The Rolling Up of the Trailing V o r t e x Sheet

and Its Effect on the Downwash

Behind Wings
JOHN R. SPREITER* AND ALVIN H. SACKS*
Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, N.A.C.A.

SUMMARY term of Eq. (1) is omitted because the coefficient

The motion of the trailing vortices associated with a lifting wing (1 - M2) is zero. 2 - 3
is investigated by theoretical and visual-flow methods for the
purpose of determining the proper vortex distribution to be used
The boundary conditions are prescribed on the wing,
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for downwash calculations. Both subsonic and supersonic speeds usually assumed to lie in the xy plane, either by speci-
are considered in the analysis. fying (pz by giving the shape of the wing surface or by
It is found that the degree to which the vortices are rolled up specifying <px by giving the load distribution. In addi-
depends upon the distance behind the wing and upon the lift tion, it is necessary to specify certain conditions in the
coefficient, span loading, and aspect ratio of the wing. While the
rolling up of the trailing vortices associated with high-aspect-
wake. At this point, it has become customary at both
ratio wings is of little practical importance, it is shown that, with subsonic and supersonic speeds to admit the assump-
low-aspect-ratio wings, the trailing vortex sheet may become es- tions originally introduced by Prandtl 4 ' 5 in the estab-
sentially rolled up into two trailing vortex cores within a chord lishment of lifting-line theory. They are (1) that the
length of the trailing edge. vortex wake of finite thickness may be replaced by an
The downwash fields associated with the two limiting cases of
infinitesimally thin surface of discontinuity, designated
the flat vortex sheet and the fully rolled-up vortices are investi-
gated in detail for both subsonic and supersonic speeds. The the trailing vortex sheet, and (2) that the trailing vor-
intermediate case in which the rolling-up process is only partially tex sheet remains flat and extends downstream from the
completed at the tail position is also discussed. wing in the free-stream direction. With these assump-
tions, the boundary condition in the wake may be ex-
INTRODUCTION pressed as a discontinuity in the potential A<ps having
a spanwise distribution identical with that at the trail-
T HEORETICAL STUDIES OF WINGS of finite
both subsonic and supersonic speeds are generally
based on the assumption that the perturbation veloci-
Span at
ing edge of the wing.
Although it has been firmly established that these
ties are much smaller than the free-stream velocity. assumptions are sufficiently valid for the prediction of
The differential equation for the perturbation velocity the forces and moments on finite-span wings, the ex-
potential <p is then tent of their validity for the calculation of the downwash
(1 - M2) <pxx + <pyy + <p2Z = 0 behind wings has never been clearly defined. Prandtl
(1)
pointed out that the vortex sheet begins as a flat sheet
where M represents the free-stream Mach Number and at the trailing edge and rolls up into two vortex cores at
the coordinate system is as shown in Fig. 1. In cer- great distances behind the wing. Thus he, and later
tain important cases, however, (1 M2)<pxx is much Glauert, 6 advocated the use of a flat vortex sheet for
smaller than <pyy and (pzz and Eq. (1) may be reduced to calculating the downwash for points near the wing and a
the form single horseshoe vortex for points far behind the wing.
Helmbold7, 8 recognized the influence of the lift co-
<Pw + <PZZ = 0 (2)
efficient and recommended the use of the flat vortex
With low-aspect-ratio wings, conditions permitting the sheet for small lift coefficients and the horseshoe
use of Eq. (2) are found in the vicinity of both the wing vortex for large lift coefficients. Since later experi-
and the wake at all Mach Numbers. 1 With high- mental studies,9' 10 together with Kaden's theoretical
aspect-ratio wings, Eq. (2) is valid at large distances analysis,11 showed that the vortex sheet was nearly flat
behind the wing but may not be used generally in the at the tail position throughout almost all of the useful
vicinity of the wing. Another important case for lift-coefficient range of the unswept high-aspect-ratio
which Eq. (2) may be used is that for the flight of swept wings in use at the time, most subsequent theories
lifting surfaces at sonic velocity, since, then, the first adopted the assumption that the vortices were arranged
in a flat sheet. Since the early works were almost in-
Condensed version of a paper presented at the Aerodynamics variably confined to unswept wings of high aspect
Session, Eighteenth Annual Meeting, I.A.S., New York, January
23-26, 1950. Received July 28, 1950.
ratio, an important gap in our knowledge exists for the
* Aeronautical Research Scientist. low-aspect-ratio wings and swept wings being intro-
21
 22 J O U R N A L OF THE A E R O N A U T I C A L
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FIG. 1. View of wing and coordinate axes.
duced for high-speed flight. This study will a t t e m p t
to supply an understanding of some of these problems.
A fundamental difficulty in the full analysis of down-
wash lies in t h e fact t h a t t h e p a t h s of t h e trailing vor-
tices cannot be prescribed a priori, as is done in classical
wing theory, b u t m u s t coincide with t h e stream lines,
which are in t u r n influenced b y t h e vortices. T h e
present t r e a t m e n t will serve as an approximation in
t h a t a knowledge of t h e shape of t h e vortex sheet will
be obtained through some two-dimensional, as well as
three-dimensional, considerations; the down wash will
then be determined b y means of t h e customary three-
dimensional analysis.
SHAPE OF VORTEX S H E E T
Rate of Rolling Up of Vortex Sheet
Considerable insight into the rate of rolling u p of t h e
trailing vortex sheet m a y be gained on the basis of some
similarity considerations. T h u s , consider two wings
of similar span loading b u t differing in span b and total
circulation IV T h e symbols referring to the refer-
ence wing are denoted b y asterisks; those of the second
wing are plain. T h e ratio of t h e induced velocities q
a t corresponding stations behind the wings, neglecting
the small influence of the difference in chordwise load-
ings, is given b y
q/q* = (r0/6)/(r,*/6*)
T h e ratio of the distances df in terms of wing spans
from t h e trailing edge to stations having similar degrees
of rolling u p of the trailing vortex sheets is
d/b = Vo/q = VobTp* = A/CL
d*/b* V0*/q* F 0 *&*r 0 A*/CL*
where A and CL represent, respectively, aspect ratio and
lift coefficient. F r o m this condition one can conclude
t h a t the distance required for t h e trailing vortex sheet
to become essentially rolled u p is of the form
S C I E N C E S - J A N U A R Y , 195 1
e/c = K(A/CL) ib/c) (5)
where c represents the wing chord a n d K is, as yet, an
unspecified constant. T h e point where t h e vortices
are rolled u p is h a r d to specify precisely, since t h e vor-
tices only asymptotically approach t h e completely
rolled-up condition as t h e distance from t h e wing a p -
proaches infinity. T o indicate t h e order of m a g n i t u d e
of this quantity, it will suffice to give t h e value K
0.28 for wings having elliptical span loading, found b y
Kaden 1 1 in a lengthy theoretical study. This m a t t e r
will be discussed later in this paper.
W e see from t h e foregoing equations t h a t t h e degree
of rolling u p of t h e trailing vortex sheet depends n o t
only on distance and lift coefficient b u t also on t h e geom-
etry of t h e wing. As an illustrative example, compare
the magnitudes of e/c for a rectangular wing of aspect
ratio 6 and a triangular,wing of aspect ratio 2, assum-
ing b o t h wings are twisted to produce elliptical load-
ing.
( e A U t . = 0.28 ( 3 6 / Q , (e/c)trL = 0.28 ( 2 / Q (6)
I t is seen t h a t t h e trailing vortex sheet rolls u p 18 times
more rapidly, in terms of chord lengths, behind t h e
low-aspect-ratio triangular wing t h a n behind t h e high-
aspect-ratio rectangular wing. For wings of low aspect
ratio, t h e vortex sheet m a y become essentially rolled
u p into two trailing vortices within a chord length or
less of t h e trailing edge.
Behavior at Stations Far Behind the Wing
T h e behavior (i.e., the strength, position, motion,
and core diameter) of the rolled-up vortices a t stations
far behind t h e wing is independent of M a c h N u m b e r
and can be determined b y use of Eq. (2). First, how-
ever, t h e strength and positions of t h e rolled-up vor-
tices m u s t be determined from three-dimensional con-
siderations, since t h e y are necessary to determine t h e
b o u n d a r y conditions. T h e strength, a t either subsonic
or supersonic speeds, of one of t h e trailing rolled-up
vortices is equal to t h e sum of t h e strengths of all t h e
vortices shed from one-half of the wing, and, hence, it
is equal to the magnitude of the circulation F 0 around
the wing in t h e plane of s y m m e t r y ; thus,
r0 = (7o/2)foc)y-o (7)
where cL represents the section lift coefficient. T h e dis-
(3)
tance between t h e two rolled-up vortices 2s' is specified
b y t h e fact t h a t the lift impulse m u s t be preserved
throughout t h e rolling-up process; thus,
2s' = L/(poV0To) = {CLS)/{clC)y^ (8)
( ) where L and S represent, respectively, t h e lift and area
of the wing and p0 is t h e free-stream density. T h e
distance 2s' has a simple geometric interpretation: On a
span-loading plot of V or QC versus y, t h e distance 2s'
represents t h e width of a rectangle having the same
height and area as t h e span-loading curve.
 TRAILING V O R T E X S H E E T EFFECT ON DOWNWASH 23

T h e further s t u d y of the asymptotic behavior a t sta- CONTOUR OF INTEGRATION

tions far behind the wing m a y be m a d e entirely on t h e
basis of E q . (2) taken together with the conditions ex-
pressed b y Eqs. (7) and (8). F r o m these considera-
tions, it can be determined t h a t the two vortices move
downward with a velocity

w = -r0/(4irs0 = -(F0/4TT) [(^), = 0 ]2/(CL5) (9)

T h e actual displacements of the vortices from the xy

plane cannot be ascertained a t this point, however,
since no s t a t e m e n t can be made, as yet, of the downward
velocity of t h e vortices a t intermediate stations. This
question will be considered in the next section. F o r F I G . 2.
elliptic span loading, Eqs. (7), (8), and (9) reduce to
the following: Since ac is much less t h a n s', Eq. (14) m a y be simplified
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to t h e form
4:S Vo 9 IT
(10)
TTA' 4
poiy 2s' - a{
Di = CDi qS = 1 + 4 log : (15)
T h e rolled-up vortices far behind t h e wing are not 8TT
idealized line vortices of potential theory, of course,
b u t must h a v e cores of finite diameter. A good working T h e ratio of t h e core radius ac to the semispan of t h e
approximation a t either subsonic or supersonic speeds vortices sf is then given in terms of nondimensional
m a y be h a d b y simple energy considerations, assuming parameters as
t h a t the vortex cores are circular in shape and rotating '4xrACDt/s'\2 _ 1'
as solid bodies. T h e velocity potential of t h e flow 7 = 2 < 1 + exp (16)
J ) 4
outside of the vortex cores is
If the span loading is elliptical, CDi = CL2/wA and
(p = ( t a n * tan" (11) s'/s = 7r/4 and the core radius is given b y
2ir y s y + s'.
ac = 0.197s 7 = 0.155s (17)
T h e stream-line p a t t e r n corresponding to a vortex pair
situated a t y = =t=sf consists, as shown in Fig. 2, of two The Rolling Up of the Vortex Sheet
symmetrically arranged families of circles having radii
T h e complete three-dimensional determination of
a and centers a t + a2. T h e kinetic energy of t h e shape of the trailing vortex sheet t h r o u g h o u t t h e
the fluid outside of t h e vortex cores (per unit length in rolling-up process presents a problem of extreme diffi-
the stream direction) is given b y culty. Examination of the velocity field in the wake
on the basis of Eq. (5), however, reveals t h a t in most
-?/ <p
on
d\ = practical problems it is possible to introduce the im-
p o r t a n t simplifying approximation of treating the
2 _
POTQ + Vs + a motion of t h e trailing vortices b y means of E q . (2)
log' (12)
v; + ac2 + ac r a t h e r t h a n Eq. (1). Generally speaking, E q . (2)
yields good results when applied to flow fields t h a t
where the integration is carried round the contour
change slowly in t h e stream direction and is directly
illustrated in t h e figure and ac represents the core radius.
applicable to t h e present problem a t all stations behind
T h e kinetic energy of t h e fluid inside the vortex cores is
low-aspect-ratio pointed wings. This is t h e most im-
simply
p o r t a n t case, since, as indicated b y Eq. (5), it is only
with low-aspect-ratio wings t h a t t h e trailing vortex
^Y(iY2xr*.^
Et = 2
i) 2irac/ \ac/ ST
(13) sheet is likely to be essentially rolled u p a t t h e stations
customarily occupied b y t h e tail. Although E q . (2)
By equating the t o t a l kinetic energy per unit length to obviously cannot be used to determine t h e forces on
the induced or vortex drag Dt of the wing, an expression high-aspect-ratio straight wings, it might still be ex-
m a y be found relating t h e radius of the core to t h e in- pected to yield useful results regarding t h e relative mo-
duced drag, tion of the vortices behind such wings, since E q . (5)
indicates in these cases t h a t the rolling-up process pro-
A = J5 = o + < = 8TT
^X ceeds a t a slow rate. On t h e basis of t h e foregoing
statements, t h e problem of determining t h e shape of t h e
s' + V V 2 + ac trailing vortex sheet in spatial compressible flow be-
1 + 4 log (14)
V V 2 + a2 + a< comes analogous to t h e problem of determining t h e
 24 JOURNAL OF THE A E R O N A U T I C A L S C I E N C E S - J A N U A R Y , 19 5 1

I I of the b o u n d a r y approaches zero as the b o u n d a r y

approaches infinity. Since the resultant force is always
directed perpendicular to Segment I lying in the plane
of symmetry, Rz m u s t equal zero. Consequently, t h e
dr
lateral position of the center of gravity of the vortices
V dy
trailing from each half of the wing remains invariant
throughout the rolling-up process and m a y be deter-
mined most readily b y considering t h e e.g. position of
the flat vortex sheet
1
srt
- = -1 y-~dy
rdy
Fo J o
const. (19)

T h e vertical velocity w of the center of gravity of t h e

vortices trailing from each half of t h e wing is found from
E q . (18) after substituting t h e proper expressions for
Ry and 21%. For the right half wing, Ry is given b y
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FIG. 3.

motion of a distribution of free vortices in a two-

dimensional nonsteady incompressible flow.
JR.
- - / :
(p - Po) dz = +Po
i:
and 2 T t equals r 0 . T h e center of gravity of t h e vor-
(Wy = o)2 dz

Considerable simplification m a y be achieved in t h e tices a t a n y station x therefore moves vertically with a

present problem b y considering the motion of the center velocity
of gravity of the vortex systemf rather t h a n b y tracing
the motion of the individual vortices. While generally w(x) = [w(x)j, = o]2 dz (20)
2r J _a
useful, such considerations are particularly valuable in
the establishment of the position of the fully rolled-up Immediately behind the trailing edge, where the vor-
vortices far behind t h e wing. T h e motion of the center tices lie in a straight line as shown in Fig. 4, t h e induced
of gravity of a vortex system m a y be determined by velocity a t the wall is given b y
several means; probably t h e simplest procedure for
the present application is t h a t of Betz. 1 2
Consider a group of vortices in a two-dimensional
w (XT.E.)V-C
-f
* Jo
y1{dY/dyl)dyl
(yi 2 + *2)
region bounded b y rigid walls. If the vortices are T h e velocity of t h e center of gravity of the free vor-
held rigidly in place, there exists on each vortex a force tices is then
having components Riy = poWiTf and Riz = po^I\ x
as given b y t h e K u t t a - J o u k o w s k y law, where I \ repre- -< \ r A rsyMT/dyi)dyi~Y ,91,
sents the circulation of t h e vortex, clockwise rotation W(*T.E.) = / dz \ I (21)
7r2ro Jo Ljo (yi 2 + z2) J
being considered positive, and where vt and Wi represent
As a more specific example, consider the case of
the lateral and vertical velocity components a t the
elliptic span loading. If t h e vortices are held fixed, t h e
position of t h e vortex were t h e vortex n o t there. T h e
flow is similar to t h a t around a flat plate moving down-
resultant of the forces on all the vortices m u s t be equal
ward with the velocity
to the negative of the resultant force exerted on the
b o u n d a r y walls; thus, Ry = ^Riy and R2 = 2Riz. w = -r0/6 = -2V0CL/irA
If the vortices are now set free, the center of gravity of
the vortex system moves, relative to the rigid walls,
with velocity components v and w given b y t h e rela-
tions poW^Ti = poZWiTf = Ry and pov^Ti = Rz or by

w = Ry/p&Ti, v = -Rz/p^Yi (18)

T h e foregoing theory will be applied to the present
problem b y introducing a rigid wall enclosing one-half
of the vortex system as shown in Fig. 3. If the en-
closed region is allowed to grow in size, t h e contribution
to the resultant force given b y the pressures on Segment
t The center of gravity of a group of vortices is defined in a
manner analogous to the definition of the center of gravity of a
similar field of point masses. The coordinates y and z of the
center of gravity of the vortex system are given by y = S^-lVST*
and s = SsilVSIV FIG. 4.
 T R A I L I N G V O R T E X S H E E T E F F E C T ON DOWN WASH 25

If t h e vortices are set free, t h e velocity of t h e center of

gravity of t h e vortices decreases suddenly t o

*>(*T.E.) = - ( 1 ~ ir/4) (To/b) = -0A3VQCL/TA (22)

F a r behind t h e wing, where t h e vortex sheet is con-

sidered t o be fully rolled u p into two line vortices, t h e
corresponding velocity is

() = -2T0/T2b = -OA1VOCL/TA (23)

I t is seen t h a t t h e center of gravity of the trailing vortex

sheet moves with nearly t h e same velocity a t t h e t w o 7e = 1-73
limiting stations.
A more detailed analysis of t h e behavior of vortex
systems can always be made on t h e basis of E q . (2)
b y replacing the continuous sheet of vortices with a
finite number of discrete line vortices a n d calculating FIG. 5. Shape of vortex sheet for elliptic loading.
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step b y step t h e motions of each vortex. Such a cal-

culation h a s already been carried o u t for t h e case of
elliptic loading. 1 3 I n this particular t r e a t m e n t , t h e con-
tinuous vortex sheet was replaced b y 20 vortices of
equal strength, a n d t h e results were presented b y giv-
ing, both numerically a n d graphically, t h e positions
of each of t h e vortices a t several different times.
These results h a v e been applied t o t h e wing problem
b y relating t h e time t o t h e distance behind t h e wing.
Fig. 5 shows t h e positions of t h e vortices a t several sta-
tions behind the wing.
I t m a y b e seen t h a t t h e vortex cores extend down- VORTEX CENTER OF GRAVITY
stream in nearly t h e free-stream direction, whereas
the center of t h e vortex sheet becomes displaced sub-
stantial distances below t h e xy plane. T h e variation
with distance of t h e positions of t h e center of t h e vortex
sheet a n d of t h e vortex center of gravity is shown in
Fig. 6. As is indicated in this figure, t h e position of FIG. 6. Position of vortex center of gravity for elliptic loading.
the vortex center of gravity m a y be prescribed within
narrow limits b y assuming t h a t it moves with a con-
s t a n t velocity given first b y E q . (22) for t h e flat vortex
sheet a n d then b y E q . (23) for t h e fully rolled-up vor-
tices. Also shown in Fig. 6 are t h e limiting positions
for t h e center of t h e vortex sheet as calculated in a
similar manner.
Since t h e discrete vortex method just described
lacks generality because of t h e necessarily nonanalytic
character of t h e solution, results of an analytical in-
vestigation b y K a d e n 1 1 of t h e behavior of a continuous
vortex sheet, according to E q . (2), will be reviewed a n d
applied t o t h e present problem. T h e precise problem
FIG. 7. Vortex sheet and coordinate axes according to Kaden.
solved in reference 11 is t h a t of t h e rolling u p of a vor-
tex sheet of semi-infinite width, where t h e initial vor-
ticity corresponds t o steady flow around t h e edge of a T h e results of this investigation m a y b e expressed
two-dimensional flat plate of semi-infinite lateral ex- most conveniently b y introducing a new coordinate
tent. Although t h e results are strictly applicable to a system (Fig. 7) such t h a t t h e r\ axis coincides with t h e
vortex sheet of finite width during only t h e early stages position of t h e flat vortex sheet a n d t h e origin lies a t
of t h e rolling-up process, t h e y represent a solution t h a t t h e edge of t h e sheet. I n applying these results t o t h e
is useful in t h e formulation of some further approxima- wing problem, it is i m p o r t a n t t o note t h a t this coordi-
tions t o the p a t h s of t h e vortex cores and t o t h e distance n a t e system is n o t fixed with respect t o t h e y a n d z
required for t h e trailing vortices to become essentially axes b u t moves downward with t h e center of t h e vortex
rolled up. sheet. If t h e circulation distribution in t h e vicinity of
 26 J O U R N A L OF THE A E R O N A U T I C A L S C I E N C E S - J A N U A R Y , 195 1

the edge of the flat vortex sheet is assumed to be of t h e are considered to be essentially rolled u p is expressed b y
form T = 2cr\/97, t h e coordinates of t h e centers of t h e
vortex cores are e/c = 0.2S(A/CL)(b/c) (27)

/3 T h e coordinates of the centers of t h e vortex cores are

Vc = 0.340(ad/VQ) , ic = 0.525 (<rd/V*) h (24)
then
I t will be noted t h a t r)c, as given b y the above equation, V* Vz
r,
does n o t h a v e an a s y m p t o t e corresponding to the lateral
position of the fully rolled-up vortex. This is a conse-
-
s
= 0.32 (-
VA s. ,-^^f (28)

quence of replacing the finite span with a semi-infinite
one. T h e trailing vortices are considered to be essen-
tially rolled u p a t t h e distance e behind t h e wing, where
rjc is equal to (s sf) as indicated in Fig. 8.
s P>
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Eq. (27) should be compared with E q . (5) derived b y
similarity considerations. If the span loading is other
t h a n elliptical, t h e rolling up, of course, will proceed a t
a r a t e other t h a n t h a t just indicated. I n general,
the vortices will roll up faster if more of t h e load is con-
centrated near t h e wing tips (as occurs with rectangular
wings a t subsonic speeds) and conversely. T o illustrate
the importance of this effect, calculations have been

m a d e for the distance e/c for rectangular wings of vari-

ous aspect ratios. These calculations were based on
i
theoretical span load distributions calculated b y Glau-
ert 6 b y means of P r a n d t l ' s lifting-line theory. T h e
distance e is then given b y

(> e/c = Kf/CL (29)

1/
1/
1 where K' is a constant for any given wing depending
1he- Jr
upon the plan form and t h e span load distribution.
T h e values of K' are plotted as a function of aspect
ratio in Fig. 9, together with the corresponding values
/ for rectangular, elliptical, and triangular wings twisted
/ so as to produce elliptical span loading. In every case,
1 the chord c implied is t h e root chord.
As previously pointed out, K a d e n ' s theory represents
. J a good approximation for the lateral position of t h e
**' to.
* 5 vortex core a t stations close behind t h e wing b u t fails

30
20 LLIPTIC L O A D I N G / /
FIG. 8. 15 JJi
T 1 F IECTANGLE
10
Eq. (24) m a y be generalized slightly and p u t in non- 1i L L ! P S E - \
8
dimensional form b y letting fRIANGLE- ^\ _
6
a = (1/2) lim T/Vv = (Fo/4) Km (dc/Vv) 4
v -> 0 v> 0
3 e _K'L
c
T h e coordinates of t h e centers of the vortex cores are " cLr
then given b y 2
1.5
Ve= (s- s') (d/e)2/\ fc = 1.54 (s - s'){d/e)%/* (25) ^FLAT
I.O HEKJ IMPB^U&I
and t h e distance e b y .8
.6
- e = 20.2 (s - ^ ) 3 / 2 / l i m (w/y/v) (26)
7J->0
.4
For elliptic span loading, t h e foregoing equations re- .3
duce to simple expressions. T h u s , since the span load-
ing is represented b y .2

ctc = (2CLS/TS) Vl - {y/sY =

(2CLS/irs) V2(v/s) - (rj/sy " .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 6 810

ASPECT RATIO
the distance e to t h e point where the trailing vortices FIG. 9. Effect of plan form and span loading on e.
 T R A I L I N G VORTEX
&/c * ,05 d/e 5u
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a/c * .91 d/c * 1.35
d/c * 1.8l d/c 2,25
FIG. 10. Photographs of wake at various stations behind a
triangular wing of aspect ratio 2. a = 12, CL 0.55.
to approach the known asymptotic position far behind
the wing. To bridge this gap, an empirical interpola-
tion formula is proposed
*7c = (^ s') tanh (d/e)2/3
which coincides at small distances with Kaden's for-
mula and, at great distances, approaches the known
asymptote.
Experimental Studies.The behavior of trailing
vortex systems was studied further by means of simple
visual-flow experiments in a water tank. These experi-
ments were conducted by driving a model wing ver-
tically into the tank at a constant velocity and photo-
graphing the water surface with a movie camera. The
trace of the trailing vortex sheet was made visible by
applying fine aluminum powder to the trailing edge of
the wing before each run. The distance of the model
below the surface was indicated on each photograph
by the position* of a moving tape. The models were of
8-in. span and had flat-plate profiles, except for rounded
leading edges and sharpened trailing edges. Although
a large number of wings having various aspect ratios and
plan forms were tested, only the results for a triangu-
lar wing having an aspect ratio of 2 and an elliptical
wing having an aspect ratio of 5 will be presented here.
The results of each run were recorded by a series of
approximately 40 photographs. Abridged series of
photographs are shown in Figs. 10 and 11 for the tri-
angular wing at angles of attack of 12 and 20. The
projections in the free-stream direction of the wing-tip
positions are indicated in the photographs by the inter-
S H E E T E F F E C T ON DOWNWASH 27
^^#fe^^l^;.
a/o * .09 d/c - .35-
:3: ::;;:::fc;::i;
^^g^i"
&/c - ,50 d/e - ,89
d/c * 1.^5 d/c 1,80
F I G . 11.Photographs of wake at various stations behind a tri-
angular wing of aspect ratio 2. a = 20, CL 0.93.
(30)
FIG. 12. Water-tank measurements of the lateral position of the
vortex cores behind an elliptical wing of aspect ratio 5.
sections of the vertical lines and the horizontal
markers. Although it is not the purpose to obtain
exact quantitative information from these experiments,
the photographs clearly illustrate the rapidity with
which the trailing vortex sheet rolls up behind a low-
aspect-ratio wing and verify, at least qualitatively, the
predictions of the theory regarding the shape and loca-
tion of the vortex sheet, its rate of rolling up, and the size
of the vortex cores.
To illustrate further these results, Figs. 12 and 13
have been prepared showing the paths in plan view of
the vortex cores behind the elliptical and triangular wing.
The results for the elliptical wing show that the vortex
cores approach the asymptotic spacing for elliptical
loading (s'/s = 0.785) at stations several chord lengths
behind the wing. With the triangular wing, the vor-
tex cores approach their asymptotic spacing more
rapidly, as is indicated by the theory, but approach a
different asymptote at each angle of attack. The
variation of the asymptotic spacing cannot be pre-
 28 J O U R N A L OF THE A E R O N A U T I C A L S C I E N C E S JANUARY, 1951

ANGLE OF ATTACK, DEG location is shown dashed between 8 and 12 because

-8
-12 the vortices were still moving together a t the last sta-
-16

"_ y
i n LZ^
f=-24n
28
32
tion behind t h e wing. I t is seen t h a t these consider-
ations adequately account for t h e observed behavior.

DOWNWASH AROUND A SWEPT HORSESHOE VORTEX

Is.
s T h e fundamental role of t h e horeshoe vortex in classi-
T cal wing theory is well known. T o enable t h e extension
.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
d of this familiar concept to the general case, t h e down-
FIG. 13. Water-tank measurements of the lateral position of the wash field of a swept horseshoe vortex of arbitrary
vortex cores behind a triangular wing of aspect ratio 2. sweep lying in t h e xy plane (see Fig. 16) has been deter-
mined for b o t h subsonic and supersonic speeds. In this
task it is necessary, because of the essentially three-
ANGLE OF ATTACK,
DEG dimensional character of the problem, to work with
o 2.1 Eq.(l).
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* 4.2
a 8.3 T o utilize existing concepts of supersonic, as well as
o 14.5 subsonic, flow theory, t h e induced velocity field of the
v 20.8
26.9 swept horseshoe vortex will be determined b y consider-
* 33.0
ing the flow a b o u t an equivalent doublet sheet. 15
2.0 2.0 Such a doublet sheet represents a surface of discon-
1.5 1.5 z^* tinuity in t h e xy plane across which there is a j u m p

c
C|C
L c avg
I.Q
J
-v' -o
^S^kx < R^^ ^
l.0|
.5 1^ w
A(ps in t h e value of the velocity potential equal to the
magnitude of t h e circulation V of t h e vortex. T h e
o' 0 lift of this vortex system is given a t b o t h subsonic and
4 6 4 .6
y y supersonic speeds b y t h e K u t t a - J o u k o w s k y law
FIG. 14. Wind-tunnel measurements of the span loading on a
triangular wing of aspect ratio 2.04. L = 2y0poVoA(ps = 2y0poV0T
where y0 is the semispan of t h e horseshoe vortex.
T h e general solutions of such boundary-value prob-
o WATER TANK EXPERIMENTS.
a CALCULATED FROM WIND T U N N E L SPAN LOADINGS. lems were given in references 15 and 16. For subsonic
CALCULATED FROM THEORETICAL SPAN LOADINGS flow t h e solution is
1.0

H-Q-Q ,_ TSfa^_
w(x, y, z) = -^ - f f A^5 ( - ) dxt dyi (31)

where

= V(x - *0 2 + ^2[(y - yx)2 + (z - Zl)

2
]

8 12 16 20 24 2 8 32 36
ANGLE OF A T T A C K , DEG x=my = my
FIG. 15. Asymptotic spacing of rolled-up vortices far behind
triangular wing of aspect ratio 2.

dieted on t h e basis of t h e theoretical span loading 1 4 b u t

can be explained on t h e basis of t h e variation of the
experimental span load distribution. Fig. 14 shows
plots of t h e span load distribution measured in a wind
tunnel on a 25-ft.-span model of a thin triangular
wing having an aspect ratio of 2.04 and a modified
double-wedge profile with a rounded leading edge.
T h e asymptotic spacing of t h e vortex cores was cal-
culated from each of t h e span loading diagrams b y
means of Eq. (8) and was plotted as a function of the
angle of a t t a c k in Fig. 15, together with t h e values
indicated in Fig. 13. T h e curve for t h e experimental FIG. 16. Swept horseshoe vortex.
 TRAILING VORTEX SHEET EFFECT ON DOWNWASH 29

and (3 = M2. T h e integration is carried over and 3 = VM2 - 1. T h e integration for the super-
the portion r of the xy plane enclosed within the modi- sonic case is carried only over t h e portion r of the above
fied horseshoe vortex. For supersonic flow, the solu- area which lies forward of t h e trace in the xy plane of
tion is the M a c h forecone with vertex a t the point (x, y, z).
T h e sign | is to be read " t h e finite p a r t of" and has
w(x, y, z) = \ I / A<ps ( ) dxi dyi (32) the property
2irbz \JTJ \dzi r/s
where I r /(*) 7 _ Pf{x) ~m A
2
/w
LA (b - x)^ dX Ja (b - *)'/ d%
Vb^~a
P = V(X - xxy - ^[{y - yiy + {z - Zly] (33)

When the operations indicated in E q . (31) are performed, the downwash corresponding to a subsonic swept
horseshoe vortex of circulation T is given for any point (x, y, z) in space b y
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fiT ^T~^ |~ x kfimy ~\( mx + k(3y

W 2 2 2
~ ~ 4TT 2LJ L(X - k/3my) + 0 V ( 1 + m )JWx + /32(y2 + z2)
k = I
k = +i
(1 + m2)fiy0 (mx + kffy)
V(x - pmyey + ^[(y - ky0)2 + z2]> 4TT E
k = 1
k = +1
[ ky + yo I
l(y + ky0y + 22J

X Pmy
h+ , ~ } (34)
I V (x - (3ntyo)2 + f32[(y, + ky)2 + z2])
In applying E q . (34), it is i m p o r t a n t to remember t h a t infinite values of downwash are predicted along t h e entire
vortex line.
In a similar manner, Eq. (32) gives the downwash a t a n y point in space due to a supersonic swept horseshoe vor-
tex.
x mx
/ _ E \"^ r ~k$y 1i ~ kPy ,
W r P
~ ' ' I " 2TT 2 1 / L(X - kpmy)2 - /3V(1 - m2) J Wx2 - $2(y2 + z2)
k = - l
k = +1
2
(m - l)fty 0 - (mx kfiy) \ __ T^ V " ^ (y0 + ky) (x - 0 my0)
/ = ( o / / ^ = = _ _ \ (35)
V (x - fimy,)2 - p2[(y0 - ky)2 + z2}) 2TTk _J
= - l [(yo + kyy + s 2 ] V ( x - pmy0)
2
- p2[(y0 + ky)2 + z2] J
k = -+l i /

where r.p. signifies t h e real p a r t of the bracketed q u a n t i t y . For supersonic flow, Eq. (35) indicates infinite values
for the downwash a t all points on the M a c h cones extending downstream from the three corners of the swept
horseshoe vortex (except in the xy plane), as well as along t h e vortex line itself.

D O W N WASH A R O U N D W I N G S T h e b o u n d vortices should, in general, be concentrated

I t is a well-known principle in subsonic wing theory
t h a t the induced velocities produced b y a thin lifting
wing m a y be calculated b y considering a chordwise
a n d spanwise distribution of vortices. T h e flow field
of a wing a t supersonic speeds can be built u p in an
analogous manner. 17- " 19 I n general, these vortices
would be distributed chordwise and spanwise in such a
manner t h a t t h e specified load distribution would be
satisfied a t every point of t h e wing plan form. Such
calculations m a y be simplified, however, since, as indi-
cated in references 10, 16, and 19, t h e error in t h e down-
wash introduced b y neglecting t h e chordwise distribu-
tion of the bound vortices is negligible a t points beyond
a fraction of a chord length from t h e trailing edge.
in a lifting line lying as close as possible to the locus
of t h e chordwise center-of-pressure positions. T h u s , a t
subsonic speeds, t h e lifting line is generally located
along t h e locus of t h e quarter-chord points. A t super-
sonic speeds, no such s t a t e m e n t can be made, b u t the
position of t h e lifting line can always be determined if
t h e load distribution is given.
T h e following discussion of t h e downwash behind
wings will be divided into sections depending upon t h e
degree of rolling u p of the vortices as indicated b y t h e
relative magnitudes of the distance from the trailing
edge d and t h e distance e given b y Eq. (5) or, more
generally, b y Eq. (26). T h e i m p o r t a n t special cases
 30 JOURNAL OF THE AERONAUTICAL S C I E N C E S - J A N U A R Y , 1951

of strength given by the amount of the rise is considered

to be shed at each step. The downwash velocities asso-
ciated with each component vortex are calculated by
means of Eqs. (34) or (35) and summed to obtain the
total value. Care must be taken to avoid attempting
to evaluate the downwash at points on, or very near,
V 0 V2G L >
either the trailing vortices or, except in the xy plane,
on the Mach cones originating at the corners of the
horseshoe vortices. On these lines and surfaces, in-
finite velocities are introduced purely as a result of the
replacement of a continuous distribution of vortices
with a stepwise approximation.
The calculation of the downwash field becomes
greatly simplified in the regions where Eq. (2) is a good
approximation to Eq. (1). In the cases where the lift
coefficient is sufficiently small that d < < e, the down-
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wash at any Mach Number is

- y)dyi
<y, *) = - / 2 2 (36)
2TT J _, dyx [(y! - y) + s ]

FIG. 17. Downwash far behind wing with elliptic loading for
For elliptic loading, the solution of Eq. (36) is given in
flat vortex sheet. many places.6,21
2CL sinh JJL cosh ix
where d e and where d e will be considered w = ( 1 (37)
first; finally, the intermediate case will be discussed. irA cosh 2 n sin 2 X,
where y = b cosh /JL COS X and z = b sinh \x sin X. A
DOWNWASH AT d << e plot of these results is shown in Fig. 17.
If d is much less than e, the downwash behind a wing The accuracy of the theoretical downwash results
traveling at either subsonic or supersonic speeds may may be improved by considering the trailing vortices
be approximated by assuming that the trailing vortices as being displaced from the xy plane. To a first ap-
lie in a flat sheet extending downstream from the trail- proximation, the differential equation of the path of a
ing edge. This assumption is usually satisfactory for vortex filament trailing behind a wing is dx = (Vo/wz = 0)
the calculation of the downwash at the tail of conven- dz, which, when integrated, gives the vertical displace-
tional subsonic airplanes and forms the basis of most ment of each vortex filament
downwash studies. In general, the downwash velocity
at any point may be determined by superposing a dis- Az (w2 = 0/Vo)dx (38)
/ *T.E.
tribution of swept horseshoe vortices in accordance with
the given span loading. In this manner, an expression If it is desired to calculate the downwash only in the
for the downwash velocity in subsonic or supersonic plane of symmetry, the effects of the lateral distortion
flow may be determined from Eqs. (34) or (35), respec- of the vortex sheet are small, and the entire vortex
tively, by considering y0 as a variable yh replacing the sheet may be considered to be displaced by the amount
circulation T with (dT/dyi)dyh and integrating the calculated at the centerline.
resulting expression from yi = s to y = + s . This For regions outside of the plane of symmetry, it is
integration, however, is extremely complex, in general, apparent that this last assumption cannot be particu-
although many important special cases for both sub- larly accurate and that recourse must be had to more
sonic and supersonic speeds have been presented in the accurate methods. One method of doing this would
literature. be to determine the shape of the vortex sheet by means
It is often more practical to calculate the downwash of Eq. (38) and to calculate the downwash anew with
velocity by superposing a finite number of horseshoe the vortices displaced into their new positions. This
vortices sswpt in accord with the geometry of the wing method is not entirely satisfactory, however, when
and distributed so that the span loading is approxi- working with a continuous distribution of vortices,
mated in a stepwise manner. Such a treatment, which since the displacement of the vortex sheet from the xy
was presented in great detail for unswept wings in in- plane greatly complicates an already difficult integra-
compressible flow in references 10 and 20, proceeds in tion. An alternative procedure based on distributing
the following manner. The span load distribution is double vortex sheets in the xy plane to simulate the
approximated by an equivalent stepwise distribution, sinking of the original vortex sheet has been proposed by
keeping the area under the two curves equal. A vortex von Karman and Burgers, 21 but the mathematical
 TRAILING VORTEX SHEET EFFECT ON DOWNWASH 31

complications are comparable with those encountered

with the distorted vortex sheet.
It must be noted that the procedures just described
for obtaining the correction for the displacement of the
trailing vortices can only be used in cases where the
distortion of the vortex sheet is small. These methods,
therefore, are of no avail for the investigation of the
downwash in regions where the vortices have become
rolled up to any appreciable degree. This problem
will be discussed in a later section.

DOWNWASH AT d e

At stations where d is much larger than e, the in-

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duced flow field of a wing may be satisfactorily ap- F I G . 18. Equivalent vortex system for downwash calculation a t
proximated by replacing the wing with a single swept stations where d > > e.
horseshoe vortex placed as shown in Fig. 18. Accord-
ingly, the downwash may be computed by using Eqs.
W / IT A \l & \
(34) or (35) for the downwash field of a swept horseshoe
v0\cj\*)
vortex lying in the xy plane and applying corrections
for the vertical displacement of the vortex sheet and for
the finite size of the vortex cores. The strength and
span of the horseshoe vortex are given by Eqs. (7) and
(8), respectively, while the location and sweep of the
bound vortex are determined as described previously at
the beginning of the discussion of the downwash around
wings.
The correction for the sinking of the trailing vortices
may be approximated by inclining the horseshoe vortex
system away from the xy plane so that each of the trail-
ing vortices coincides as closely as possible with the
center-of-gravity line of the vortices trailing from the
corresponding half of the wing. Since it was shown that
the center-of-gravity line is inclined at nearly the same
angle at all stations behind the wing, a suitable ap-
proximation may be made in most cases by using Eq. (9)
for the downward velocity of the vortices at great dis- FIG. 19. Downwash far behind wing for completely rolled-up
tances behind the wing. Thus, the plane of the equiva- vortices.
lent vortex system is inclined at angle 8 with the xy
plane such that DOWNWASH AT d ^ e
8 = -(C^I^O/^TTCLS (39) The remaining problem of calculating the down-
To a first approximation, the downwash may be calcu- wash for regions where d is of the same order
lated by using Eqs. (34) or (35) for a swept horseshoe of magnitude as e is the most difficult problem of
vortex lying in the xy plane and by replacing z in the all. The difficulty lies not only in the determination
equation with z' = z 8 (x x T E J . The downwash of the vortex paths but also in the integration of the
within the vortex cores may be approximated by as- resulting expressions for the downwash. Fortunately,
suming that each core has a radius given by Eq. (17) a large number of practical problems fall into one or the
and rotates as a solid body. other of the two preceding cases so that oftentimes
one is not concerned with this phase of the downwash
In most actual applications where d e, Eq. (2)
problem.
represents a good approximation to Eq. (1). In these
cases the downwash field can be computed at once for If the vortex sheet rolls up slowly behind the wing
all wings. The results of these calculations are shown so that Eq. (2) may be used instead of Eq. (1), the
in Fig. 19 as a function of y/sf and the vertical elevation downwash may be calculated by determining the posi-
p l / V from the plane of the vortices. A comparison tion of a finite number of vortices in a step-by-step
of these results with those of Fig. 17 illustrates the process and then calculating the associated downwash
marked effect on the downwash produced by the rolling velocities. If the span loading is elliptical, the vortex
up of the trailing vortex sheet. positions shown in Fig. 518 may be used directly.
 32 JOURNAL OF THE AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES-JANUARY, 195 1

One sees t h a t P(x) takes the value P ( X T . E . ) = 1 a t t h e

s
2 .4 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
i i i
trailing edge of the wing, since here yc(x) = s; whereas
^ - L Q T Z a FABRICIUS a t great distances behind t h e wing P ( ) = 0, since
.2l5TANH(d/ef/3
\ s - s ' / .e KADEN yc(x) approaches ^ a s x approaches infinity.
.8
B y means of the foregoing assumptions and equa-
1.0 tions, t h e vorticity distribution is determined through-
1.2' out t h e entire vortex wake. T h e downwash m a y then
FIG. 20. Various approximations to the lateral position of the be calculated for subsonic or supersonic speeds b y using
vortex cores.
Eqs. (31) or (32) for t h e downwash due to an equivalent
doublet sheet. T h e doublet intensity is specified on
If the conditions are such t h a t Eq. (1) m u s t be used,
t h e wing as before and in t h e wake b y means of the fore-
the problem becomes extremely difficult. T h e only
going statements. For points along t h e x axis, Eqs.
a t t e m p t a t a solution for a problem of this t y p e is t h a t
(31) and (32) simplify, respectively, to the following
of Lotz and Fabricius, 2 2 in which the downwash on t h e
form:
x axis produced b y straight wings in incompressible
flow is determined. Since this method involves several A<psdxidyi
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on February 20, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/8.1830

novel elements and can be extended to other applica- w(x, 0, 0) 21 A 3 (41)

tions, their approach to t h e problem will be reviewed.
I t is first assumed t h a t t h e vortices all lie in t h e xy
plane so t h a t the rolling-up process is considered only
through t h e lateral displacements of t h e vortices.
Such an approximation is usually satisfactory for re-
gions close to the plane of s y m m e t r y b u t would h a v e
to be abandoned in the general vicinity of t h e vortex
cores. Further, t h e p a t h s of t h e partially rolled-up
vortex cores are assumed, on t h e basis of an arbitrary
modification of the theoretical p a t h s of Kaden, to
be given b y rjc = (s s') t a n h (d/e). T h e shape of this
curve and its significance as an approximation on t h e
basis of a straight-line replacement of K a d e n ' s vortex
system are clear from Fig. 20. Since K a d e n ' s theory is
most accurate a t stations near t h e wing, this approxi-
mation could be improved upon without u n d u l y com-
plicating the calculations b y using a curve such as given
b y E q . (30) which is t a n g e n t to K a d e n ' s curve near
the wing. Third, it is assumed t h a t t h e strength of
t h e vortices lying between the cores is given b y
(dT/dy)x = (dr/d;y) T . E ..P(x)
where 0 < P < 1. W i t h t h e foregoing assumptions,
t h e strength Tc of the vortex cores a t a n y station is de-
termined, since t h e total strength T0 of t h e vortices
trailing from each half of t h e wing remains constant
a t all stations; t h u s
r c = To - P(x) [To - T(ye)]
F u r t h e r , P(x) is fixed b y t h e requirement t h a t t h e
lateral position of t h e center of gravity of t h e vortices
trailing from one side of t h e wing is invariant
P{x)
Jc{0C)
f. (T/To)dy
yd X) - Jo (T/T0)dy
yc(x) - s'
(40)
Jc(x) - Jo (T/To)dy
*JTJ [(* - xi)2 + 18V]
Acpsdxxdy!
w(x, 0, 0) = ^- \ f f- (42)
27T \JrJ [ ( * ~ Xly - isvf/ 2
where t h e doublet intensity is given b y
&Ps = I Y E . ^ I ) - P ( * I ) + To - P(*i) [r 0 - T(yc)] (43)
Despite the assumptions and simplifications of t h e
foregoing analysis, the calculations still prove to be
extremely difficult. In the work of Lotz and Fabricius,
the theory was further restricted to unswept wings in
incompressible flow; even then it was necessary to re-
sort to graphical or numerical methods of integration.
A t t e m p t s to extend this theory to regions away from
t h e x axis or to eliminate some of the restrictions h a v e
been discouraged b y t h e difficulty of the integrations.
T h e labor.required to carry out t h e calculations simply
appears to be incommensurable with t h e value of the
result, considering the doubtfulness of some of the
simplifying assumptions. This conclusion is further
amplified when one considers the problem of predicting
t h e downwash a t t h e tail of an airplane where the ideal-
ization involved in considering t h e wing alone is already
r a t h e r extreme.
REFERENCES
1
Jones, R. T., Properties of Low-Aspect-Ratio Pointed Wings at
Speeds Below and Above the Speed of Sound, N.A.C.A. Report
No. 835,1946.
2
Spreiter, John R., Aerodynamic Properties of Slender Wing-
Body Combinations at Subsonic, Transonic, and Supersonic Speeds,
N.A.C.A. T.N. No. 1662,1948.
3
Heaslet, Max. A., Lomax, Harvard, and Spreiter, John R.,
Linearized Compressible-Flow Theory for Sonic Flight Speeds,
N.A.C.A. T.N. No. 1824,1949.
4
Prandtl, LM Tragflugeltheorie, I Mitt., Gottingen Nach-
richten, 1918, S. 451-477. Reprinted in Prandtl, L., and Betz,
A., Vier Abhandlungen zur Hydrodynamik und Aerodynamik,
Gottingen, 1927, Edward Brothers, Inc., 1943.
5
Prandtl, L., Tragflugeltheorie, II Mitt., Gottingen Nachrich-
ten, 1919, S. 107-137. Reprinted in Prandtl, L., and Betz, A.,
Vier Abhandlungen zur Hydrodynamik und Aerodynamik, Gottin-
gen, 1927, Edward Brothers, Inc., 1943.
{Continued on page 72)
 72 JOURNAL OF THE A E R O N A U T I C A L
The CalTech electric analog computer has now been employed
for comprehensive nutter design analyses in the development of
several new airplanes. In these studies, elastic structures with a
large number of degrees of freedom have been represented.
These include the simulation of wings, fuselages, and stabilizers
as distributed beams. Control surfaces, engine mountings, and
landing gears can, of course, be included. Aerodynamic forces
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on February 20, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/8.1830
and torques can be applied to all surfaces, whether fixed or mov-
able. Currently accepted expressions for the effects of finite
The Rolling Up of the Trailing Vortex Sheet and Its Effect on the
Downwash Behind Wings
(Continued from page 32)
6
Glauert, H., The Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew Theory,
2nd Ed.; Cambridge University Press, England, 1947.
7 16
Helmbold, H. B., Uber die Berechnung des Abwindes hinter
einem rechteckigen Tragflugel, ZFM, 16 Jahrg., 15 Heft, S. 2 9 1 -
294, August 14,1925.
8 17
Helmbold, H. B., Eine Ndherungsformel fur Abwindrech-
nungen am Eindecker, ZFM, 18 Jahrg., 1 Heft, S. 11, January 14,
1927.
9
Muttray, H., Investigations on the Amount of Downwash Be-
hind Rectangular and Elliptical Wings, N.A.C.A. T.M. No. 787,
1936.
10
Silverstein, Abe, Katzoff, S., and Bullivant, W. Kenneth,
Downwash and Wake Behind Plain and Flapped Airfoils, N.A.C.A.
Report No. 651, 1939.
11
Kaden, H., Aufwicklung einer unstabilen Unstetigkeitsflache,
Ing. Archiv, II Band, pp. 140-168,1931.
12
Betz, A., Behavior of Vortex Systems, N.A.C.A. T.M. No.
713,1933.
13
Westwater, F. L., Rolling Up of the Surface of Discontinuity
Behind an Aerofoil of Finite Span, R. & M. 1692, British A.R.C.,
1935.
14
DeYoung, John, Theoretical Additional Span Loading Char-
acteristics of Wings with Arbitrary Sweep, Aspect Ratio, and Taper
Ratio, N.A.C.A. T.N. No. 1491,1947.
15
Heaslet, Max. A., and Lomax, Harvard, The Use of Source-
Sink and Doublet Distributions Extended to the Solution of Arbi-
S C I E N C E S - J A N U A R Y , 195 1
aspect ratio, sweepback, downwash, and compressibility can be
handled.
The two greatest advantages of our type of analysis are that
the coordinates used in the electrical analogy correspond to the
actual displacements and rotations of stations in the structure
and that local modifications of the actual structure result in
equally local modifications of the analogy circuit, permitting,
therefore, rapid consideration of modifications as the design
analysis proceeds.
trary Boundary Value Problems in Supersonic Flow, N.A.C.A.
T.N. No. 1515,1948.
Heaslet, Max. A., and Lomax, Harvard, The Calculation of
Downwash Behind Supersonic Wings with an Application to Tri-
angular Plan Forms, N.A.C.A. T.N. No. 1620, 1948.
Robinson, A., On Source and Vortex Distributions in the
Linearized Theory of Steady Supersonic Flow, The Quart. Jour.
Mech. & App. Math., Vol. I, Part 4, pp. 408-432, December, 1948.
18
Robinson, A., and Hunter-Tod, J. H., Bound and Trailing
Vortices in the Linearized Theory of Supersonic Flow and the
Downwash in the Wake of a Delta Wing, Rep. No. 10, College of
Aeronautics, Cranfield, England, 1947.
19
Mirels, Harold, and Haefeli, Rudolph C , Line- Vortex Theory
for Calculation of Supersonic Doivnwash, N.A.C.A. T.N. No.
1925, 1949.
20
Silverstein, Abe, and Katzoff, S., Design Charts for Predicting
Downwash Angles and Wake Characteristics Behind Plain and
Flapped Wings, N.A.C.A. Report No. 648, 1939.
21
von Karman, Th., and Burgers, J. M., General Aerodynamic
Theory-Perfect Fluids; Aerodynamic Theory, Vol. II, W. F. Dur-
and, Ed.; Julius Springer, Berlin, 1935.
22
Lotz, I., and Fabricius, W., Die Berechnung des Abwindes
hinter einem Tragflugel bei Beriicksichtigung des Aufwickelns der
Unstetigkeitsflache. Luftfahrtforschung, Bd. 14, Lfg. 11, pp. 552-
557,1937.