drainage get intermixed. So, far the smooth
running of the canal with its design discharge the cross drainage works are required.
o The site condition of the crossing point may be such that without any suitable structure, the water
of the canal and drainage can not be diverted to their natural directions. So, the cross drainage
works must be provided to maintain their natural direction of flow.
Types of Cross-Drainage Works:
(1) Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the drainage)
(a) Aqueduct
(b) Siphon aqueduct
(2) Type II (Drainage passes over the irrigation canal)
(a) Super passage
(b) Siphon super passage
(3) Type III (Drainage and canal intersection each other of the same level)
(a) Level Crossing
(b) Inlet and outlet
Selection of type of cross-drainage works
Relative bed levels
Availability of suitable foundation
Economical consideration
Discharge of the drainage
Construction problems
Aqueduct
The aqueduct is just like a bridge where a canal is taken over the deck supported by piers instead of a
road or railway. Generally, the canal is in the shape of a rectangular trough which is constructed with
reinforced cement concrete. Sometimes, the trough may be of trapezoidal section.
o An inspection road is provided along the side of the trough.
o The bed and banks of the drainage below the trough is protected by boulder pitching with cement
grouting.
o The section of the trough is designed according to the full supply discharge of the canal.
o A free board of about 0.50 m should be provided.
o The height and section of piers are designed according to the highest flood level and velocity of
flow of the drainage.
o The piers may be of brick masonry, stone masonry or reinforced cement concrete.
o Deep foundation (like well foundation) is not necessary for the piers. The concrete foundation may
be done by providing the depth of foundation according to the availability of hard soil.

1
Siphon Aqueduct
The siphon aqueduct, the bed of the drainage is depressed below the bottom level of the canal trough by
providing sloping apron on both sides of the crossing.
o The sloping apron may be constructed by stone pitching or cement concrete.
o The section of the drainage below the canal trough is constructed with cement concrete in the form
of tunnel. This tunnel acts as a siphon.
o Cut off walls are provided on both sides of the apron to prevent scouring.
o Boulder pitching should be provided on the upstream and downstream of the cut-off walls.
o The other components like canal trough, piers, inspection road, etc. should be designed according
to the methods adopted in case of aqueduct.

Super Passage
The super passage is just opposite of the aqueduct. In this case, the bed level of the drainage is above
the fully supply level of the canal. The drainage is taken through a rectangular or trapezoidal trough of
channel which is constructed on the deck supported by piers.
o The section of the drainage trough depends on the high flood discharge.
o A free board of about 1.5 m should be provided for safety.
o The trough should be constructed of reinforced cement concrete.
o The bed and banks of the canal below the drainage trough should be protected by boulder pitching
or lining with concrete slabs.
o The foundation of the piers will be same as in the case of aqueduct.

2
Siphon Super Passage
It is just opposite siphon aqueduct. In this case, the canal passes below the drainage trough. The section
of the trough is designed according to high flood discharge. The bed of the canal is depressed below the
bottom level of the drainage trough by providing sloping apron on both sides of the crossing.
o The sloping apron may be constructed with stone pitching or concrete slabs.
o The section of the canal below the trough is constructed with cement concrete in the form of tunnel
which acts as siphon.
o Cut-off walls are provided on upstream and downstream side of sloping apron.
o Other components are same as in the case of siphon aqueduct.

Level Crossing
The level crossing is an arrangement provided to regulate the flow of water through the drainage and
the canal when they cross each other approximately at the same bed level. The level crossing consists of
the following components:
Crest Wall: It is provided across the drainage just at the upstream side of the crossing point. The
top level of the crest wall is kept at the full supply level of the canal.
Drainage Regulator: It is provided across the drainage just at the downstream side of the crossing
point. The regulator consists of adjustable shutters at different tiers.
Canal Regulator: It is provided across the canal just at the downstream side of the crossing point.
This regulator also consists of adjustable shutters at different tiers.

Crest wall

Canal

Canal
River
River Regulator
Regulator
Fig: Level Crossing

3
Inlet and outlet
In the crossing of small drainage with small channel no hydraulic structure is constructed. Simple
openings are provided for the flow of water in their respective directions. This arrangement is known as
inlet and outlet.
o In this system, an inlet is provided in the channel bank simply by open cut and the drainage water
is allowed to join the channel
o At the points of inlet and outlet, the bed and banks of the drainage are protected by stone pitching.

4
What is Canal Fall?
Irrigation canals are constructed with some permissible bed slopes so that there is no silting or scouring
in the canal bed. But it is not always possible to run the canal at the desired bed slope throughout the
alignment due to the fluctuating nature of the country slope. Generally, the slope of the natural ground
surface is not uniform throughout the alignment. Sometimes, the ground surface may be steep and
sometimes it ma be very irregular with abrupt change of grade. In such cases, a vertical drop is provided to
step down the canal bed and then it is continued with permissible slope until another step down is
necessary. This is done to avoid unnecessary huge earth work in filling. Such vertical drops are known as
canal falls or simply falls.

Necessity of Canal Falls:

o When the slope of the ground suddenly changes to steeper slope, the permissible bed slope can not
be maintained. It requires excessive earthwork in filling to maintain the slope. In such a case falls
are provided to avoid excessive earth work in filling

o When the slope of the ground is more or less uniform and the slope is greater than the permissible
bed slope of canal. In that case also the canal falls are necessary.
o In cross-drainage works, when the difference between bed level of canal and that of drainage is
small or when the F.S.L of the canal is above the bed level of drainage then the canal fall is
necessary to carry the canal water below the stream or drainage.

Types of Canal Falls

The following are the different types of canal falls that may be adopted according to the site condition:
Ogee Fall
In this type of fall, an ogee curve (a combination of convex curve and concave curve) is provided for
carrying the canal water from higher level to lower level. This fall is recommended when the natural
ground surface suddenly changes to a steeper slope along the alignment of the canal.
o The fall consists of a concrete vertical wall and concrete bed.
o Over the concrete bed the rubble masonry is provided in the shape of ogee curve.
o The surface of the masonry is finished with rich cement mortar (1:3).
o The upstream and downstream side of the fall is protected by stone pitching with cement grouting.
o The design consideration of the ogee fall depends on the site condition.

5
Rapid Fall
The rapid fall is suitable when the slope of the natural ground surface is even and long. It consists of a
long sloping glacis with longitudinal slope which varies from 1 in 10 to 1 in 20.
o Curtain walls are provided on the upstream and downstream side of the sloping glacis.
o The sloping bed is provided with rubble masonry.
o The upstream and downstream side of the fall is also protected by rubble masonry.
o The masonry surface is finished with rich cement mortar (1: 3).

Stepped Fall
Stepped fall consists of a series of vertical drops in the form of steps. This fall is suitable in places
where the sloping ground is very long and requires long glacis to connect the higher bed level with lower
bed level.
o This fall is practically a modification of the rapid fall.
o The sloping glacis is divided into a number of drops so that the flowing water may not cause any
damage to the canal bed. Brick walls are provided at each of the drops.
o The bed of the canal within the fall is protected by rubble masonry with surface finishing by rich
cement mortar (1:3).

6
Trapezoidal Notch Fall
In this type of fall a body wall is constructed across the canal. The body wall consists of several
trapezoidal notches between the side piers and the intermediate pier or piers. The sills of the notches are
kept at the upstream bed level of the canal.
o The body wall is constructed with masonry or concrete.
o An impervious floor is provided to resist the scoring effect of the falling water.
o The upstream and downstream side of the fall is protected by stone pitching finished by cement
grouting.
o The size and number of notches depends upon the full supply discharge of the canal.

Vertical Drop Fall

It consists of a vertical drop walls which is constructed with masonry work. The water flows over the
crest of the wall. A water eastern is provided on the downstream side which acts as a water cushion to
dissipate the energy of falling water.
o A concrete floor is provided on the downstream side to control the scouring effect of the flowing
water.
o Curtain walls are provided on the upstream and downstream side.
o Stone pitching with cement grouting is provided on the upstream and downstream side of the fall
to protect it from scouring.

Glacis Fall
It consists of a straight sloping glacis provided with a crest. A water cushion is provided on the
downstream side to dissipate the energy of flowing water.
o The sloping glacis is constructed with cement concrete.
o Curtain walls and toe walls are provided on the upstream and downstream side.
o The space between the toe walls and curtain walls is protected by stone pitching.
o This type of fall is suitable for drops up to 1.5 m.

7
For the improvement in energy dissipation, the glacis falls have been modified as follows:

(a) Montague Type Fall

In this type of fall, the straight sloping glacis is modified by giving parabolic shape which is known
as Montague profile. Taking 0 as the origin, the Montague profile is given by the equation,
4y
X= +Y
g
Where, x = distance of point P from OX axis,
Y = distance of point P from OY axis,
= velocity of water at the crest,
g = acceleration due to gravity

The main body of the fall is constructed with cement concrete. Toe walls and curtain walls are same
as in the case of straight sloping glacis. The bed protection by stone pitching is also same.
(b) Inglis Type Fall
In this type of fall, the gracis is straight and sloping, but buffle walls are provided on the
downstream floor to dissipate the energy of flowing water.
o The height of buffle depends on the head of water on the upstream side.
o The main body of the fall is constructed with cement concrete.
o The toe walls and curtain walls are same as straight glacis.
o The protection works with stone pitching are also same. Sometimes, this fall is known as
buffle fall.

8
Canal Regulators:

Fig: Canal Regulators

A head regulator provided at the head of the off-taking channel, controls the flow of water entering the
new channel.

While a cross regulator may be required in the main channel downstream of the off-taking channel, and is
operated when necessary so as to head up water on its upstream side, thus to ensure the required supply in
the off-taking channel even during the periods of low flow in the main channel.
Main functions of a head regulator:
To regulate or control the supplies entering the off-taking canal
To control the entry of silt into the off-taking canal
To serve as a meter for measuring discharge.

Main functions of a cross regulator:

To control the entire Canal Irrigation System.
To help in heading up water on the upstream side and to fed the off-taking canals to their full
demand.
To help in absorbing fluctuations in various sections of the canal system, and in preventing the
possibilities of breaches in the tail reaches.
Cross regulator is often combined with bridges and falls, if required.
Typical Layout and Cross-section of a regulator:

Abutment Abutment 1.5

H Vent 1 H 5
E E
Pier A A Pier 1.25
D D
W Vent 2 W 5 20.5
A A
Pier L L Pier 1.25
L L
Vent 3 5
Abutment Abutment 1.5

4 14 4
1 1
24
Fig: Plan view of a 3-vent regulator

9
 Filled by soil 20

ABUTMENT

ABUTMENT
Top slab 1 30

Pier

Pier
6

Bottom slab 3

5 5 5
1.5 1.5
1.25 1.25
20.5

Fig: Front elevation of a 3-vent regulator

Head wall (H = 20ft, L = 20.5ft, W = 1ft)

Filled by soil (H = 20ft, L = 17.5ft, W = 14ft)

C/S water level (pre-monsoon)
R/S water level (pre-monsoon)

Top Slab

Bottom Slab
Cut-off wall
24 ft

Fig: Longitudinal Section of a 3-vent regulator

Canal Escapes:
It is a side channel constructed to remove surplus water from an irrigation channel (main canal, branch
canal, or distributary etc.) into a natural drain.
The water in the irrigation channel may become surplus due to -
Mistake
Difficulty in regulation at the head
Excessive rainfall in the upper reaches
Outlets being closed by cultivators as they find the demand of water is over

10
Canal escapes act as safely valves in case of accidental breaches.

Types of Canal Escapes:

(a) Weir type escape:

Fig: Weir type canal escape

Crest level = FSL of the canal

Water escapes if wL > FSL
The crest of the weir wall is kept at R.L equal to canal FSL. When the water level rises above FSL, it gets
escaped.

(b) Regulator/sluice type escape:

Fig: Regulator type canal escape

The silt of the escape is kept at canal bed level and the flow can be used for completely
emptying the canal.
They may be constructed for the purpose of scouring off excess bed silt deposited in the head
reaches from time to time.

Canal Outlets/Modules:
A canal outlet or a module is a small structure built at the head of the water course so as to connect it
with a minor or a distributary channel.
It acts as a connecting link between the system manager and the farmers.

Requirements of a good module:

It should fit well to the decided principles of water distribution.
It should be simple to construct.
It should work efficiently with a small working head.
It should be cheaper.
It should be sufficiently strong with no moving parts, thus avoiding periodic maintenance.
It should e such as to avoid interference by cultivators.
It should draw its fair share of silt.

11
Types of outlets/modules:
(a) Non-modular module:
Non-modular modules are those through which the discharge depends upon the head difference
between the distributary and the water course.
Common examples are:
(i) Open sluice
(ii) Drowned pipe outlet

Lowering of the bed of the water course will draw extra discharge. Thus equitable distribution of
discharge may not be possible.

(b) Semi-modules or Flexible modules:

Due to construction, a super-critical velocity is ensured in the throat and thereby allowing the
formation of a jump in the expanding flume.
The formation of hydraulic jump makes the outlet discharge independent of the water level in
water course, thus making it a semi module.

Semi-modules or flexible modules are those through which the discharge is independent of the
water level of the water course but depends only upon the water level of the distributary so long as
a minimum working head is available.
Examples are pipe outlet, open flume type etc.

12
(c) Rigid modules or Modular Outlets:
Rigid modules or modular outlets are those through which discharge is constant and fixed within
limits, irrespective of the fluctuations of the water levels of either the distributary or of the water
course or both.
An example is Gibbs module:

Fig: Gibbs Module

Performance Criteria:
(a) Flexibility, F: Flexibility is defined as the ratio of the rate of change of discharge of the outlet to the
rate of change of discharge of the distributary channel.
dq / q
F=
dQ / Q
Where, F = Flexibility of the outlet
q = Discharge passing through the outlet
Q = Discharge in the distributary channel
If H = the head acting on the outlet,
q = CHm
Where, C and m are constants depending upon the type of outlet

If y = the depth of water in the distributary,

Q = Kyn
Where, k and n are constants

dq m
= CmHm1 = (CHm)(m/H) = q
dH H

dq m
= dH
q H

13
Again,
dQ n
= Knyn1 = (Kyn) (n/y) = Q
dy y
dQ n
= dy
Q y

Thus,
m
dH
H m y dH
F= =
n n H dy
dy
y

A change in water depth of the distributary (dy) would result in an equal change in the head working on the
outlet (dH), so that
dy = dH

m y
So, F =
n H

(b) Proportionality:
The outlet is said to be proportional when the rate of change of outlet discharge equals the rate of
change of channel discharge
dq dQ
Thus =
q Q
m y
So, F = 1, i.e. =1
n H

H m Outlet index
= =
y n Channel index
The outlet is said to be sub-proportional, if F < 1,
H m
Or, >
y n

The outlet is said to be hyper-proportional, if F > 1,

H m
Or, <
y n
(c) Setting:
It is the ratio of the depth of the silt level of the outlet below the FSL of the distributary, to the full
supply depth of the distributary.
H
Setting =
y
H m
For proportional outlet, setting = =
y n
For a wide trapezoidal channel, the discharge is proportional to y5/3, so, n = 5/3

Discharge through an orifice type outlet is proportional to H1/2, so, m =

H m 1/ 2 3
Thus, setting = = = = = 0.3
y n 5 / 3 10

14
For a weir type outlet, the discharge is proportional to H3/2

Hence, the setting for a combination of a weir type outlet and a trapezoidal channel,
m 3/ 2 9
= = = = 0.9
n 5 / 3 10

Thus an orifice or a weir type outlet shall be proportional, if the outlet is set at 0.3 and 0.9 times
depth below the water surface respectively.

(d) Sensitivity, S:
It is defined as the ratio of the rate of change of discharge through the outlet to the ratio of change of
water level of the distributary.
dq
q
S=
dG
y

Relation between Sensitivity and Flexibility:

dq
q
F=
dQ
Q
dq n
But, = dy
q y

dq dq
q1 q
F= =
n dy
dy n
y y

Since, dG = dy,
1
So, F = S
n

Thus, S = nF
For rigid modules, the discharge is fixed, and hence sensitivity is zero.
The greater the variation of discharge through an outlet for a given rise or fall in water level of the
distributary, the larger is the sensitivity of the outlet.

Water measurement Structures:

Purpose of measurement:
Efficient water distribution
Efficient water use at farm level
Project evaluation
Equitable distribution of limited supply
Provides basis for water charge

Location of measurement structures:

Headworks
Intake of the secondary canal
Farm outlet/turnout

15
(a) Constant Head Orifice (CHO)
There are two gates. The upstream gate or the orifice gate controls the size of the opening. The
downstream gate or the turnout gate controls the depth below the orifice and is operated to maintain a
constant head (0.2 ft)

Discharge is given by,

Q = CA 2 gh
Where, C = 0.7 and h = 0.2 ft

Advantage:
It can regulate and measure discharge simultaneously
There is no problem of sediment deposit in front of the gate
It can be used for large fluctuations of water level in the parent canal

Disadvantage:
It collects floating debris
Flow measurement is not so accurate
Discharge regulation needs two gate settings

Weir
Weir can be installed in case of a drop in bed level. There are different types of weirs based upon shape
of the opening through water flows.

Fig: Weir

16
Discharge is given by,
(i) Rectangular weir:
Q = 1.84(L 0.2H) H1.5
Where,
Q = Discharge in cumec (m3/s)
L = Length of crest (m)
H = Head (m)

(ii) Trapezoidal (Cipolletti) Weir:

Q = 1.86LH1.5

(iii) 90o V-notch Weir:

Q = 8/15 2 g tan ( /2)H2.5

Advantage:
It is capable of measuring a wide range of discharge.
It is simple and easy to construct.
No obstruction by moss or any floating debris.
It can be combined with turnout.
It is durable and its accuracy is higher.

Disadvantage:
Considerable fall in head is required.
Silt deposition occurs in the upstream side.

Rules for setting and operating weirs:

Weir should be placed at the lower end of a long, wide and deep pool such that Vapproach 15 cm/s
The centre line of the weir should be parallel to the direction of flow.
The face should be vertical.
The crest should be level.
The upstream edge should be sharp.
The crest height should be 3H
The edge of the weir should be at least 2H form the edge of the channel.
H 1/3L
H 15 cm
Fall should be enough to provide ventilated condition.
Weir gauge should be 5 6 time H upstream from the weir.

(c) Parshall Flume:

17
 Throat
Diverging
Converging
Submerged Flow

Free Flow
Ha Hb

Fig: Free flow and submerged flow condition at Parshall flume

Discharge for free flow condition is given by,

Qfree = KHan
Where,
Q = Discharge (cumec)
K = A constant depending on the system of units
n = Exponent
Ha = Upstream depth (m)

The value of K and n depend on the throat width and for 6 throat width,
Qfree = 0.3812Ha1.58

When Hb/Ha exceeds 0.6, submergence occurs and discharge is reduced:

Q = Qfree Qcorrection

Advantage:
Discharge measurement is more accurate.
It can be withstand a relatively high degree of submergence over a wide range of backwater
condition downstream of the structure.
It acts as a self cleaning device.

Disadvantages:
Complicated and costly to construct.
Cannot be combined with a turnout.
May become invalid in case of heavy burden of erosion debris.
Downstream ditch needs protection under free flow condition.

(d) Cut Throat Flume:

The cut-throat flume is an attempt to improve on the Parshall flume mainly by simplifying the
construction details.

Ha
Hb

Fig: Discharge measurement by cut throat flume

18
Free flow condition is said to exist if Hb/Ha St
Discharge for free flow condition is given by,

Qfree = CHan
Where,
Q = Discharge in cumec
C = Free flow coefficient given by,
C = KW1.025
Ha = Upstream depth (m) measured at a distance of 2L/9 from the throat.

For accurate measurement:

St L/W = 4.0

K, n, St
n

Length (m)

Fig: Cut-throat flume co-efficient

Advantage:
Construction is facilitated by providing a horizontal floor and removing the throat section.
The angle of divergence and convergence remain same for all flumes so the size of the flume can be
changed by merely moving the vertical walls in or out.
Calibration parameters remain same for a given length.
More economic as mass fabrication is possible.

19
 Course Teacher: Prof. Dr. M. R. Kabir

Spillway:
SPILLWAY & IRRIGATION PUMPS
CHAPTER 10
The spillways are openings provided at the body of the dam to discharge safely the excess water or flood
water when the water level rises above the normal pool level.
Necessity of Spillways
(a) The height of the dam is always fixed according to the maximum reservoir capacity. The normal
pool level indicates the maximum capacity of the reservoir. The water is never stored in the
reservoir above this level. The dam may fail by over turning so, for the safety of the dam the
spillways are essential.
(b) The top of the dam is generally utilized by making road. The surplus water is not be allowed to
over top the dam, so to stop the over topping by the surplus water, the spillways become extremely
essential.
(c) To protect the downstream base and floor of the dam from the effect of scouring and erosion, the
spillways are provided so that the excess water flows smoothly.
Location of Spillway
Generally, the spillways are provided at the following places
o Spillways may be provided within the body of the dam.
o Spillways may sometimes be provided at one side or both sides of the dam.
o Sometimes by-pass spillway is provided which is completely separate from the dam.

Determination of discharge capacity and number of spillways

The maximum discharge capacity and the number of spillways are determined by studying the following
factors:
(a) By studying the flood hydrograph of past ten years, the maximum flood discharge may be computed
which is to be disposed off completely through the spillways.
(b) The water level in the reservoir should never be allowed to rise above the maximum pool level and
should remain in normal pool level. So, the volume of water collected between maximum pool level
and minimum pool level computed, which indicates the discharge capacity of spillways.
(c) The maximum flood discharge may also be computed from other investigation like, rainfall records,
flood routing, empirical flood discharge formulae, etc.
(d) From the above factors the highest flood discharge is ascertained to fix the discharge capacity of
spillways.
(e) The natural calamities are beyond the grip of human being. So, an allowance of about 25 % should be
given to the computed highest flood discharge which is to be disposed off.
(f) The size and number of spillways are designed according to the design discharge.

Types of Spillways
(a) Drop Spillways
(b) Ogee Spillway
(c) Siphon Spillway
(d) Chute or Trough Spillway
(e) Shaft Spillway
(f) Side Channel Spillway

(a) Drop Spillway

In drop spillway, the over flowing water falls freely and almost vertically on the downstream side of the
hydraulic structure. This type of spillway is suitable for weirs or low dams. The crest of the spillway is
provided with nose so that the water jet may not strike the downstream base of the structure. To protect the
structure from the effect of scouring horizontal impervious apron should be provided on the downstream side.
Sometimes a basin is constructed on the downstream side to form a small artificial pool which is known as
water cushion. This cushion serves the purpose of energy dissipater.

1
(b) Ogee Spillways
The ogee spillway is a modified form of drop spillway. Here, the downstream profile of the spillway is
made to coincide with the shape of the lower nappe of the free falling waterjet from a sharp crested weir. In
this case, the shape of the lower nappe is similar to a projectile and hence downstream surface of the ogee
spillway will follow the parabolic path where 0 is the origin of the parabola. The downstream face of the
spillway forms a concave curve from a point T and meets with the downstream floor. This point T is
known as point of tangency. Thus the spillway takes the shape of the letter S (i.e. elongated form). Hence,
this spillway is termed as ogee spillway.

The shape of the lower nappe is not same for all the head of water above the crest of the weir. It differs
with the head of water. But for the design of the ogee spillway the maximum head is considered. If the
spillway runs with the maximum head, then the overflowing water just follows the curved profile of the
spillway and there is no gap between the water and the spillway surface and the discharge is maximum.
When the actual head becomes more than the designed head, the lower nappe does not follow the ogee
profile and gets separated from the spillway surface. Thus a negative pressure develops at the point of
separation. Due to the negative pressure, air bubbles are formed within the flowing water. These air bubbles
air responsible for the frictional force (i.e. abrasion) which causes much damage to the spillway surface.
Again, if the head of water is less than the designed head, the waterjet adheres to the body of the spillway
and creases positive pressure which reduces the discharge through the spillway.

The shape of the ogee spillway has been developed by U.S Army Corps Engineers which is known as
Water-way experimental station spillway shape. The equation given by them is, X n = KHn1Y, where, x
and y are the coordinates of a point P on the ogee profile taking O as origin. K and n are the constants
according to the slope of the upstream face of the spillway (figure below).
2
 The value of K and n are given as follow:
Shape of u/s face of spillway K n
Vertical 2.0 1.85
1:3 (H:V) 1.936 1.836
1:1 (H:V) 1.939 1.810
1:1 (H:V) 1.873 1.776

Thus for different values of y, the values of x are determined considering the slope of u/s face. The value
of r1, r2, a and b are also calculated. The results are tabulated for the constructional guidance.

Problem-1
Design and sketch the shape of an Ogee type spillway for the following data using the empirical equation
developed by US Army Corps Engineers,
Upstream Head, H = 20 m
Shape of the upstream face = 1: 1 (H:V)
Values of K and n are 1.939 and 1.81 respectively
Solution:
r1 = 0.5H = 0.520 = 10 m
r2 = 0.21H = 0.2120 = 4.2 4.5 m
X (m) Y (m)
a = 0.139H = 0.13920 = 2.78 3m 5 0.84
b = 0.237H = 0.23720 = 4.74 5m 10 2.94
15 6.13
n n1
We know, X = KH Y 20 10.31
X1.81 = Y1.939(20)1.81 1 25 15.44

X1.81 = Y21.95
Y = 0.159 m
From the different values of X, the values of Y are found which is given below in a tabulated form:

Finally the shape of Ogee type of spillway

3m

5m

3
Irrigation Pumps
Irrigation pumps are used to raise water from its source to the field
Pumps are also important for irrigation by sprinkling. Selection of a suitable water lifting device for a
particular situation depends on:
The characteristics of the source of water and the lifting device.
The amount of water to be lifted.
The depth to the pumping water level.
Type and amount of power available and
The economic status of the farmer.

Indigenous/ traditional water lift:

The swing basket, water wheel, counterpoise-bucket lift, Hand Pump, Rower Pump, Twin Treadle Pump
etc.

Fig: Traditional Irrigation method

Types of Pumps:
(a) Reciprocating Pump/Piston Pump/Displacement Pump
(b) Centrifugal Pump
(c) Turbine Pump
(d) Submersible Turbine Pump
(e) Rotary Pump
(f) Air lift Pump

Reciprocating Pump/ Piston Pump/Displacement Pump

The components are:
Cylinder/piston
Suction Pipe
Delivery Pipe
Suction/inlet valve
Delivery/discharge valve

This type of pump consists of a closed cylinder in which a piston moves to and fro by a connecting rod.
The connecting rod is again hinged with a wheel which is rotated by a motor. During the suction stroke, the
suction valve is opened and delivery valve remains closed and water enters the cylinder. During the delivery
stroke, the delivery valve is opened and suction valve remains closed and water is forced through the delivery
pipe. An inlet is provided for the priming which is necessary for starting the pump.
4
Advantages of Reciprocating pump:
It is suitable for large pumping units.
It gives constant discharge.
Disadvantages of Reciprocating pump:
It requires large space for installation.
It is unsuitable for pumping water containing high sediment.
Lift:
h = up to 1 amp = 10.33 m
= 6.5 7 m (practically, due to friction and other losses)

Centrifugal Pump
(a) Volute Type
In this type, the chamber is spiral shaped (i.e. volute
shaped) and consists of impellers which are rotated by
motor.
The suction takes place through the center of the
impeller ring. When the impellers rotate, the water from
the center is forced towards periphery of the chamber.
The velocity of flow in the chamber remains uniform. The
velocity head is converted to pressure head which causes
the water to flow through the delivery pipe.

(b) Turbine Type

In this type, a diffusion ring is provided

between the impellers and the casing. The ring
carries fixed diffusers or guide vanes. There
are openings between the diffusers through
which the water forces out towards the
periphery. In this case also the velocity head is
converted to pressure head which causes the
water to flow through the delivery pipe.

5
Advantages of centrifugal pump:
It requires minimum space for installation as it is compact in design.
It can be installed for high speed driving mechanism.
The working is simple and there is no valve in the pump, hence it is reliable and durable.

Disadvantages of centrifugal pump:

The pump will not work, if the chamber is not full of water. So, the priming should always be done
before starting the pump.
The pump will not work if there is any leakage in the suction side.

Turbine Pump

The impeller is surrounded by stationary guide vanes

that reduce the velocity of water and convert velocity
head to pressure head. The casting surrounding the
guide vanes is usually circular and concentric with the
impeller.

A deep will turbine pump is a multi-stage pump that

accommodates several impellers on a vertical shaft and
stationary bowls pressing guide vanes.

The two bowl assemblies are nearly always located

beneath the water surface.

The several bowls are connected in series to obtain the

desired total head.

Applicability:
Deep-well turbine pumps are used for irrigation when the water surface is below the practical lift of the
centrifugal pump.

Q = 56 liter/sec, h = up to 300 m below ground level

Advantages:
Priming is not required
Adapted to high lifts
Adapted to seasonal fluctuations in water level in the well

Disadvantages:
Operating parts are inaccessible and difficult to inspect
Low efficiency is common
Frequent shaft rupture
Higher initial cost

When pumping from ground water source

h = Static head + drawdown + hf = Total Pumping head
Where, static head = vertical distance from discharge water level to the static water level in the wall
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
NPSH is the total suction head, determined at the suction nozzle minus the vapor pressure of water at
the pumping temperature, both expressed in meter
The NPSH is a characteristic of the pump and is usually furnished with the pump characteristic curve

6
Submersible Turbine Pump
A submersible turbine pump is one in which the pump and the electric motor are placed below the
water surface of a well. Delivery of water to the surface is through a riser pipe on which the assembly
is suspended.
The characteristics of the pump unit are similar to a conventional vertical turbine pump.
They have been used in wells over 4000 meter deep. Units with more than 250 stages have been used.

Advantages:
It eliminates the long vertical shaft from the ground surface to the pump which reduces bearing
friction and provides an unobstructed pipe for delivery of water to the surface.
It can be used where the installation is flooded or where an above ground pump house would be
inconvenient, unsightly or hazardous.
Disadvantages:
Operating parts are inaccessible and difficult to inspect.

Rotary Pump
It consists of tow cams which are pivoted in a casing. These cams rotate in opposite directions and thereby
the suction takes place through the suction pipe. The rotation of the came pushes the water in upward direction
through the delivery pipe.
Advantages of Rotary Pump:
The flow of water is uniform.
No priming is required.
It requires no valves and its operation is simple.

Disadvantages of Rotary Pump:

It requires replacement of cams frequently
and hence is involves more maintenance
cost.
It cannot be used for pumping water
containing high sediment.

7
Air Lift Pump
It consists of a casing pipe in which an educator pipe
is introduced. An air pipe is also introduced into the
casing pipe. The bottom end of the air pipe carries
and air diffuser which is introduced into the educator
pipe in upward direction. When compressed air if
forced through the air pipe, a mixture of air and
water is formed and rises up in the form of bubbles.
This mixture has low specific gravity than the water
in the casing pipe. Thus the pressure of the water in
the educator pipe becomes less than the pressure of
water in the casing pipe. This pressure difference
forces the water to rise through the educator pipe and
finally the water is discharged through the outlet.
The efficient working of the pump depends on the air
pipes submergence depth. Generally, the depth of
submergence should be about two third of the length
of air pipe.

Pumping Head

hs = Static suction lift = vertical distance from the free

suction water level to the centre line of the pump
hd
hd = Static discharge head = vertical distance from the
centre line of the pump to the discharge water level

hs + hd = Total static head = vertical distance from the

suction water to the discharge water level
hs h = hs + hd + df = Total pumping head
Where, hf = Total frictional head loss in the suction and
delivery pipes

Horse power of pump

The horse power of a pump is determined by work done by the pump in raising a particular quantity of
water to some height.
Let, W = Quantity of water (kg)
H = Total head (m)
Then, work done by pump = W H
= w Q H ------------------------------------- (i) [W = w Q]
Where, w = Density of water (1000 kg/m3)
Q = Discharge (m3/s)
Again, H = Hs + Hd + Hf
Where, Hs = Suction head (m)
Hd = Delivery head (m)
Hf = Head loss due to friction (m)
The head lost by friction is given by,
f l Q2
Hf =
3d 5
Where, f = Coefficient of friction
l = Total length of pipe (suction and delivery)
d = Diameter of pipe (m)
8
From equation (i)
w Q H
Water Horse Power (W.H.P) =
75
Considering the coefficient of the pump as , brake horse power
w Q H
Brake Horse Power (B.H.P) =
75
Power requirements
WHP (Water Horse Power) is the theoretical horse power required for pumping. It is the head and capacity
of the pump expressed in terms of horse power.
Qh
WHP =
76
Where, Q = Discharge (liter/sec)
h = Total pumping head (meter)
Efficiency is the ratio of the power output to power input
WHP
Pump efficiency, Ep = Where, SHP = Shaft horse power
SHP

Break Horse Power (BHP) is the actual horse power required to be supplied by the engine or electric motor for
driving the pump
SHP WHP
BHP = = Where, Ed = Delivery efficiency
Ed E p Ed

WHP
Horse Power input to electric motor =
E p Ed Em
BHP
Kilowatt input to electric motor, KW = 0.746
Em

Problem-2
A centrifugal pump is required to lift water at the rate of 150 lit/sec. Calculate the brake horse power of the
engine from the following data when the water is directly supplies to the field channel.
(a) Suction head = 6 m
(b) Coefficient of friction = 0.01
(c) Efficiency of pump = 75%
(d) Water is directly supplied to the field channel
(e) Diameter of pipe = 15 cm
Solution:
Q = 100 lit/sec = (100/1000) m3/s = 0.1 m3/s
Delivery head, Hd = 0 (As water is directly supplied to field)
Suction head, Hs = 6 m
Coefficient of friction, f = 0.01
Diameter of pipe, d = 15 cm = 0.15 m
The length of the pipe where frictional effect may occur is taken equal to the suction head, so l = 6 m
2
f l Q 2 0.01 6 0.15
Hf = = = 5.93 m
3d 5 3 0.15
5

So, total head, H = Hs + Hd + Hf

= 6 + 0 + 5.93
= 11.93 m

Efficiency, = 75% = 0.75

w Q H 1000 0.15 11.93
Horse Power (H.P) = = = 31.8 32
75 75 0.75

9
Pump Characteristics
The interrelations between speed, head, discharge and horse power of a pump are usually represented
by curves which are designated as Characteristics curves
Knowledge of pump characteristics enables one to select a pump which fits operating conditions and
thus attain a relatively high efficiency with low operating cost.
As the discharge increases, the head decreases. The resulting efficiency is observed to increase from
zero where the discharge is zero to a maximum of 82% when the discharge is 86 liter/sec and the head
23 m (and then found to decrease to zero at zero head).
30 120

Brake horsepower and efficiency

Head Characteristics
25 100
Total head (meter)

20 80
Efficiency
15 60

10 40
Brake horsepower
5 20

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Capacity (liter/sec)

Fig: Pump Characteristics Curve

The BHP curve for a centrifugal pump usually increases over most of the range as the discharge increases,
reaching a somewhat higher rate of discharge then that which produce maximum efficiency,
Selection of Power Plant
The power plant must be capable of delivering the required power under varying conditions. The factors are:
Brake Horse Power required
Initial cost
Availability and cost of energy or fuel
Depreciation
Dependability of unit
Portability required
Maintenance and convenience of operation
Labor availability and quality
Effect of Speed and Impeller Diameter on Pump Performance
Effect of change of pump speed:
When the speed of a centrifugal pump is changed, the operation of the pump is changed as follows:
o The capacity varies directly as the speed.
o The head varies as the square of the speed.
o The brake horse power varies as the cube of the speed.
Expressed mathematically,
Q = Q1 (n/n1) ---------------- (i)
H = H1 (n/n1)2 --------------- (ii)
P = P1 (n/n1)3 --------------- (iii)
From equation (i), (ii) & (iii)
n/n1 = Q/Q1 = (H/H1)1/2 = (P/P1)1/3
Where,
n = New speed desired, rpm
Q = Capacity at the desired speed n, liter/sec
H = Head at the desired speed n for capacity Q, meter
P = BHP at the desired speed n at H and Q
n1= Speed at which the characteristics are known, rpm
Q1 = Capacity at speed n, liter/sec
H1 = Head at speed n1 and capacity Q1, meter
P1 = BHP at speed n1 at H1 and Q1
10
Effect of Change of Impeller Diameter
Changing the impeller diameter has the similar effect on the pump performance as changing the speed.
Thus, D/D1 = Q/Q1 = (H/H1)1/2 = (P/P1)1/2
Where,
D = Changed diameter of impeller, mm
D1 = Original diameter of impeller, mm

Pump and System Characteristics

Pump characteristic

Pipe line or system characteristic

Fig: Graphical method for finding the operating condition of a pump and pipeline

The head and flow rate developed by a pump depend on the pump characteristics and nature of the
pipe system in which the pump is operating.

The point of intersection of the pump characteristics curve (Q vs. h for the pump) and the system
characteristic curve (Q vs. h or the pipe system in which the pump is operating) defines the flow rate
and head that will be developed for the given situation.

If under this mode of operation the efficiency of the pump is not very high, an improvement in efficiency
can be made by changing the speed of the pump or the impeller diameter or by selecting a different type of
pump

Pumping Cost
Cost of pumping includes fixed cost and operating cost.

(a) Fixed cost:

Total annual cost = capital cost X CRF + annual O & M cost
Where,
CRF = Capital Recovery Factor
n
i1 i
= n
1 i 1
i = Discount rate,
n = Project life, years

(b) Operating cost:

Annual Operating cost = energy consumption rate X hours of operation X energy cost rate

11
 CHAPTER 1
QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER
Saline Soils:
These soils contain soluble salts, mostly chlorides and sulphates of sodium, calcium and magnesium, in
quantities enough to interfere with the growth of most crop plants. The soil pH of saturated paste of these
soils is less than 8.5, Electrical Conductance (ECe) more than 4 deci-Siemens/m (dS/m) and Exchangeable
Sodium Percentage (ESP) less than 15.
Alkali Soils:
Alkali soils contain salts dominated by bicarbonates, carbonates and silicate of sodium capable of
alkaline hydrolysis or have sufficient exchangeable sodium to interfere with the growth of most crops. The
soils pH is greater than 8.5, Electrical Conductance (ECe) of Saturation extract less than 4 dS/m and
exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of 15 or more.

Saline Alkali soil:

A soil which shows EC of the saturation extract greater than 4 mill-mhos/cm at 25o C and its ESP value
is greater than 15. The pH of the saturated soil paste may somewhat exceed 8.5.
Non-Saline Alkali Soils:
A soil which has exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) above 15 and EC of the saturation extract less
than 4 mill-mhos/cm. The pH value of such soils is more than 8.5 and ranges between 8.5 to 10.
Cation Exchange:
Interchange of a cation in solution with another cation on a surface active material.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC):
The total quantity of cations which a soil can absorb by cation exchange usually expressed as milli-
equivalence per 100 grams. Measured value of the cation exchange capacity depends somewhat on the
method used for its determination.
Dispersed Soil:
Soil in which the clay readily forms a colloidal suspension. Dispersed soils usually have low
permeability. They tend to shrink crack, and become hard on drying and plastic on wetting.
Electrical Conductivity (EC):
It is the reciprocal of the Electrical resistivity. Quantitively the electrical resistivity is the resistance,
ohms, of a conductor, metallic or electrolytis, which is 1 cm long and has a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2.
Hence Electrical conductivity is expressed as the reciprocal of ohm-cm or mhos/cm. The terms Electrical
Conductivity and specific electrical conductance have identical meanings. For convenience in units,
millimhos/cm (10-3 mhos/cm) or micromhos/cm (10-6 mhos.cm) are used.

Equivalent Weight:
It is the combining capacity of an element or radical with hydrogen. It is the weight in grams of an ion
or compound that combine with or replace 1 gm of hydrogen.

Equivalent weight = Atomic weight/valency

For example: Equivalent weight of Na+ = 23/1 = 23

Equivalent weight of Cu++ = 40/2 = 20
Equivalent weight of Cl- = 35.5/1 = 35.5

Note: Milliequivalent weight = Equivalent weight/1000

Exchangeable Cation:
A cation that is adsorbed on the exchange complex and which is capable of being exchange with other
cations.

1
Exchange Complex:
The surface active constituents of soil (both inorganic and organic) that are capable of cation exchange.

Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP):

It is the degree of saturation of the soil exchange complex with sodium and may be calculated by the
following formula:

Exchangeable Sodium (milli - equivalent/100 gm soil)

ESP = 100
Cation exchange capacity (milli - equivalent/100 gm soil)

Leaching:
The process of removal of soluble material by the passage of water through soil

Leaching Requirement:
The fraction of the water entering the soil that must pass through the root zone in order to prevent soils
salinity from exceeding a specified value. Leaching requirement is used primarily under steady-state or
long-time average conditions.

Milli-equivalent (meq): One thousand of an equivalent.

Milli-equivalent per liter (meq/litre): A milli-equivalent of an ion or a compound in 1 liter of solution.

Molar Solution:
It is the solution having a salt concentration equal to one gram molecular weight dissolved per liter
(Molar solution = gram mole mol. wt. per liter)

Parts Per Million (PPM):

The result of a chemical analysis of water are usually report in parts per million of the various
substances present in the sample. One part per million (ppm) means one part in a million parts. As
commonly measured and used, parts per million in numerically equivalent to milligrams per liter.

Saturation Extract:
The solution extract from a soil at its saturation percentage

Saturation percentage:
The moisture percentage of a saturated soil paste expressed on dry wt. basis.

Sodium Absorption ratio (SAR):

A ratio for soil extracts and irrigation water used to express the relative activity of sodium ions in
exchange reaction with soil in which the ionic concentration are expressed in milli-equivalents per liter.

SAR = Na
Ca Mg
2

Osmotic Pressure:
It is the equivalent negative pressure that influence the rate of diffusion of water through a semi-
permeable membrane its direct experimental value for a solution is the pressure difference required to
equalized the diffusion rates between the solution and pure water across the semi permeable membrane.
Osmotic pressure in atmospheres may be calculated from the freezing point depression (T) in oC, by the
formula:
OP = 12.06 (T 0.021T2)